Design Concept: A Displaced Anecdote in the Landscape Architectural Design Process

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DESIGNPrinciples & Practices:An International Journal

Volume 3, Number 3

Design Concept: A Displaced Anecdote in theLandscape Architectural Design Process

Shabnam Kavousi, Suhardi Maulan, Mohd Nasir Baharuddin and Steven Eric Krauss

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL http://www.Design-Journal.com First published in 2009 in Melbourne, Australia by Common Ground Publishing Pty Ltd www.CommonGroundPublishing.com. © 2009 (individual papers), the author(s) © 2009 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground Authors are responsible for the accuracy of citations, quotations, diagrams, tables and maps. All rights reserved. Apart from fair use for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act (Australia), no part of this work may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact <[email protected]>. ISSN: 1833-1874 Publisher Site: http://www.Design-Journal.com DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL is peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterion-referenced article ranking and qualitative commentary, ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance and highest significance is published. Typeset in Common Ground Markup Language using CGCreator multichannel typesetting system http://www.commongroundpublishing.com/software/

DesignConcept: ADisplacedAnecdote in the LandscapeArchitectural Design ProcessShabnam Kavousi, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, MalaysiaSuhardi Maulan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, MalaysiaMohd Nasir Baharuddin, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, MalaysiaSteven Eric Krauss, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract: In the landscape architecture design process, “concept” is important for providing uniquenessto a design. However, many landscape designers today do not rely on a well-defined concept, thusobstructing the development of their designs. This study aimed to identify the problems that Malaysianlandscape designers face in developing a strong design concept. To address this issue, in-depth andfocus group interviews were conducted by guiding the participants through a conceptual thinkingprocedure in which eighteen participants took part. The respondents were chosen among Malaysianprofessional landscape designers through purposeful sampling. Results indicated that most Malaysianlandscape designers neglect the post- design evaluation stage, which obstructs the development of astrong concept for subsequent landscape designs. The results aim to contribute to a better understandingof the importance of design concept and the factors that contribute to its development among Malay-sian landscape designers.

Keywords: Concept, Design Process, Landscape Design

Introduction

LANDSCAPE DESIGN IS a discipline that is traditionally considered as the art ofgardening. Nevertheless, in a broader definition, today it is regarded as the junctionof art and science (Beardsley, 2000). In a landscape design, designers deal with adesign process to solve the design problem which aims to meet users’ needs as well

as site problems. The framework of a landscape design, a so-called design concept, is theprinciple or guide drawn from landscape through site analysis and refined at every step ofthe design process. The concept is epitomized with the generation of ideas offering creativesolutions for the design problem. A design idea is a particular solution based on a client’spreference and as an alternative solution to the design problem. Client’s brief, the requiredcommodity for the designer’s guideline, should be consistent with the client’s preference.In a landscape design, the entity and size of the project thus specify the client.In the current study, landscape design was viewed as a public project, in which the client

- the City Council – is a local authority and the users are the general public. Context is themost important issue in a landscape design inasmuch as its historical, ecological, social, andtotal environmental potentials are the main issues that designers face in order to get the bestsolution for the design problem. In the current study, the Malaysian context was selected forits excellence in ecological and environmental potentials. Nevertheless, the results of this

Design Principles and Practices: An International JournalVolume 3, Number 3, 2009, http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Shabnam Kavousi, Suhardi Maulan, Mohd Nasir Baharuddin, Steven Eric Krauss,All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected]

study are not just restricted to the Malaysian context; with localization, they are applicablefor other contexts as well.In a design process, if the final design meets its users’ needs and is responsive to site

context, it is a successful design. However, looking at some of the landscape designs today,it is assumed that most designers are not consciously aware of the importance of having adesign concept in the design process (Bell, 1999). According to Walker (1990), in the con-temporary era, most landscape designs are replications of one another, which leads tomundaneand clichéd designs. In another study, Faizi and Khakzand (2007) posited that in manylandscape designs, the concepts are not well defined and tied to their site context. Evaluatingthese issues in current landscape designs more closely is challenging, as there are someproblems or constraints that are the origins of the mentioned issues. In fact, these problemsobstruct the development of a design concept, in such a way that in the end of a design processthe concept is somehow lost or displaced. Hence, along this line, the main purpose of thisstudy was to identify these problems or constraints.Narrowing down the issue, there are some landscape designs that benefit a nation’s culture,

social identities, and characteristics. These works are recognized for their pursuit of excel-lence, creativity, innovation, and diversity in the design (ILAM1 AWARDS, 2007). Thereare nonetheless some designs that, despite having a strong concept in the early stages of thedesign process, do not represent the final product which is not related to the site and usablefor the users due to some impediments, limitations, or constraints. In a situation that a conceptis displaced, the concept is not well ideated in the design process, thus the final design ismisused, underused, or even vandalized by users. In relation to these discrepancies, thisstudy aimed to advance the understanding of the neglected stages in a design process thatresult in a displaced design concept and an unusable design product.

Landscape Design ProcessIn the discourse of landscape design, there are different viewpoints on design process suchas that of Milburn and Brown (2003) and Motloch (2001). The former divided the designprocess into before-, during- and after-design stages, while the latter introduced the processas cyclical. This research sought to identify the occurring problems or the neglected stagesin the design process that threaten the ideation of a concept in a design. An exhaustive reviewof the design process, the stages of the design process and the users’ and clients’ roles in thedesign process are thus presented in the following section.At the early stage of the landscape design process, the conceptual design must already

respond to program and site analyses. It is more logical, however, to delay critical analysisand begin flexible thinking through an intuitive process (Motloch, 2001) (see Figure 1). Thisis to ensure that the progress of creativity in the designer’s mind is not impeded by limitationsof critical thinking.

1 ILAM: Institute of Landscape Architects Malaysia

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DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

Figure 1: Conceptual Design Process (Motloch, 2001:295)

Tovey (1992 and 1994) introduced a different structure of the design process including aconcept design and design development. The concept design is concerned with initial designideas and theme sketches, which are relatively short. During this stage, numerous ideas aregenerated in the designer’s mind. From Kokotovich (2008), the early phase of the designprocess is concerned more with problem analysis and thinking tools that assist problemanalysis.The vastness of the design process has been referred to by Motloch (2001) as one where

there are as many design processes as there are designers. However, these processes sharesome characteristics. All design processes identify some issues to be resolved or problemsto be solved. They include the generation of an idea or ideas for those purposes. They imple-ment the ideas and then evaluate the implemented ideas. Kung and Pui-yuen (2008) whostressed on the design as a process to identify, analyze, and find design solutions similarlyreiterate this attitude toward landscape design.Design processes are not linear in character; they are rather cyclical and ongoing. They

have no specific beginning; the designer might not enter by observing a problem, but byhaving an idea, by physically creating something, or by evaluating some given situations(Motloch, 2001). This cyclical model is applied in different stages of landscape design de-cision making (Figure 2), including defining the design problem, concept development,ideation of concept, implementation of concept and evaluation of concept (Motloch, 2001).Similarly, Green (1974) claimed that all design decisions are generated by a cyclical problem-solving process that involves (1) identification of the problem and (2) examination of theproposed solution. The solutions in the design are derived from an analysis of the users’needs (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).

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SHABNAM KAVOUSI, SUHARDI MAULAN, MOHD NASIR BAHARUDDIN, STEVEN ERIC KRAUSS

Figure 2: Evolution Concept in the Cyclical Design based on Commonality of CyclicalDesign Processes (Motloch, 2001)

Problem Solving in a Design ProcessSimon (1981) introduced landscape design as a site solution. Schön (1983) also highlightedthe significant role of problem framing in creativity training. Creative solutions and problemidentification thus co-exist. According to Schön’s (1983) theory of problem framing, creativesolutions happen when both problem and solution are paired up (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).The identification of problems is indeed an essential part of problem solving for designers;designers have to deliberately think about their choices and identify the best solution basedon well-defined design problems (Lauer and Pentak, 2000, and Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).Rhea (2003) stressed that the advantage of identifying problems in the design domains isthat designers can generate possibilities beyond the normal scope.Motloch (2001) stated that problem definition is a complex discourse between intuitive

and rational thinking, which occurs in a simplified, cyclical manner, as shown in Figure 3.To him, problem definition usually has two major components: (i) definition of the siteneeds, structure and function, and (ii) site analysis. This cyclical process often begins with

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a defective understanding of a complex situation. The designer develops a better understandingof the situation and gains insight into the essence of the problem by identifying its componentsand their interrelationships so they can be better articulated and resolved.

Figure 3: Problem Definition Processes (Motloch, 2001: 287)

Faizi and Khakzand (2007) focused on a design in the context of defining the problem andfinding a solution. Researchers identify problems in design as three main types; (1) well-defined problems; (2) ill-defined problems and (3) wicked problems (Kung and Pui-yuen,2008 and Shambaugh, 2008). Knowledge about each type drives designers to define theproblem that they are going to solve during the design process. The researchers further ex-plained well-defined problems as those that need solutions with clear ends and they can beeasily solved by knowledgeable or experienced experts. On the contrary, ill-defined problemsdo not have obvious ends, and solutions are not resolvable at the beginning of the problem-solving process. Poorly-defined problems are ill-structured or wicked problems and manyof these exist in the design domains. Solving a wicked problem is a never ending process asthe problem needs continuous reformulation due to additional questions and problems beingraised during the problem-solving process. Both ill-defined and wicked problems need furtherproblem definition and redefinition during the problem-solving process (Kung and pui-yuen,2008).Purcell and Gero (1998, p.402) stressed that “problem solvers (i) recognize the structure

of the problem and conceptual knowledge; (ii) generate representations such as graphs anddiagrams appropriate for finding solutions, and (iii) make inferences from these representa-tions using appropriate, efficient strategies that shape problem solving phases.”To solve design problems, idea association is used to ‘link’ the design ideas from all the

design process members according to their individual long-termmemory and their specializedknowledge (Osborn, 1963; Ih-Cheng and Teng-Wen, 2006). In the problem solving process,there are different stages or factors such as problem structuring (Kokotovich, 2008; Restrepoand Christiaans, 2004), experience (Kokotovich and Purcell, 2000; Bilda and Gero, 2007),and creative thinking (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).

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Design PracticeSome designers argue that a design seeks to create future possibilities in order to bring changeto a human community, whereas some researchers and professional designers believe thata design is a means of problem solving with an aim to satisfy humans’ needs; nevertheless,design should not be considered as just a process of problem solving, for this oversimplifiesits entity (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).The design practice is a co-evolution process of creative thinking and design planning.

Creative thinking in designing is an ability to create meaningful new forms; the designplanning is a scientific procedure, which comprises problem identification, collecting relevantideas as well as analyzing factors and ways of implementation (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008).From the landscape designers’ points of view, a design is also an interactive way to involve

the evolution of ideas between two ormore design processmembers in a discussion, especiallyduring a conceptual design stage (Ih-Cheng and Teng-Wen, 2006). There are various stagesof design and they are a reflection of personal viewpoints based on different levels of exper-ience and personality of the landscape designers (Faizi and Khakzand, 2007). At the imple-mentation stage, the landscape designers develop and realize the design idea and integrateit into a physical and cultural context. This is followed by the evaluation stage when theimplemented ideas and the design problem definitions are evaluated (Motloch, 2001). Animposing attention reveals that designers with theoretical thoughts emphasize on the landscapedesign as a problem solving process resulting in resolving cultural and social issues. Incontrast, landscape designers stress on the generation, implementation, and evaluation ofideas in the design process. From the landscape designers’ points of view, an idea appearsat the conceptual stage of the design and at the implementation stage, and the landscape de-signer’s job is to give physicality to it (McGown et al., 1998 and Tovey et al., 2003).

Assessment of Concept in DesignSchön (1963) denoted the importance of a concept by stating nothing is realized without aconcept. It gives meaning to the site rather than beauty (Faizi and Khakzand, 2007). Askingabout a concept impels a designer to talk about the design; a concept influences the designframework in the design process, (Dong, 2007). Specific functional concepts will solvespecific problems in the design process (Faizi and Khakzand, 2007). Similarly, conceptsusually deal with ideas and functional problems (Reid, 1993). All new ideas, concepts anddesigns emerge through a process of creativity (Bell, 1999). This shows that ideas and con-cepts are two interrelated entities in the design process. Schön (1963) implied that there isa strong relationship between concepts and theories, as concepts are derived from experiences.Schön (1963) stressed that the creation of new design concepts is related to the reconsid-

eration of old ideas as new problems. In contrast, Gestalt theorists contend that new conceptsare not simply recombined old ideas, but have a greater relative value than the old ideas.The generation of each design concept involves three activities: the integration of the programand site analyses; the generation of a design idea, or big idea; and the design concept, includ-ing organization of program elements and design resources on the site. Once a concept isgenerated, it is evaluated, weighted, sorted and through schematic design the suitable conceptis selected (Motloch, 2001).

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Once the concepts are defined through an intuitive design process, they are evaluatedbased on predetermined criteria, which assess the appropriateness and functionality of theconcepts (Lawson, 1980; andMilburn and Brown, 2003). Data from the site and understandingabout a client’s brief are also effective foundations for a good concept (Reid, 1993; Bell,1999; Blake, 1999;Walker 2005; and Faizi and Khakzand, 2007). The site analysis articulatessite opportunities and constraints. In its simplest form, a conceptual design brings these twopatterns together to imply design direction and form (Motloch, 2001). The articulationbetween design elements does not only construct the design concept but also reconstructsmeanings which is the basis of a design concept formation (Dong, 2007).In sum, in a design process a concept is formed based on a client’s brief, site potential

and users’ needs. Along the design process a concept is idealized and evaluated in order tofind the most appropriate design solutions. A concept, the heart of the design process, shedslight on the whole process. Based on Motloch’s theory (2001), the design process is a cyc-lical process in which designers are engaged with problem identification, concept generation,ideation, implementation of ideas, and evaluation of the implemented ideas. This way, thelandscape design meets its users’ needs and is called successful.

MethodsThe purpose of this study was to identify problems occurring in the design process that resultin a displaced design concept; where situating and contextualizing a design concept comesin. This was elicited using a qualitative research methodology. Based on this approach, thedesigners’ experiences about the design process were qualitatively elicited through in-depthand focus group interviews. Qualitative method permitted the researcher to study the selectedissues in-depth and in detail; the fact that data collection is not restricted by assumptionscontributes to the depth and detail of qualitative data (Patton, 1987). This verifies the choiceof qualitative method for this research.In this research, the participants were selected through purposeful sampling, which involves

studying information-rich cases in-depth to understand and illuminate important cases ratherthan generalizing from a sample to a population (Merriam, 1998 and Patton, 2002).

ParticipantsThe participants of the study were eighteen landscape architects, including both academicsand practitioners with 15-28 years of experience and who were considered expert landscapedesigners. Although some were involved in actual design practice, they still maintained anacademic relationship with major universities in Malaysia. The results of this study wereelicited from their experiences in the Malaysian context. In fact, all findings are based oncontextual dependency; therefore, they might not be applicable to other cultures and contexts.The replacement of generalization with contextual dependency is stressed as an importantjob of researchers in qualitative methods (Rossman and Rallis, 2003).

Researcher as InstrumentIn this study, the researcher was the primary instrument. The researcher collected, processedand analyzed the data. The advantage of this approach is that the researcher can respond to

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the total context, adapt techniques to circumstances, expand on what is known about thesituation through sensitivity during observation to nonverbal aspects, and can explore anom-alous responses (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). For instance, the researcher started on the analysisof the field evidence early in the preliminary study and proceeded concurrently with the laterand continuous collection of data so that the two could be closely integrated to the extentthat they began to inform each other.

Data CollectionThe data was collected through eight in-depth, open-ended interviews and two focus groupinterviews, which were used to capture direct quotations from landscape architects abouttheir experiences, opinions, and knowledge related to the design process and concept gener-ation in the design process. All interviews lasted 90 to 180 minutes. Each interview was re-corded using a Microcassette Recorder, and saved in the NVIVO 8 software program. Inter-views were conducted until data saturation was achieved. “The semi-structured interviewswere used to gather data that was subsequently analyzed to provide a rich and deep under-standing of the individuals’ experiences or understanding of the subject” (Dam et al., 2008,p.55). All interview questions were posed in relation to the designers’ understanding aboutthe design process, and factors that are important in generating a design concept.Focus group interview is a widely accepted research method. It is defined as “a research

technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic determined by the research-er” (Gubrium and Holstein, 2001, P.141). It includes open-ended interviews with groups offive to eight people on specially specified issues (Patton, 2002). In this study, focus groupquestions were derived from the theoretical framework based on Kokotovich’s (2008) theoryon problem analysis, Milburn’s and Brown’s (2003) theory of the design process stages, andMotloch’s (2001) theory on problem identification. The chosen place for each focus groupinterview was at the seminar room, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti PutraMalaysia.

Data AnalysisThe researcher used systematic data analysis to develop an understanding of the data andidentify common themes arising from the investigation. Themes were generated throughinterpretation of the data in light of the literature reviewed and the research questions.Transcription of the informationwas completed by the researcher to provide the opportunity

to execute primary thoughts and understanding of the data. All data were treated as text forthe purpose of analysis and coding (Ryan and Bernard, 2000 and Thompson, 2004). Afterreading all the materials, the researcher developed a “start list” of possible categories forcoding that was based on the literature from which the barriers to action were derived; andupon themes that emerged from the initial readings of the texts (Coffey and Atkinson, 1996;and Thompson, 2004). A Constant comparative analysis was also used to construct emergingthemes from the qualitative data. This method requires the primary investigator to considerthe relationships among the analyzed data in an ongoing attempt to examine the relationshipswithin and between categories (Dam et al., 2008).

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Trustworthiness StrategiesSeveral strategies were used in order to address the issue of trustworthiness in this study.As suggested by Maxwell (1996), the researcher used triangulation, member checking andpeer review to reduce validity threats. These included audio taping the interviews and tran-scribing and the data verbatim into the NVIVO 8 software program, which increased theconformability of the findings (Bazeley and Richards, 2000 and Thompson, 2004). The re-searcher used the data from the in-depth and focus group interviews as well as the findingsto get confirmation from both peers/experts and the respondents to verify the accuracy ofthe resulting themes of the study.

Results and DiscussionThe researchers’ involvement in this mental model study is due partly to collective interestin qualitative research and partly to a sense of responsibility to the country. At the sametime, however, apprehension was matched by the excitement of attempting to expand thehorizons of qualitative research in a landscape design, within the Malaysian context. Theresearcher felt that qualitative research using in-depth framework would be the most appro-priate approach to understand landscape design from a more scientific perspective. The re-searcher is from a country outside of Malaysia, which has a culture-rich background inlandscape and architecture, but with quite different characteristics than Malaysia, a countrywith excellent greenery and potential for crystallizing new ideas. These discrepancies in theMalaysian landscape impressed and persuaded the researcher to express her artistic languagein a more scientific landscape design. The researcher’s involvement in the topic also stemsfrom her interest in the renewed importance of meaning and eternity in landscape designthat grows as a response to enhance the quality for its users. Getting involved in this issuecan breathe new life into landscape design and embellish it with research-oriented perspective.With this background, the researcher was mobilized to help identify the needs for moreuseful and admirable landscape designs.Regarding the above-mentioned background, the main aim of this study was to identify

the problems that displace a concept design in the design process. Different viewpoints towardthe vastness of landscape design have given importance to it. This indicates that that unlikethe past, landscape designing is distinguished as a practice that is laid between science andart. Consequently, a landscape design retains both art and science traits. A landscape designis not just a discipline to beautify human surroundings but also focused to create comfortableand admirable spaces for its users.Most theories on problem solving witness the designer’s intention to solve a problem in

the design process; therefore, the final design is admirable whenever it solves the designproblem. This is reflected by Kamelya2.

…To me designing is looking for a solution, right? You have been given a problem, soyou have to look for a solution. So, I think before setting into the process of finding thesolution, a designer has to understand the problem first, the problem given to him. Sothe client might give you a site and said, well, I want a park, or even, I want my houseto be landscaped. That is a problem...

2 Academic with 27 years of experience

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Hence, the final product or design is responsive to the users’ needs and successful. Payingmore attention to the design process indicates that there are certain stages that should beobserved by designers to construct the framework of the design. Consideration of thesestages deals with a client’s brief and users’ needs to find suitable answers for the designneeds, which appear as the design problem. Evidently, every single landscape design projectthat has a strong concept as a framework might be called unsuccessful due to some obstruc-tions imposed, or constraints that displace or misplace the concept in the design process.Based on the theoretical framework derived from the literature review, every design process

is driven by considering the three stages: before-, during-, and after-design. Results indicatethat most landscape designers properly go through a pre-design stage that includes investig-ating of a client’s brief, doing site inventory and analysis, and gathering relevant documents,which is sometimes called a library research.As previously mentioned, the point of designing is to solve a problem. This implies that

identifying the problem overshadows the other stages in the design process. Based on theresults from the landscape designers’ understanding of the design process, two themes andthree sub-themes were elicited as the problems that exist in the design process. Some ofthem originated from designers’ unawareness and some appear due to design constraints.

Lack of Clear Understanding about ProblemSolving Stage in the DesignProcessRepeatedly mentioned, designing is seeking a solution to a problem. In fact, nothing is donein the design process without solving a problem (Kung and Pui-yuen, 2008 and Ravikumar,2008). Although designers mentioned that interviews with clients and considering site con-ditions through site analysis and inventory are the ways to identify the problem, a lack ofwhat Motloch (2001) stated as an outstanding stage in the design process is evident. In fact,they do not consider what Green (1974), Lauer and Pentak (2000) and Rhea (2003) statedas the identification of problems, and what Green (1974) asserted as the examination of aproposed solution in the cyclical problem-solving process. The designers’ understanding ofproblem solving is clarified in Norman’s3 understanding about problem identification:

…I am sure that there is a stage of problem identification; it is the most logical startingpoint. We have to understand the problem. Normally as a practitioner, a client identifiesthe problem earlier or a landscape architect would identify the problem or it occurs onthe site. Most of the time the client will let us know the problem. For example, theyrequire us to design a park, beautiful park over there, whereas that area is not suitablefor a park. In most cases client has an important imposed on the project that leaves nopower for designers to really analyze and structure the problem. You have to have asolution, ideas, surveying the client issues, and howwe are going to resolve it, somethingthat the landscape architects would do is trying to understand the site, in order to lookfor a solution...

The above statement indicates an awareness of the importance of design problem identifica-tion. Nevertheless, he does not consider this as a distinctive stage of a problem solving pro-

3 Academic and practitioner with 24 years experience

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cess, in which designers are required to structure problems, split them into key components,and at the final step analyze them in order to find an appropriate solution.Irresponsiveness of Site to Identify the Design ProblemSelecting a site that is consistent with the design problem is also very important in the

beginning of the design process. By achieving this, a designer is able to identify the realproblem to be analyzed in the next step. In fact, imposing a site for a specific project by theclient will constrain designers in order to analyze the suitability of the site as it prevents thedesigner from identifying the real design problem. This is found in the following statementsby Norman and Allen, respectively:Normally as a practitioner, client identifies the problem, for example, most of the time

the client makes designers know the essence of the project. Meaning that, in most cases, aproject is imposed to the designer and in this condition, there is no chance for a designer toreally analyze the problem. In other words, designer is disabled to check whether or not thesite potentials are suitable for the users’ needs.

In our development in a landscape design, we are committed to copy Isfahan4 in Putra-jaya5. Isfahan with its outstanding culture and history from Iranian context is not sosuitable for Putrajaya in Malaysian context in terms of climatic issues. This imposedidea and inappropriate selection of site potentials cause problem for designers inidentifying the design problem.

When a site is unsuitable for a design purpose, despite doing site analysis and primary in-ventory, designers are unable to identify the design problem even if a concept is stronglydeveloped; the final design is not admirable to the users. Another issue that obstructs a designconcept is the influence of a client’s aspiration on the development of a concept, which iscategorized by the following theme.

Influence of a Client’s Aspiration on the Development of ConceptAlthough the role of the client is decisive in the design process, overstating it might be anobstruction for the development of a concept in the design process. In other words, designersmust be assigned as the prime principals who generate a concept based on not only a client’sbrief but also users’ needs and site potentials. Giving excessive value to a client’s brief willimpede the designers’ role to ideate and develop a concept. Hence, landscape designers areonly involved in the design process after the stage of concept generation, which degradestheir roles. Highlighting the role of a client’s brief was discussed in the interviews. Normanstated:

.…I think, basically try to think what a client wants. It depends; of course, library re-search is based on what the client wants first…I assume that before starting your designneeds, yes you have to question your client, what actually does he want? What to bedone on the site and who are the people using this park? I think the process of develop-

4 Isfahan is the cultural capital of Iran with outstanding example of Iranian and Islamic architecture5 Putrajaya, located just south of Kuala Lumpur, is the new federal administrative capital ofMalaysia

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ment of the conceptual ideas takes quite some time because you normally need to getthe idea based on what a client want then you have to get endorsement from the client.

As a result, designers risk being considered mere moderators of beauty. This imposedproblem is discussed further in the following subtheme.

Degradation of the Designers’ Role to a Moderator of BeautyLandscape designers should be the consultants who conduct the whole process from the pre-design stage to the building of the design product. Nevertheless, understating the role ofdesigners in the design process relegates them to be mere gardeners that come to the designprocess after a concept is imposed by a client. Giffen (2004) and Ravikumar (2008) high-lighted that the designers must be critical thinkers that come to the design process from thebeginning and not at the end to only beautify the design. This issue is clearly reiterated byone of the respondents as follows:

…I think in many cases landscape architects come to a dilemma. In most cases we don’tcome in as consultants in Malaysian practice, if we are lucky we will come in as aconsultant. That’s why I said, what kind of project? In most projects, landscape architectscome just to give some protection and then later on what is left to us is totally different.In this way, landscape designers come in just for beautification purpose, not developersof the concept…

The respondents commented that in some cases, the clients have an idea of what they wantin the project, so the designers have to provide concepts that they do not like. Thus, a conceptis developed based only on the client’s imposed ideas, while the user’s needs are a lost anec-dote, and the design is rendered unsuccessful and unpleasant. In fact, the concept is displacedin the design process due to an overstatement of the client’s brief.

Limitations that Obstruct the Implementation of IdeasAnother problem appears in the stage of implementation of principles and ideas to generateand develop a concept. In the design process, there are some limitations and constraints suchas cultural and personal preferences, and budget that limit designers’ ability to ideate orepitomize a concept. This issue was referred to in the following statement by Sam:

…Second stage is the design development. During the design development, a landscapedesigner is bombarded with many things. At this stage, some of the design principlesto develop a concept are not implemented. Especially, the details are not consideredproperly. The factors that make the concept a little bit dissolved are money, personalpreference, and cultural limitations. The concept seems to be the key factor but wecannot implement it because of those limitations so we have to abstract it to make it asintellective a design as we can….

Thus, there is a gap between the ideal process of designing on paper, and what landscapedesigners face in reality. These problems come into play in the design process due to design-ers’ unawareness and design constraints, which displace a concept somewhere in the design

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process. The negative result of concept displacement is that the final design is unsuccessfuland unusable to the users.

ConclusionThis study employed a qualitative research methodology to identify issues arise in the designprocess that displace the concept of a design or render it unusable for users. The designprocess is a problem solving process, comprised of problem definition, ideation, implement-ation of ideas and evaluation of the implemented ideas. This makes the design process morecyclical than linear. In the design process, the designer is bombarded with various issuesfrom the early stages to the generated concept. Among the most important issues that a de-signer deals with are consideration of site potentials, the client’s brief and the user needs.The heart of the design that shapes its framework is called a concept, which is indirectly af-filiated with all the aforementioned elements of the design process. Therefore, attention isconcentrated on the concept of a design. From the early stages of the design process the de-signer is engaged with identifying the design problem. After identifying the problem, it isstructured and analyzed. At this stage, the designer ideates the concept to find solutions thatare evaluated to be properly embodied by the site.Interviews with professionals in landscape design revealed that they consider the design

process as a problem solving process; nevertheless, they do not clearly consider the processas analyzing and structuring the design problem. In addition, they superfluously highlightthe role of a client, which results in problems in the design process. Most of the time, theconcept is dictated by clients and this degrades the role of designers to be mere moderatorsof beauty, which hinder them to solve the cultural and social problem issues. Ideas are gen-erated to embody a concept to find the solution, but the designers assert that they are notreally concerned with the evaluation of concepts and generation of ideas and solutions. Thesewere the problems that designers faced in the design process that impede the epitomizing ofa concept and displaced the concept somewhere in the design process.To strengthen the findings, it is recommended that for future research, an attempt is made

to identify more of these issues through studio studies, in which designers are required tocarry out a design process. From this approach, identifying the problems that displace aconcept in the design process might be easier and more practical. Moreover, there are numer-ous factors such as culture and personal preference, budget, and time that influence thegeneration and development of a concept; even ideation of a concept in the design process.It is proposed that future studies consider the interaction of these factors with concept gen-eration.

AcknowledgmentThis research was funded by University Putra Malaysia. The authors would like to expresstheir gratitude to all participating landscape architects for their insightful suggestions, andFaculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia for its cooperation with theresearchers.

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Design Concept: A Displaced Anecdote in the Landscape Architectural Design Process

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