Dept. of Educational Administration & Policy The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Dept. of Educational Administration & PolicyThe Chinese University of Hong Kong

PEDU 6209 Policy Studies in Education

TSANG, Wing KwongTel. 39436922

Topic 1

Introduction to Policy Studies in Education:

Definitions of a Discipline and a Field

PEDu 6209

Policy Studies in Education

TSANG Wing-kwong

What is at Issue?

What is your decision?

What is your action?

協恩校長鼓動學生違法須追究責任

協恩中學校長李鎮洪不顧學生家長和社會各界強烈質疑和反對，昨日仍堅持邀請「佔中」發起人戴耀廷在校園舉行鼓動學生違法的講座。「佔中」是違法的行動，在校園宣傳「佔中」等於宣傳違法，心智未成熟的學生被灌輸不尊重法治的意識，極易被誤導參與違法行動，這無論對學生的前途或是心靈的戕害，都是極其嚴重的。教育局應追究協恩校長無視當局指引，違反有關教育法例和守則的嚴重失當行為。戴耀廷鼓動學生充當「佔中」棋子的不道德行為，也嚴重違反教育工作者的品格與操守。對李鎮洪和戴耀廷鼓動學生違法的行為，當局應追究，社會應譴責。

協恩中學上月擬邀戴耀廷與學生對「佔中」作「交流」，活動最終因黑色暴雨警告停課而取消，但校長李鎮洪卻不顧家長反對，仍然邀請戴耀廷昨日到學校推銷「佔中」，讓他有機會在學校向莘莘學子宣傳犯法的行為。李鎮洪聲稱「政治中立」，但「佔中」主辦方在全力動員「佔中」，協恩邀請其發起人舉行宣傳和動員「佔中」的大會，絕非「政治中立」和「不偏不倚」，而是配合發起人煽動學生參與違法「佔中」活動，與所謂培育學生多角度思考完全是兩回事。李鎮洪偷換概念，豈能推卸鼓動學生違法的責任？

自古以來，「師者，所以傳道、授業、解惑也」。學校要傳的是正道，授的是正業，解的是正知，所以孟子說「教者必以正」，這個「正」字，最起碼不能違法。在尊師重道傳統下，學生比較信任老師和學校，協恩邀請戴耀廷在校園舉行鼓動學生違法的講座，學生極易被誤導。李鎮洪這次在學界開了一個極惡劣的先例，如果有其他學校仿效，那麼這些學校就不再是「教以正」，而是「教以邪」。須知香港法治核心價值是從學校教育開始的，所謂「十年樹木，百年樹人」，培養人的法治意識並不容易，協恩中學舉行鼓動學生違法的活動，其嚴重性可想而知。

《香港教育專業守則》列明，教育工作者應「尊重法律及社會接受的行為準則」。《教育條例》列明，如當局認為有教員「不稱職」或做出「專業上的失當行為」時，當局有權取消有關教員註冊。李鎮洪和戴耀廷作為教育工作者，沒有「尊重法律及社會接受的行為準則」，而是在校園鼓動學生違法，專業上嚴重失當，當局應追究他們的責任，廣大家長與社會各界應強烈譴責。

蘋論：學習協恩平和理性討論佔中實在該為協恩中學師生鼓掌。他們在巨大政治壓力下堅持獨立思考及判斷，邀請和平佔中運動發起人戴耀廷先生及人大常委范徐麗泰女士出席通識教育講座，討論佔中行動的理念、原則、做法與代價。不管師生最終如何看佔中行動，他們都已將協恩中學變成學術自由、獨立思考的堡壘，令校園變成真正的意見自由市場，讓不同意見能順暢交流交鋒。我們希望有更多學校能像協恩中學那樣敢於討論重要及有爭議性的社會課題，刺激學生的思考，擴闊學生的視野。我們更希望整體社會也能像協恩中學師生那樣，冷靜、理性討論佔中行動的利弊好壞。

正如佔中運動發起人戴耀廷先生所言，運動的成敗取決於市民是否認同及支持、取決於有多少市民願意配合及參與。若果絕大部份市民不認同佔中行動的理念與做法，若果參與的市民只有小貓三幾隻，那不管發起人喊的如何聲嘶力竭，不管警方是否把發起人及參與者拘捕，佔中運動激起的只會是一陣漣漪，既不影響大局，更不足以改變政制走向。而要爭取大部份市民認同及支持，最關鍵是向市民講清楚說明白，最重要是就佔中運動的理據及必要性來一次深入討論，令市民明白公民抗命是爭取民主政制，打破政治僵局的必要做法。

過去三十多年來，香港市民、政團已用過大量不同方式表達民主訴求，希望盡快落實全面普選。只可惜從港英政府到北京政府要不是虛與委蛇就是再三拖延，近十年來北京更乾脆以霸王硬上弓的粗暴手法凍結民主進程，令政制原地踏步。年復一年的和平遊行改變不了頑固的北京領導層，幾十萬、幾十萬人的大遊行融化不了建制派的頑固態度。若市民、政團沿用同樣的抗爭模式，效果只怕會跟過去差不多，那就是遊行結束後一切照舊，政改仍然寸步難行。為了打破僵局，為了促使北京政府及建制派明白繼續拖延不是選擇，市民有必要採取更有力的行動，有需要付出比遊行更大的努力與犧牲。戴耀廷先生等提出的和平佔中行動正正朝這個方向出發。

透過和平佔領中環核心商業區的行動，透過對現存法制、政治秩序的挑戰，一方面向北京政府、特區政府施加政治經濟壓力，迫使他們重新考慮在政改方面的立場；另一方面，佔中行動也能凸顯市民對爭取民主政制的承擔與決心，令北京以至全世界都知道我們不是空口爭民主，而是願意付出重大代價包括被拘捕及失去自由等。當

What is at Issue?

What is your decision?

What is your action?

How can I make sense of this complex and politically charged situation?

How should I act, given this complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity?

Definitions of the discipline: Policy Studies Definition of the subject of inquiry Definition of the issue of inquiry

Study for policy Study of policy

Definition of the method of inquiry

Definition of the field: Policy studies in education Study for education policy Study of education policy

Policy Studies in Education: An Overview

Policy Studies: Definitions of a Discipline

Definitions of the subject inquiry

Definition of policy The Oxford English Dictionary: "A course of action or

principle adopted or proposed by a government, party, individual, etc.; any course of action adopted as advantageous or expedient."

“Policy is defined as a ‘standing decision’ characterized by behavioral consistency and repetitiveness on the part of both who make it and those who abide by it.” (Eulau & Prewitt, 1973, p. 465)

“Routinization (in complex social life) is achieved through the formulation and implementation of policies. Policies are statements that prescribe courses of action in organizations. They govern the internal functioning of the organizations, their external relations, and the way they attain their goals.” (Midgley, 2000, p. 3)

Policy Studies: Definitions of a Discipline

Definitions of the subject inquiry

Definition of policy Policy is “a projected program of goals, values, and

practices.” (Lasswell & Kaplan, 1970, p. 71) "To have a policy is to have rational reasons or

argurments which contain both a claim to an understanding of a problem and a solution. It put forward what is and what ought to be done. A policy offers a kind of theory upon which a claim for legitimacy is made." (Parson, 1995, p. 15)

Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline

Definitions of the subject inquiry Definition of public policy

“Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.” (Dye, 1998, p. 2)

William Jenkins conceptualizes public policy as “ a set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specific situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the power of those actors to achieve.” (Quoted in Howlett & Ramesh, 1995, p. 5)

David Easton defines public policy as “the authoritative allocation of values for the whole society.” (Easton, 1953, p. 129)



Giandomenico Majone “As politicians know too well but social scientists too often forget, public policy is made of language. Whether in written or oral form, argument is central in all stages of the policy process.” (Majone, 1989, p.1)

“The practice of public policy making largely a matter of persuasion. So is the discipline of studying public policy making aptly described as itself being a ‘persuasion’. It is a mood more than a science, a loosely organized body of percepts and positions rather than a tightly integrated body of systemic knowledge, more art and craft and genuine ‘science’.” (Goodin, Rein and Moran, 2006, p. 5)



“Public policy is a discursive construct rather than a self-defining phenomenon.” (Fischer, 2003, p. 69) ”

“We define policy as a political agreement on a course of action (or inaction) designed to resolve or mitigate problems on the political agenda. This agreement…is an intellectual constructs rather than a self-defining phenomenon. Discursively constructed, there can be no inherently unique decision, institutions, or actors constituting public policy that are to be identified, uncovered, and explained. Public policy, as such, is an analytical category with a substantive content cannot be simply researched; more fundamentally, it has to be interpreted.” (p.60)


Definitions of the subject inquiry Definition of social policy

“Social policy …refers to the actual policies and programs of governments that affect people’s welfare.” (Midley, 2000, p.4)

“Social policy may be defined as policy activities which influence welfare. Whilst non-state bodies may be described as having policies, a generic expression like ‘social policy’ is primarily used to define the role of the state in relation to the welfare of its citizens.” (Hill, 1997, p. 1)


Definition of issues of inquiry Harold Lasswell characterizes that “As a working

definition, we say that the policy science are concerned with knowledge of and in the decision processes of the public and civic order.” (1971, p.1, original emphasis)


Definition of issues of inquiry Study for policy:

William Dunn indicates that “policy analysis is a problem solving discipline. …Policy analysis addresses five types of questions:• What is the nature of the problem for which solution is sought?

• Which of two or more courses of action should be chosen to solve the problem?

• What are the outcomes of choosing that course of action?

• Does achieving the outcomes contribute to solving the problem?

• What future outcomes can be expected if other courses of action are chosen?” (p. 3)


Definition of issues of inquiry Study for policy

Policy Studies generates knowledge for problem-solving

- Problem recognition - Agenda-setting

- Proposal of solution - Policy formation

- Choice of solution - Decision-making

- Putting solution into - Policy implementation effect

- Monitoring results - Policy evaluation


Definition of issues of inquiry Study of policy

Thomas Dye defines the study of public policy as “the description and explanation of the causes and consequences of government activities, This focus involves• a description of the content of public policy;

• an analysis of the impact of social, economic, and political forces on the content of the public policy;

• an inquiry into the effect of various institutional arrangements and political processes on public policy; and

• an evaluation of the consequences of public policies on society, both expected and unexpected.” (p.5)


Definition of issues of inquiry Study of policy

Policy Studies generates knowledge of policy- Study of the policy contents or substances

- Study of the policy process

- Institutional or systemic study of policy

- Study of the policy frame and policy discourse

- Critical study of ideological implications of policy


Definitions of methods of inquiry The policy science movement

Analytic-technical methodPolitical system method

The interpretive-political methodStudy of meanings and values invested in policyStudy of text, textuality and intertextuality of policy

documentsStudy of policy argumentStudy of policy frame

The discursive critical methodStudy of policy discourseStudy of dominant ideology at work in policy

Policy Studies in Education: Definition of a Field

Definition of education policy: Whatever a government choose to do or not to do in education.”

Definition of issues of inquiry Study for education policy

Status-quo study and definition of the education problemsCausality study for policy solution of the education policyRational study for choice of solutions Study of policy implementationPolicy evaluation study

Policy Studies in Education: Definition of a Field

Definition of issues of inquiry Study for education policy Study of education policy

Study of the substance of the education policy Study of the process of the education policy Institutional or systemic studies of the education policy Study the formation of the policy frame and discourse in

education Critical study of ideological implications of the education

policy

A.The State of the Art:

The Overview of the Disciplineof Policy Studies

Journals on Policy Studies

Policy Studies Journal (1971-present), publisher: Policy Studies Organization (US based)

Review of Policy Research, (1981-present), publisher: Policy Studies Organization (US based)

Politics and Policy, (1973-present), publisher: Policy Studies Organization (US based)

Journals on Policy Studies

Journal of Public Policy (1981-present), publisher: Cambridge University Press (UK based)

Journals on Education Policy

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, (1979-present) Publisher: AERA (US based)

Journal of Education Policy, (1986-present) Publisher: Taylor & Francis (UK based)

Educational Policy, (1987-present) Publisher: Sage (US based)

(2006)

(2006)

(2007)

(1999)(2009)(1999)

The State of the Art: The Overview of the Discipline of Policy Studies

Theoretical perspectives in policy studies Analytic-technical perspective Interpretive-political perspective Discursive-critical perspective

The State of the Art: The Overview of the Discipline

Understanding of the nature of public policy A public policy as analytic-technical design of

means-end model and the course of action taken accordingly

A public policy as an aggregate of socially constructed realities of interpretive communities and the courses of actions each interpretive community wanted to input to the public arena

A public policy as a discursive construct under a particular knowledge/power configuration of a society and the dominance of the course of action legitimatized by this discursive configuration


Understanding the process of public policy Policy formulation & making study

Policy making as rational choice of the best alternative to the problem as informed by the analytic-positivist and value-free study for the policy

Policy making as political outcome of compromise of conflicting interpretations of different interpretive communities made up of stake holders of the policy issue at hand

Policy making as formation of the discourse to a policy issue within a particular knowledge/power configuration of a society


Understanding the process of public policy Policy implementation study

Policy implementation as well-controlled plan of execution of the pre-designed course of action in a particular policy environment

Policy implementation as multilateral and multi-level processes of interpretations and puzzlements of execution of policy measures

Policy implementation as discursive strategies of maintaining the dominance of a particular version of discourse to the policy problem at hand

The State of the Art: The Overview of the Discipline of Policy Studies

Understanding the process of public policy Policy evaluation study

Policy evaluation as rational, empirical and positivist assessment of the extent to which the policy means have attained the pre-conceived ends

Policy evaluation as yet another round of multilateral and multi-level interpretations of the outcomes and consequences of the policy

Policy evaluation is formation of the discourse to the effectiveness and efficiency of the policy at hand


Understanding of the ontological interest of public policy Public policy and policy studies as means to serve the

interest of technical control of physical and social environment of human existence

Public policy and policy studies as ways to facilitate the interest of mutual understanding within the human community and possible to reconcile conflicts

Public policy and policy studies as practice to fulfill the interest of human freedom and liberation from power-hypostatized and systemic distorted human existence

END

Topic 1: Definitions and Development of the Discipline & field

Dept. of Educational Administration & Policy The Chinese University of Hong Kong

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