Portugal: Political Organization of Colonial EmpireSpanish, Portuguese spent 700 years reclaiming land from Muslims

• State supported, state financed campaign• Well trained, well motivated, army and navy• State gets its tenth of conquests, soldiers get a share of

profits, too• Aristocrats obtain estates with feudal labor (Muslims)

King distributed land as estates to European landowners• Provinces overseen by Captain-Generals ruling almost as feudal

lords• Colonial court resides in Salvador

Pursued mercantilism, autocratic reform from top down• Brazil became the centerpiece of his reforms

• Vigorous, honest colonial administrators

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Portugal: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire► Direct trade without Muslim intermediaries

Bypass Italian trade monopolies with Ottomans Asian spice trade African gold, ivory, and slaves

► Model for Exploitation based on Canaries, Azores example Enslave natives, give land to Europeans Plantations set up for export of sugar Enslaved natives die off, import slaves, usually Africans

► Portuguese empire in Brazil dependent on sugar production Colonial Brazilian life revolved around sugar mill, or engenho Engenho combined agricultural and industrial enterprises Sugar planters became the landed nobility Brazil was the first European sugar plantation colony and a

model for others Imported African slaves

► For cane, sugar production after 1530 ► High death rate, low birth rate ► Constant demand for slaves ► Roughly, every ton of sugar cost one human life

Pursued mercantilism, autocratic reform from top down Brazil became the centerpiece of his reforms

► Monopolies created to exploit areas► Large importation of slaves began to increase production► Cotton, cocoa produced introduced

The Bourbon reforms in Spain's New World empire were paralleled by the Pombal reforms in Brazil. The Marquis of Pombal, Portugal's prime minister, wished to free Portugal from its negative balance of trade with England. As in Spain, Pombal expelled the Jesuits, who resisted his plans for reform. Monopolies were created in Brazil, leading to the opening of new regions.

Cotton and cacao plantations arose in the Amazon basin. In order to ensure a steady supply of slaves to Brazil, Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal. The colony continued to rely on African slaves as their primary labor source. Although Pombal's reforms did reduce Portugal's imbalance of trade with England, it could not revise Brazil's position within the world trade system as a supplier of raw materials.

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Portugal: Religious make-up of Colonial Empire► Missionary efforts of European Christians

Christians urged to spread the faith throughout the world ► Spanish and Portuguese missionaries introduced Catholicism

Mission schools and churches established Missionaries recorded languages, traditions Catholic Church attracted many converts Church taught Indians skills: farming, herding Church became protector of Indians

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Portugal: Social Structure of Colonial Empire•Restricted Church influence so he could use Indians as slaves•Encouraged immigration of Europeans, women to Brazil

Spanish social hierarchies were complicated by intermarriage between races. Marriages between Spaniards and Indians resulted in the creation of a group of mixed race, the mestizos, who were regarded as socially superior to the Indians and more acculturated to European patterns. Similar patterns of social hierarchy resulted from Europeans sexual exploitation of African slaves in Brazil. In all of Latin America, social status reflected racial origins. Whites were the elite, blacks or Indians were at the bottom, and peoples of mixed race were in between. Together, people of mixed racial origin were referred to as the castas. Castas found that the higher offices and economic positions were closed to them.

Despite social limitations, peoples of mixed race made up a large proportion of Latin American populations. Social mobility might result in changes in racial categorization, but being white was still the most obvious qualification for elite status. Even among whites, some distinctions were observed between those born in Europe, the Peninsulares, and those born in the Americas, Creoles. Peninsulares, about whose racial origins there could be no doubt, were regarded as truly elite. Creoles rapidly developed a sense of identity separate from the European white population. Regardless of racial origin, households remained patriarchal. Women did have rights in dowry, inheritance, and some access to commerce.

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Portugal: Interactions • African Slaves

• Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

crops• Settlement of the Interior and Southern Plains

• Ranching becomes common to support mining and sugar plantations

• Church controlled missions protect Indians in communal livingCatholic Church and Royal Government were allies

• Church often functioned as a branch of the government• Established churches, schools in towns, frontier areas• Ran many of the social, intellectual activities of the

colonies• Catholic orders converted the Indians

• Settled the Indians in protected missions• Introduced farming, herding, industry to Indians

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Portugal: Artistic, Scientific, Inventions During the period of Colonial Empire

► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

► Church stimulates intellectual growth Needs artists, architects to build, beautify churches Printing presses tended to do mostly Church business First universities (Mexico City, Lima) organized, run by clergy

► Produced bureaucrats for empire, clergy for church► First universities in the Americas before Yale, Harvard

Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz► Mexican poet, musician, author, social thinker► Joined Church and became great theologian and social

thinker

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Portugal: Nature of the Colonial Empire► Portugal searched for fresh resources

Resource poor country blocked from expanding on land 13th to 15th century they ventured out onto Atlantic Established sugar plantations in Azores, Madiera

► Europeans replace Native Flora, fauna, cultural norms replace Indian Farmers, ranchers take over Indian lands Sheep, horses, cattle, crops replace Indians, varieties European culture seen as superior – it won, we should adopt it

► A Golden Age As interior was settled, gold was discovered A land rush and gold rush ensued which open up the interior

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Spanish: Political Structure of Colonial EmpireSpanish, Portuguese spent 700 years reclaiming land from Muslims

• State supported, state financed campaign• Well trained, well motivated, army and navy• State gets its tenth of conquests, soldiers get a share of

profits, too• Aristocrats obtain estates with feudal labor (Muslims)

Royal Administration arrives• Governorship, treasury office, royal courts, professional

magistrates• Capitals laid out in a grid pattern with royal palace,

cathedralAmericans began to resent distant control

• Local born Americans demand greater say in their own future• Urban riots, boycotts over foreign controls• Tax revolts• Slave revolts not uncommon• Revolts against mercantilist policies, controls

• Spanish: tobacco, liquor, taxes led to Comunero Revolt in 1781

• Tupac Amaru led Indian revolt in Peru in 1783• Lead up to the American Revolution: many Acts and then

actual rebellion

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Spanish: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire• Model for Exploitation based on Canaries, Azores example

• Enslave natives, give land to Europeans• Plantations set up for export of sugar• Enslaved natives die off, import slaves, usually Africans

• Different forms of labor, taxation created• Encomiendas used Indians as feudal like labor

• Old Indian models but now arbitrary, excessive• Ended 1540 as too threatening to royal power• Forced labor

• Mita in Peru• Cuatequil in Mexico

• Repartimiento replaces Encomienda system • Repartimiento redistributed natives for forced labor• Little different from encomienda • Except village decide whom to send as laborers• Natives moved around as migrant workers, laborers on

official duties17th century

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• Indians flee villages, work for landlords, in cities; done to avoid conscription

• Allowed Indians to choose work; began to work for wages• Silver more plentiful than gold

• The basis of Spanish New World wealth • Melted Aztec, Inca gold into ingots • Two major sites of silver mining

• Zacatecas (Mexico)• Potosi (Peru)

• Spanish Americas were largely an agrarian society• Coastal Plantations

• Produced cash crops for export: sugar, cocoa• Eventually required large imports of slave labor

• Large private estates (haciendas, estancias) set up• Were the basis of Spanish American production, aristocratic

wealth • Spanish transplanted Iberian model • Produced grains, grapes, cattle, horses, sheep

• Americas became self-sufficient for needs• Foods, textiles, tools produced locally• Luxuries imported• Raw materials, minerals exported

• Trade was mercantilist • Spanish government regulated trade• Trade routed through Spain: Cadiz, Seville• Only Spanish merchants could carry goods to Spain• All manufactures, imports had to come from Spain• Only Spaniards could sell products in Americas• Galleon convoys organized to protect, carry trade

• Ports to Spain: Veracruz, Cartagena, Havana• Ports to Manila, China: Acapulco

• Textile Industry• Woolens developed from sheep ranching• Leather industry developed from cattle• Cotton produced locally by Indians also woven

The Spanish colonies did develop a small woolen textile industry that supplied colonial markets. Spanish commercial objectives were directed at exploitation of mineral wealth, specifically silver. All American trade with Spain passed through the Casa de Contratacion of Seville. Strict control of trade allowed Spanish merchants to keep prices high. To discourage piracy and competition from other European nations, Spanish trade with its colonies was shipped in a convoy system composed of galleons. Trade from

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Europe passed to fortified ports in the Caribbean and along the American mainland.

Although a seemingly endless supply of silver entered Spain, much of it was eventually exported to pay for military service, debts, and a negative balance of trade. Importation of American bullion contributed to sharp inflation in first Spain, then the rest of Europe. Spain's control of the silver trade permitted its monarchs to incur massive debts on the security of American bullion.

Spanish: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireConquest involved violence, murder, theft

• Raised moral, philosophical questions• Many scholars justified it as (Sepulveda)

• Bring civilization, Christianity to backward• Conquest of inferior by a superior culture

Spanish missionaries introduced Catholicism • Mission schools and churches established • Missionaries recorded languages, traditions• Catholic Church attracted many converts• Church taught Indians skills: farming, herding• Church became protector of Indians

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Spanish: Social Structure of Colonial Empire• Decline of Indian Population by 1750

• Drops from 125 million to 5 million• Caribbean Indians disappeared• Mexico: from 22 to 2 million by 1580• Peru: from 10 to 1.5 million by 1590• Diseases: smallpox, influenza, measles

• Results• Whole areas abandoned• Indian traditions, social norms questioned • Economic structures collapse

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• 1550: Spanish King calls commission to investigate• Bartolome de las Casas spoke against Sepulveda• Defended Indians, their lives, conquest unjustified• Crown backs de las Casas but conquest too much wealth to

ignore• Crown orders worst abuses halted• Takes direct control of colonies, creates royal government

• African Slaves • Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

crops• In Spanish and Portuguese settlements, mestizo societies emerged

• Peoples of varied ancestry lived together under European rule • Peninsulares were European born who dominated government,

society• Creoles were American born Europeans who ran economy, few

rights • Mestizo: Mixed descent of Spanish and Portuguese men, native

women • Many distinctions based on color, heritage• Society of Brazil more thoroughly mixed: mestizos,

mulattoes, zambos • Typical social and racial hierarchy in Iberian colonies

• Strict hierarchy• Whites (peninsulares and criollos) owned the land and held the

power • Mixed races (mestizos and zambos) performed much of the

manual labor • Africans and American natives were at the bottom

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Spain and Portugal were heavily urbanized, a characteristic these nations exported to the New World. Spanish and Portuguese colonists, though commoners at home, often attempted to remake themselves as a colonial elite with Indians as their serfs. Households were patriarchal, a trait carried over to the plantation economy of Latin America. The Spanish state depended on a professional bureaucracy and was closely tied to the Church. Plantation agriculture based on slave labor, already established on the Atlantic islands, was readily transported to the Americas.

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Spanish: InteractionsColumbus and Successors

• Early Successes • Arrive Bahamas, Hispaniola• Built fort of Santo Domingo• 1511: controlled Cuba, Puerto Rico• 1520: controlled Lesser Antilles

Catholic Church and Royal Government were allies• Church often functioned as a branch of the government

• Established churches, schools in towns, frontier areas• Ran many of the social, intellectual activities of the

colonies• Catholic orders converted the Indians

• Settled the Indians in protected missions• Introduced farming, herding, industry to Indians

Crisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• French seize Santo Domingo, some lesser Antilles, Mississippi Valley

• English seize Jamaica, Bahamas, some lesser Antilles, E. North America

• Dutch seize Aruba, other lesser Antilles• Failure of Spanish central administration to control colonies• Decline of Spanish industry, merchants, treasure fleets

Pacific Islands• Spain and the Pacific

• Pacific had been a Spanish possession until 19th century (Philippines, Micronesia)

• Spanish yearly shipments of silver from Mexico to China ended in 1812

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Spanish: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

► Church stimulates intellectual growth Needs artists, architects to build, beautify churches Printing presses tended to do mostly Church business First universities (Mexico City, Lima) organized, run by clergy

► Produced bureaucrats for empire, clergy for church► First universities in the Americas before Yale, Harvard

Sister Juana Ines de la Cruz► Mexican poet, musician, author, social thinker► Joined Church and became great theologian and social

thinker

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Spanish: Nature Of the Colonial Empire• Europeans replace Native

• Flora, fauna, cultural norms replace Indian• Farmers, ranchers take over Indian lands• Sheep, horses, cattle, crops replace Indians, varieties• European culture seen as superior – it won, we should adopt it

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Holland: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies

• North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-

government• The Dutch had no patience for democratic institutions. The point of

the colony was to enrich its stockholders.

• Slavery was common during the Dutch era, as the DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY was one of the most prominent in the world's trade of slaves.

• Dutch national identity emerged during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially in the struggle for independence from Catholic Spain during the Eighty Year War (1568–1648). The Dutch people received independence from the House of Habsburg in the Treaty of Munster in 1648. The Netherlands was temporarily unified with Belgium after the Congress of Vienna. The Catholic Belgian elite sought its freedom from the Protestant Dutch, and Belgium became independent in 1839.

• y. Dutch national identity emerged from the struggle for political sovereignty and religious freedom from the Catholic Habsburgs (Philip II). The Dutch merchant class formed an alliance with the House of Orange; the merchants supplied the funds to wage war, while the House of Orange provided political stability and military protection. Politics became more dependent on consensus and negotiation than on authoritarian rule as power rested in the hands of provincial viceroys.

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Holland: Economic Structure of Colonial EmpireDutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India) South Africa

• Settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century • By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African

population "Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies

empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule

Joint-stock companies • Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies• Organized commerce on a new scale • Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands

English, French, Dutch create smaller empires on fringes• Caribbean holdings more profitable than North American colonies• Caribbean islands and Southern American colonies

Export sugar, rice, tobacco, cotton, indigo rice Dominated by slaves, plantations; relied on importation of

Africans for labor

The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the second multinational corporation in the world (the British East India Company was founded two years earlier) and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the first mega-corporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.

Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in the Asia trade. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted for their efforts more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. By contrast, the rest of Europe combined sent only

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882,412 people from 1500 to 1795, and the fleet of the English (later British) East India Company, the VOC’s nearest competitor, was a distant second to its total traffic with 2,690 ships and a mere one-fifth the tonnage of goods carried by the VOC. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century.

Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malaccan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the port city of Batavia (now Jakarta). Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory.

It remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years.

Weighed down by corruption in the late 18th century, the Company went bankrupt and was formally dissolved in 1800, its possessions and the debt being taken over by the government of the Dutch Batavian Republic. The VOC's territories became the Dutch East Indies and were expanded over the course of the 19th century to include the whole of the Indonesian archipelago, and in the 20th century would form Indonesia.

Holland: Religious Structure of Colonial Empire

The Netherlands has for centuries provided a safe haven for ethnic minorities fleeing from discrimination and persecution, with each minority influencing Dutch culture in its own way. Many Jews from Spain and Portugal and Protestant merchants from the Spanish-ruled southern Netherlands sought refuge in the Dutch Republic in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

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Holland: Social Structure of Colonial Empire• North American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words, ideas of nature

•

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Holland: Interactions• Relations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Crisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• Dutch seize Aruba, other lesser AntillesThe Dutch Empire comprised the overseas territories controlled by the Dutch Republic and later, the modern Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire, but based on military conquest of already-existing Portuguese and Spanish settlements, and not on discovery and

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colonization. For this, they were aided by their skills in shipping and trade and the surge of nationalism accompanying the struggle for independence from Spain. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, via the Dutch East and West India Companies. Dutch exploratory voyages such as those led by Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and Abel Tasman revealed to Europeans vast new territories.

The rapid expansion of the Dutch merchant fleet enabled the establishment of a worldwide network of trade relations that created naval dominance and increasing wealth for the merchant class. Handicapped by a small population (670,000 inhabitants in 1622) and besieged by growing English and French might, the Dutch Republic began to decline. Paradoxically, at that time, the conspicuous consumption of the wealthy merchant class

Holland: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

23

Holland: Nature of the Colonial Empire • Holland & Sweden: New York, Pennsylvania-Delaware• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

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Crops such like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco and rubber were all introduced by the Dutch. The Dutch were the first to start the spread of the coffee plant in Central and South America, and by the early 19th century Java was the third largest producer in the world. In 1778 the Dutch brought cacao from the Philippines to Indonesia and commenced mass production. Currently Indonesia is the world's second largest producer of natural rubber, a crop that was introduced by the Dutch in the early 20th century.

Tobacco was introduced from the Americas and in 1863 the first plantation was established by the Dutch.

France: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire

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• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies • North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-

governmentDirect rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model

• justified by "civilizing mission" • hard to find enough European personnel• however, in practice, implementation was always a bit

superficial; at best, Africans and ‘traditional’ authorities were used only at the very bottom rung of the administration. They were subordinate cogs in the bureaucracy for carrying out policies which were developed by expatriate French officials with no real consultation with Africans.

• African societies were carved up into ‘cantons’ (districts) and chiefs who were not adequately efficient or subservient were deposed and replaced, often with little regard for traditional status. The Kingdom of Dahomey, which would have been an ideal candidate under the British system of ‘indirect rule’, was completely dismantled and no significant members of the royal family were employed by the colonial administration.

• advisory councils were started in each level of the bureaucracy (supposedly to provide knowledge about African law and custom), but they had no power and not much influence.

• in effect, there was a dual legal system set up—French law for whites, métis, African residents of Saint-Louis and the few Africans in West Africa who were naturalised ‘citoyens’; ‘sujets’ were subject to a system called justice indigène.

• in spite of the name it was not a real attempt to preserve or revive African law or justice; instead French administrators, assisted by African assessors, dispensed civil and criminal justice ostensibly according to African law, but mostly according to what the white official decided was African law or more usually, according to what he thought was natural justice. Of course, this produced a great deal of variation in the law and its administration.

• there was little machinery or penal provisions to curb an administrator; there were few appeals from his decisions

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except that he could not execute on his own authority (however, he presented the evidence to his superiors so usually he could get his decision confirmed).

• in addition, there was a system called indigénat which in fact allowed administrative tyranny; governors could define certain offences by decree, and persons could be tried summarily by local administrators.

• also, very heavy obligations were placed on the African population by the colonial administration

• Prestation—12 days of free labour (or its money equivalent) for public works and purposes.

• Compulsory or forced labor paid at very low rates (conscription of labor).

• Conscription in wartime.• Money taxes (as was frequently the case in Africa)

were designed to force Africans to grow export crops or go out to work (we shall return to discuss this further).

• in practice, ‘association’ brought a greater degree of authoritarianism. It provided a rationale for withholding rights which were taken for granted in France (freedom of the press, trade unions, free speech etc) from African ‘sujets’. There was no development of these rights in Francophone areas of Africa before 1945. This was a sharp contrast with British colonies.

• curiously, this situation did not change during the Popular Front gov’t (made up of centre and left parties) in the 1930s. In fact, there seems to have been a division. Even under republican gov’ts (including those left of centre), the colonies were under much more control by the military and conservative elements. While separation of church and state was being pushed in France, the colonial administrations in Africa were deep partners with missionaries.

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France: Economic Structure of Colonial EmpireThe fur trade was very profitable

• Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans• Hudson Bay Co. (England) and French dominate trade from

Canada New England, Mid Atlantic, Canadian Atlantic small farms

• Rich investors, aristocrats acquire best lands downriver, near coast

• New York, Southern colonies tended towards larger estates, plantations

• Cultivation of cash crops—grain, tobacco, rice, indigo, and later, cotton

Economic Structure: mostly trading and gaining natural resources such as fish and lumber; in Haiti a plantation system did develop with use of slave labor

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France: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireFrench and English missions less successful than Spanish

• North American populations not settled or captive • English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous

peoples • French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest

success• Jesuits, Franciscans successful with Iroquois, S. American

Indians

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France: Social Structure of Colonial EmpireNorth American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis

• English disdainful of interracial marriages, going “native” • Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words,

ideas of natureReestablish European feudal, aristocratic society often including cattle

• Indentured labor flocked to North America in 17 th and 18 th centuries

• Many came to Americas as a way to work off passage • After contract over, stake own land claims in backwoods

(Irish, Scotts)African slaves replaced indentured servants in late 17th century

• Slaves not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)

• New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum

Social Structure: not as defined as Spanish and Portuguese; mostly male settlers to conduct business; not a large French population living in colonies

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France: InteractionsRelations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Impact of the fur trade

• Environmental impact • Conflicts among natives competing for resources• Many Indian wars especially as Iroquois came to dominate

Great LakesCrisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

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• French seize Santo Domingo, some lesser Antilles, Mississippi Valley

French and Indian Wars• English, French contest for North America

• British government forced to pay for defense• Many burdens, deprivations fell on colonists

• Resulted in the loss of colonies by French

France: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

32

France: Nature of the Colonial Empire• Foundation of colonies on east coast, exploration of west coast

• France, England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in early 17th century

• Settlements suffered isolation, food shortages• France: St. Lawrence Valley, Mississippi Valley, Great Lakes

Region• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

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Established colonies in North America and the Caribbean: Canada, Haiti

Great Britain: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire• Colonial government different from Iberian colonies

• North American colonies controlled by private investors • Little royal financial support except protection, taxation• Royal authority/governors, but also institutions of self-government

English needed colonists to pay for local defenses• Created a series of taxes, rules to raise funds• Colonists resented, resisted

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• Colonists demand representation or no taxation• Colonists favored free trade, opposed mercantilism• English react by basically repealing English Bill of Rights

Americans began to resent distant control• Local born Americans demand greater say in their own future• Urban riots, boycotts over foreign controls• Tax revolts• Slave revolts not uncommon• Revolts against mercantilist policies, controls

• Spanish: tobacco, liquor, taxes led to Comunero Revolt in 1781• Tupac Amaru led Indian revolt in Peru in 1783• Lead up to the American Revolution: many Acts and then actual

rebellion The British empire in India

• Company rule under the English East India Company • EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest

of India in 1750s • Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay • Ruled with small British force, Indian troops called sepoys • Sepoy Rebellion, 1857: attacks on British led to reprisals

• British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858 • British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India • British appointed viceroy, ran all domestic, foreign policy • Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions

South Africa • British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished

slavery in 1833 Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model

• worked best in African societies that were highly organized • assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed

Australia and New Zealand• Both became settler colonies in the Pacific • 1770, Captain Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for

settlement • 1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South

Wales • Became a penal colony after loss of Georgia in American

Revolution• 1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to

Australia

Great Britain: Economic Structure of Colonial EmpireThe fur trade was very profitable

• Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans

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• Hudson Bay Co. (England) and French dominate trade from Canada

New England, Mid Atlantic, Canadian Atlantic small farms• Rich investors, aristocrats acquire best lands downriver, near

coast• New York, Southern colonies tended towards larger

estates, plantations• Cultivation of cash crops—grain, tobacco, rice, indigo,

and later, cottonEconomic restructuring of India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

• Introduction of commercial crops: tea, coffee, opium • Built railroads, telegraph lines, canals, harbors,

irrigation"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies

• empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads • made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian

Congo • unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule

36

Great Britain: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireFrench and English missions less successful than Spanish

• North American populations not settled or captive • English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous

peoples • French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest

success• Jesuits, Franciscans successful with Iroquois, S. American

Indians

37

Great Britain: Social Structure of Colonial EmpireNorth American societies

• Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within own groups

• Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis

• English disdainful of interracial marriages, going “native” • Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes, words,

ideas of natureReestablish European feudal, aristocratic society often including cattle

• Indentured labor flocked to North America in 17th and 18th centuries

• Many came to Americas as a way to work off passage• After contract over, stake own land claims in backwoods

(Irish, Scotts)African slaves replaced indentured servants in late 17th century

• Slaves not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)

• New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum

38

Great Britain: InteractionsRelations with indigenous peoples in North America

• Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples

• Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties • Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages • Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from

settlers• France actually got along very well with native populations • Between 1500 & 1800, native population of North America

dropped 90%Impact of the fur trade

• Environmental impact • Conflicts among natives competing for resources• Many Indian wars especially as Iroquois came to dominate

Great LakesAfrican Slaves

• Africa had an overabundance of exportable labor• Europeans diverted slaves to Atlantic Coast• Slaves gradually introduced to Brazil, Caribbean• Slavery spread to coastlines of the Caribbean• Slaves used in plantation economies producing exportable cash

cropsCrisis of the 18th Century: Shifting Balance of Trade and Politics

• Spanish model outmoded, Spanish hold on Americas not secure• Increasing wars, competition from Northern Europeans

• English seize Jamaica, Bahamas, some lesser Antilles, E. North America

War of Spanish Succession: First World War! • Last Hapsburg king dies, sparks war• Empire willed to French king

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• English, Dutch refuse to accept agreement• French obtain Spain, colonies but lose much• English merchants to operate out of Seville• English to supply slaves to Spanish Americas (asciento)• English even get to send one ship a year to Americas to collect

silverIndia: Did not interfere with Indian culture, religion

• Established English-style schools for Indian elites • Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, (sati)

Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia • "Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in

central Asia • By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers

of British India • Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never

colonized Afghanistan • Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991

Great Britain: Arts, Sciences, TechnologiesNew technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

Enlightenment ideas spread amongst colonists, local notables

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Great Britain: Nature of the Colonial Empires• Foundation of colonies on east coast, exploration of west coast

• France, England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in early 17th century

• Settlements suffered isolation, food shortages• England: Atlantic Seaboard, St. James Bay (Hudson’s Bay)• Caribbean: owned sugar islands earning more than N. America

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Russia: Political Structure of the Colonial Empire

Peter the Great reorganised his government on the latest modern models, molding Russia into an absolutist state. He replaced the old boyar Duma (council of nobles) with a nine-member Senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the Senate that its mission was to collect tax revenues. In turn tax revenues tripled

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over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the Holy Synod, led by a lay government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed, and Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.

Russia: Economic Structure of Colonial Empire

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Russia: Religious Structure of Colonial EmpireAutocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism

Official government policy to uphold conservatism Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change

everywhere

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Russia: Social Structure of Colonial Empire

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Russia: InteractionsCollapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power

Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria)

Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe

Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia Expands into Central Asia, Pacific

Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire,

Austria in Balkans Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea Hoped to seize control of Constantinople

War against the Ottoman Empire• Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe,

Caucasus• Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian

influence• Crimean War 1853 - 1856

France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905• Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan• Japanese attack Russia without warning• Defeat two Russian fleets, armies• First defeat of a European by an Asian power• Japan emerges as a world military power

Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia • "Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in

central Asia • By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British

India • Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized

Afghanistan • Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991

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Russia: Arts, Sciences, Technologies► New technologies help Europeans travel offshore

New types of ships Advance, sail against wind

► Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (and cross and back staffs)

► Knowledge of winds and currents Enabled Europeans to travel reliably

Russia: Nature

Peter's first military efforts were directed against the Ottoman Turks. His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at Archangel on the White Sea, whose harbor was frozen for nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden, resulting in the Great Northern War. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There he built Russia's new capital, Saint Petersburg, to replace Moscow, which had long been Russia's cultural center.

According to the 1st article of the Organic law, the Russian Empire was one indivisible state. In addition, the 26th article stated that "With the Imperial Russian throne are indivisible the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Principality of Finland". Relations with the Grand Principality of Finland were also regulated by the 2nd article, "The Grand Principality of Finland, constituted an indivisible part of the Russian state, in its internal affairs governed by special regulations at the base of special laws" and the law of June 10, 1910.

In 1744–1867 the empire also controlled the so-called Russian America. With the exception of this territory (modern day Alaska), the Russian Empire was a contiguous landmass spanning Europe and Asia. In this it differed from contemporary, colonial-style empires. The result of this was that while the British and French Empire declined in the 20th century, the Russian Empire kept a large proportion of its territory, firstly as the Communist Soviet Union, and latterly as part of the present-day Russian Federation.

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Furthermore, the empire at times controlled concession territories, notably the port of Kwantung and the Chinese Eastern Railway Zone, both conceded by imperial China, as well as a concession in Tianjin.

Russia: Nature of the Colonial Empires

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It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from Eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.

Spanish: Social Structure of Colonial Empire

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Economics: British – Spanish – French – Dutch -

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Economics: Spain

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Economics

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Nature: Spanish and Portuguese

Nature

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Nature

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Nature: Colonial Imperialism in Central and Southeast Asia

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