Advances in Dental Anthropology, pages 179-202O L991 Wiley.Liss, Inc.

10Dental Caries Evidence for Dietary Change:

Clark Spencer Larsen, Rebecca Shavit, and Mark C. Griffin

Antlvopolagy Secaon, Department of Sociology and" ArftJvopolog1, Pwdue University, West l-afayette, Indiana 47907(C.S.L., M.C.G.); Departmentof Anthropolag, NartfurnlllinoisUniqtersity, DeKalb, IlUnoa 601 15 (R.S.)

An Archaeological Context

INTRODUCTIONThe study of pattern of health and lifestyle from

human dentition has been an important area of inves-tigation throughout much of the history of dental an-

thropology. In this regard, the analysis of patholog-ical processes in enamel, its underlying tissue, and

the associated bone supporting the teeth has provedof immense value in understanding the relationshipbetween diet and dental health (Huss-Ashmore et &1.,

1982; Goodman et &1., 1984; Larsen , 1987a). It is thepurpose of this chapter to present findings on dia-chronic change in the prevalence of dental caries inarchaeological populations by way of study of a welldocumented series from the Southeastern UnitedStates, especially with relation to dietary reconstruc-tion and behavioral inference.

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Contrary to what is presented in much of the an-

thropological literature, dental caries are not lesionsarising from invasion of the crown or root surface bymicroorganisms. Rather, dental caries is a diseaseprocess charactenzed by the focal demineralizationof dental hard tissues by organic acids produced bybacterial fermentation of dietary carbohydrates, es-

pecially sugars (Newbrun, 1982; Larsen , 1982,1987 a). Although the distinction between the lesionsand the process leading to their appearance and de-

velopment may seem minor, it is, nevertheless, &o

important one.

The factors involved in this disease are multipleand can be divided into two general groups: essentialfactors and modifying factors. Essential factors in-clude ( 1) teeth that have surfaces exposed to the oralenvironment; (2) presence of aggregates of complex

indigenous oral bacterial flora (e.9., Streptococcusmutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus), salivary glyco-proteins, and inorganic salts that adhere to the toothsurfaces (dental plaque); and (3) diet. Modifying fac-tors include those that affect primarily site distribu-tion and speed of carious lesion development (Rowe,197 5). Observations on modifying factors in partic-ular have resulted in a better understanding of thedisease process. These factors include, but are notlimited to, tooth crown morphology and size, devel-opmental enamel defects, occlusal surface attrition,food texture, certain systemic diseases, ag% hered-ity, salivary composition and flow, nutrition, peri-odontal disease, enamel elemental composition, andpresence of fluoride and other local geochemical fac-tors (see Rowe , I97 5; Leverett, 1982; Milner , 1984;Schneider, 1986; Powell, 1985; Larsen, 1987a; Cal-cagno and Gibson, 1988; Hildebolt et tl., 1988,1989)" The genesis of dental caries is very closelytied to a complex interaction of both essential andmodifying factors, making it important that they beunderstood in documenting the etiology of the dis-ease process.

The ultimate consequence of the disease is cavita-tion, and if left unchecked, pulpal disease. In ex-treme cases, the purulent infection from a carioustooth may extend into the cavernous sinus with deathresulting (Haymaker, 1945). Although the frequencyin human populations of the fatal consequences ofthis and other dental infections is unknown, it under-scores the potential selective nature in human popu-lations (see Chapter 5, this volume).

BRIEF HISTORY OF STUDYThe study of dental caries has a long history re-

flected as a copious literature documenting its prev-

180 Larsen et a[.

alence in human populations. The first systematic

study of hurnan dentitions involving geographical

and chronological control was by J.R. Mummery

(1870). In an examination of more than 1,600 den-

titions housed in various museum and private collec-

tions, Mummery was among the first to document a

temporal ffend for increase in frequency of carious

lesions, particularly in recent, complex societies

compaled with earlier populations. Mummery related

the increase in cariogenesis to an increase in demand

on the human brain during the first seven yea$ of

life, a period of time that colresponds to the devel-

opment of the dentition. Mummery "feared that a

large amount of dental disease is originated by over-

taxing the active brain of the child" (1870: 73)'He

concluded:

May we not therefore reasonably suppose that

through the diminished vitality consequent upon

this diversion of the formative energy from the

teeth, by premature mental exertion, these organs

necessarily become degenerated; and that this cir-

cumstance constitutes one great difference be-

tween the teeth of the intellectual and those of the

uncultivated families of man (1870: 73)'

Since the time of MummefY, it has become clear

that psychological factors probably play little if any

role in cariogenesis. At least since the late nineteenth

century, the resealch agenda has been largely domi-

nated by dietary and other oral environmental factors

in the interpretation of caries prevalence. In this re-

gard, considerable research has been done on the

effects of dietary change on teeth. Most importantly,

various workers have documented a trend for an in-

crease in dental decay with the introduction of car-

bohydrates in general and sugal in particular (e.9.,

sucrose) in both recent populations (e.9., Oranje et

al. , 1 935-37; Price , 1936;Russell et al ., 1961; May-

hall , lg70; Mellanby and Mellanby, 1951) and in

extinct (archaeological) populations (e.g., Colyer,

1922; Leigh, lg25; Stewart , 1931; Goldstein, 1948;

Brothwell, l'J15g; Hardwick, 1960; Brinch and Mgl-

ler-Christiansen, 1949; Lunt, 1974; Moore and Cor-

bett, lg7I, 1973, 1,975; Corbett and Moore, 1976;

Buikstra, 1"977; Turner, 1979; Manchester' 1983;

Milner, 1984; Powell, 1985; and many others).

The anthropological community has been most

concerned with the implications of diet in under-

standing the disease and identifying specific cario-

genic foods. The remainder of this chapter addresses

this research topic through the study of a time suc-

cessive series of dentitions from archaeological mor-

tuary sites on the Southeastern Atlantic coast of the

United States. This region provides an excellent con-

text for examining the role of diet and dentatr caries,

because it is well documented by archaeological and

ethnohistoric data and by other, independent, ap-

proaches to dietary reconstruction and population

history.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANDDIETARY CONTEXT

Human populations occupied the Southeastern

U.S. Atlantic coastal zone for some 4,000 years prior

to the arival of Europeans in the sixteenth century

(Thomas et al., 1978; Larsen, 1982; Milanich and

Fairbanks, 1980). This area is part of the Georgia

Bight, a large embayment that is dominated by aseries of marsh and barrier islands extending from

North Carolina to northern Florida (Fig. 1)" Today,

the estuarine and marine resources are reputed to be

among some of the richest in the world; all available

archaeological evidence indicates that native popula-

tions in the region relied heavily on these resources

(Reitz, 1988). Additional evidence indicates that

hunting of deer, smaller mammals, birds, and other

animals, as well as collection of plants were impor-

tant aspects of subsistence activities. Hunting, how-

ever, appears to have been secondary to use of ma-

rine resources for the acquisition of animal protein

(e.g., fishes and invertebrates) (Reitz, 1982, 1988).

During the twelfth century AD, concomitant with

the appearance of temple mounds and other evidence

of greater social complexity (e.g., the Irene Mound

site), there is an increase in number, size, and dura-

tion of habitation sites suggesting a population in-

crease (Larsen , 1982, 1984). Despite the rather mea-

ger botanical evidence for the use of cultigens (see

Larsen, L98};Thomas, 1987; Reitz, 1988), horticul-

ture appears not to have played as an important role

in the Georgia Bight as in inland areas, and it is

doubtful that cultigens replaced wild animal foods "

Although cultigens were used to a lesser extent on

the coast than in inland areas, a number of changes

seen in human skeletal remains in the region suggest

that they were important in late prehistoric societies

in the region. For example, there is an increase in

nonspecific as well as specific infections (Larsen,

1981, 1982, 1984; Powell, 1987), reduction in fre-

quency of osteoarthritis, and decline in skeletal ro-

busticity and bone strength (Larsen , 1982, 1984;

Ruff et al., 1984; Larsen and Ruff, n.d')'The Spanish colonial efforts and the establishment

of mission outposts in particular during the sixteenth

Fig. l. Map of Georgia Bight showing study area(shaded).

and seventeenth centuries saw profound social, cul-tural, and biological changes for native populations,

but the specific details are not well understood. Na-tive populations were aggregated into centralized vil-lages associated with mission centers (Hann, 1988).

Given the function of some of the missions as crop-

producing centers used to help feed the distant pop-

ulation of St. Augustine, the capitol of La Florida,one would suspect that there was an increase in em-phasis on plant cultigens, especially maize. How-ever, because of a number of problems-sampling,preservation, and other issues-the traditional ar-

chaeological sources of evidence for dietary recon-

struction are not clear on this point.Analysis of nitrogen and carbon isotopic compo-

sition by Schoeninger and co-workers (1990) has pro-

vided an independent source of data for interpreting

181

dietary change in the precontact and contact periodpopulations from the Georgia coast. They have foundthat marine resources are consumed throughout theprehistoric record and into the contact period. How-ever, marine foods and nonmarine plants (and pre-sumably the animals such as deer that ate these

plants) are partly replaced with terrestrial foods, es-pecially rnaize. This replacement occurs late in pre-

history and is further magnified in the contact period.Below, we detail the impact of these dietary changes

on the dentition, especially as it relates to changingcaries patterns reflecting the cariogenic componentof past diets.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hurnan dentitions from different subsistence re-gimes and time periods were examined from a single

culture group known as Guale (pronounced "wal-lie"). Before European contact, the Guale occupied

the area that extends from the North Edisto River tothe lower Satilla River in southern Georgia (Jones,

1978). In 1566, a series of Spanish missions were

established in the region and, except for several na-tive revolts, they remained occupied by both nativepopulations and Spaniards until late in the seven-

teenth century (Thomas et tL.,1978; Thomas, 1987).The principal northern Spanish outpost on the Atlan-tic coast-,Santa Catalina de Guale-was abandonedin 1680 and subsequently reestablished on SapeloIsland to the south (Bushnell, 1986). Continued ha-rassment by nonmissionized Indians, pirates, and

British military forced yet another relocation to Ame-lia Island just south of the present Georgia-Floridaborder (Bushnell, 1986).

For purposes of this analysis, the dental samplerepresentative of this succession of populations was

divided into four subsamples, including precontactpreagriculrural (1000 BC-AD 1150; n- 201 individu-als), precontact agricultural (en 1150-1550; n- 215

individuals), early contact (ep 1607-T680; n- 324individuals), and late contact (ao 1686-1702; n : 95

individuals) (Table 1). The precontact dentitionswere recovered from a number of morruary localitieson the Georgia coast (Larsen, 1982); the early con-

tact period is represented by dentitions from Santa

Catalina de Guale on St. Catherines Island, Georgia(Larsen, 1987b); and the late contact period is rep-resented by dentitions from the descendent popula-tion, Santa Catalina de Guale de Santa Maria onAmelia Island, Florida (Larsen and Saunders, 1987).

The study used lI ,57 4 teeth from 895 individuals.For each tooth, all surfaces were observed macro-scopically for carious lesions. These lesions ranged

Dental Caries and Diet

182

TABLE l. Dental

Larsen et al.

Sarnples fnom Georgia and Florida Coasts

Subsample DatesIndividualsu

(n)Teeth

(n)

Prec ontact PreagnculturalPrecontact AgriculturalEartry ContactLate Contact

1000 BC-AD 1150AD 1150-1550AD 1607-1680AD 1686-1702

201b275"324d95'

243842603274r602

uSites (number of individuals in parentheses):bEvelyn Plantation (4), Airyort (34), Deptford site (23), Walthour (1), Cannons Point (14), Cedar Grove Mounds (8), SeaIsland Mound (21), Marys Mound (5), Johns Mound (46), Charlie King Mound (11), Cunningham Mound C (3), McleodMound (13), Seaside Mounds (18).

"Creighton Island Mound (l), Low Mound (l), Townsend Mound (2), Deptford Mound (2), Norman Mound (22), KentMound (21), Lewis Creek (14), Red Knoll (4), Oatland Mound (1), Seaside Mound II (2), Irene Mound (205).dsanta Catalina de Guale (324).

"Santa Catalina de Guale de Santa Maria (95).

in size from small pits to total crown destruction. Inextreme instances, crown destruction was accompa-nied by loss of part or most of the tooth root. In thisdiscussion, we report only on the frequency in per-

centage of teeth affected for tooth types.Dental caries is an age-progrcssive process. Thus,

factors of diet aside, skeletal populations with rela-tively greater numbers of older individuals shouldcontain more carious teeth. Therefore, it is importantthat control of age be undertaken in comparativestudies " For the precontact and early contact periods,age at death was estimated on the basis of dentaldevelopment for preadults (Ubelaker, 1984) andfunctional occlusal wear for adults (Miles , 1963).

For the late contact series, greater preservation ofdental and skeletal remains permitted the use of otherstandard age indicators. For the preadults, w€ useddental development for age estimation; for adults, inaddition to functional occlusal wear, we employedcranial suture closure, ffid metamorphosis of thesymphyseal face of the pubis and auricular surface ofthe ilium (Larsen et 41., n.d.). Summary ages foradults were then calculated based on principal com-ponents weighting (cf. Lovejoy et al., 1985; Larsenet al., n.d.).

A number of workers have shown difference incaries prevalence between females and males (e.9.,Burns, 1979; Kelley, 1985; Walker, 1986). There-fore, we report frequency in adults with sexes corn-bined and females and males separately. Gender de-termination was made on the basis of observation ofstandard morphological characteristics-especiallyin the pelvis and the cranium-if key areas of anat-omy were available for study (cf. Buikstra andMielke,1985).

RESULTS

Examination of the results of this analysis indicatethat there is a change in frequency of individualsaffected by dental caries (Fig .2,Table 2). This com-parison includes those individuals with at least onecarious tooth. In comparison of the precontact prea-gricultural and precontact agricultural dentitions,there is about a 50vo increase for the total sample(made up of adult females, males, unsexed, and pre-adults) , a 60Vo increase for females, a 52Vo increasefor males, and a 48Vo increase for preadults.

In comparison of the precontact agricultural andearly contact dentitions, with the exception of themale sample, there is an actual decline in percent ofindividuals affected. The total sample shows a 247o

decline, the females an lSVo decline, and the pre-adults a 26vo decline. Males show a l2vo increase.Comparison of early contact and late contact denti-tions shows that there is a dramatic increase in fre-quency of individuals affected by dental caries: totalsample, 47Vo increase; females, 36Vo increase;males , 24Vo increase; and preadults, 42Vo increase.

Because comparisons of individuals affected bydental caries does not take into consideration missingteeth, a more meaningful comparison is percent ofteeth affected by dental caries for each tooth type (I1 ,

12, C"'M3). Although each tooth type was analyzedseparately, for purposes of this discussion, we havelumped all mandibular and maxillary incisors (I1 +I2), canines (C), premolars (P3 + P4), and molars(Ml + M2 + M3) into these four respective cate-gories (Fig. 3). Data for individual roorh type com-parisons are provided in Table 3. Figure 3 shows thecomparisons of the two precontact and two contact

Dental Caries and Diet 183

$N

IN

P recontact P reag ricu ltu ral

P recontact Agricultural

oq-o

.I

L(tro*

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Total Female Male

Fig. 2. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: total

TABLE 2. Frequency of Individuals (Vo) Affected by Dental Caries"'b

Preadult

sample, female, male, preadult"

Early ContactLate Contact

PP PA EC LC 2d

X

(p<0.0s)n' VoVoVo

Total sampleFemaleMalePreadult

20r754936

9.0r0.76.10.0

215108

8056

58.969.458.748.2

3243927

101

34.85r.270.322.7

9531

3528

82.r87.094.264.2

PP/PA,PA/EC,EC/LCPP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,PA/EC,EC/LC

'Includes individuals with at least one carious lesion.bPP, Precontact Preagricultural; PA, Precontact Agricultural; EC, Early Contact; LC, Late Contact.

"Number of individuals observed with at least one tooth present in the maxillary and mandibular dentitions combined.dComparisons showing statistically significant change.

period samples for all teeth. For the incisors, there is

a small, but consistent, increase from the precontact

preagricultural to the precontact agricultural to the

early contact period. For the canines, premolars, and

molars, the pattern revealed is an increase in the

precontact agricultural group, a slight decline in the

early contact period, followed by a dramatic increase

in the late contact sample. Comparison of female

teeth affected by dental caries shows a similar pat-

tern: increase for the incisors from precontact prea-

gricultural through the late contact period; and for the

canines, premolars, and molars, &o increase fromprecontact preagricultural to precontact agricultural,followed by a decrease in the early contact period,

and an increase in the late contact period (Fig " 4,

Table 4). A pattern of increase for the males is shown(Fig. 5, Table 5). Unlike the fernales, males show an

increase in frequency of teeth affected by dental car-

ies in the incisors, canines, and molars. Premolars

are the only tooth category to show a decline in fre-quency. Moreover, although both sexes show an in-crease in frequency of carious lesions, with an espe-

184

80

70

60

20

cially rnarked increase during the late contact period,the increase in males is not as dramatic as that shownin females"

Figure 6 illustrates the sex differences in frequencyof teeth affected by dental caries for each of the foursubsamples. with the exception of a few of the fe-male/male tooth type comparisons, males are gener-ally less affected by the disease process than are fe-males. The most notable exception is early contactmolars. By and large, however, there is a greaterfrequency of carious lesions for females in most ofthe comparisons.

comparison of preadult teeth for each of the fourperiods is shown in Figure 7 and rable 6. with theexception of deciduous incisors, there is a gradualincrease or no change in frequency of teeth affectedby dental caries during the first three periods-pre-contact preagricultural to precontact agricultural toearly contact. This is followed by a jump in fre-quency in the late contact period. The increases arenot as marked as for those discussed previously, butthe differences between frequency of preadult andadult teeth affected by dental caries reflects, ofcourse, the fact that the preadult teeth were not ex-posed to caries promoting factors for as long as adultteeth.

DISCUSSION

Results of this study can be summari zed as fol-lows. First, there is an increase in frequency of in-dividuals and teeth affected by the disease process in

.o50=o'F 40oS30

10

Incisors Canines Premolars Molars

Fig. 3. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: total sample.

the precontact agricultural period relative to the pre-contact preagricultural period. Second, there is aslight decrease in cariogenic activity in the early con-tact sample in comparison with the late contact sam-ple. Third, there is a dramatic increase in frequencyof carious lesions in the late contact period. Fourth,males have fewer carious lesions than females.

Precontact Preagricultural-Agricultural Comparisons

The older the individual, the longer the time thattooth surfaces have been exposed to cariogenic fac-tors. Therefore, older individuals should be more af-fected by the disease than younger individuals. Inreference to archaeological series, some workershave shown a higher frequency of carious teeth inolder age cohorts relative to younger age cohorts(e.9., Manchester, 1983). The increase in the pre-contact agricultural sample may, therefore, simplyreflect an older skeletal series in the agriculturalgroup compared with the preagncultural group.However, examination of age at death profiles (Fig.9) shows that the agricultural group is younger thanthe preagricultural group; the former contains agreater proportion of younger adults than the latter.The difference is statistically significant (Kolmog-orov-Smirnov: p<0.05). Therefore, it is unlikelythat difference in age composition of the two samplescan account for the increase in cariogenesis duringlater prehistory on the Georgia coast.

we believe that a more likely explanation for the

Larsen et al.

TOTAL SAMPLE

N Precontact Preagriculturalfl Precontact AgriculturalI Early ContactINN Late Contact

Dental Caries and Diet

TABLE 3. Frequency (Vo) of Carious Teeth per Tooth Type: Total Sample"

185

PP PA EC LC )cX-

(p<0.0s)Tooth VoToToVonb

MaxillaI112

CP3

P4M1M2M3

dI1drzdCdM1dM2

MandibleI1T2

CP3P4M1M2M3

dIldrzdCdM1dM2

1 13 0.89s 0.0126 0.0r49 0.0r49 0.0188 0.5r93 1.0163 4.9

L2 0.010 0.018 0.026 0"020 0.0

64 0.084 0.0126 0.0136 0.0151 0.0174 1.7r74 3.5r73 2.9

7 0.011 0.019 0.028 0.029 0.0

177 2.3178 2.8244 8.3248 r7 .3255 11.6325 14.8306 r2.5228 13 "6

19 10.518 11.528 0.047 19.149 8.2

164 0.0r97 1.5233 2.6277 5.1251 10.9320 22.9280 24.5248 25.0

9 0.015 0.026 0.056 5.456 5.4

104 3.8126 1.5t70 1.1201 5.420r 4.9245 rO.2234 1 1.1

n5 t7 "7

0.00.00.0

20.07.5

118 1.6r28 4.7r99 1.5250 2.8232 3.4238 13.8228 r5.7188 23 .4

5 20.010 0.02t 0.037 0.046 r5.2

85 18.885 20.092 23.984 29.788 38.686 45.365 66.161 63.9

86 6.997 20.699 24.294 30.882 46.372 68.057 80.755 72.7

29 6.835 5.736 2.743 27.933 33.3

4.34.313.3 EC/LC24"3 PP/PA32.0 EC/LC

PA/EC,EC/LCEC/LCPP/PA,PA/EC,EC/LCPP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILCPP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,ECILC

2323303725

910

2T

2553

EC/LCEC/LCPP/PA,ECILCPPIPA,PA/EC,EC/LCPP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILCPP/PA,PA/EC,EC/LCPP/PA,ECILC

tcrtc

Total 2,438 1 .3 4,260 rl .4 3,27 4 8.0 1,642 34.2 PP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILC

nPP, Precontact Preagricultural; PA, Precontact Agricultural; EC, Early Contact; LC, Late Contact.bNumber of teeth observed for presence or absence of carious lesions. Only teeth with known age at death are included.Teeth with unknown age at death are not included in the log-linear analysis.

"Comparisons that show statistically significant change.

increase in carious lesions is related primarily to the

adoption and progressively increased focus on maize

during the late prehistoric occupation of the Georgia

Bight. It has been established by many others besides

us that maize consumption resulted in an increase indental caries prevalence in New World populations(see Milner, 1984; Larsen, 1987a). Maize contains a

significant amount of sucrose (2-6Vo) and, should

therefore, be considered a cariogenic food (cf. Har-dinge et &1., 1965; Coykendall , 1976)" Moreover,because sucrose is a simple sugar, it is more readilymetabolized by oral bacteria than other, more com-plex carbohydrates.

Milner (1984) has surnmarized published and un-published data on dental caries prevalence amongeastern North American native populations. In thissummary, it was reported that predominantly prehis-

toric and historic populations (Late Woodland, Mis-sissippian, Contact) had 4"5-43 "4Vo carious teeth.By contrast, generally earlier populations practicinghunting/gathering subsistence strategies (Archaic,Early Woodland, Middle Woodland) had 0.4 -7 .8To

carious teeth.

In order to increase the number of samples dis-cussed by Milner (1984), we have examined addi-tional reports discussing frequencies of carious teeth

186

80

70

60

20

from eastern North American sites. Table 7 includesa list of 7 5 archaeological dental samples and percentcarious teeth for each. A graphic representation ofthese data is shown in Figure 8. On the basis of these

comparisons, the dichotomy in frequency of cariousteeth between preagricultural (pre-Late Woodland)and agricultural (post-Middle Woodland) dentitionsis straightforward. That is, only three post-MiddleWoodland sites have less than seven percent cariousteeth, and three pre-Late Woodland samples have)7Vo carious teeth" Our findings from the Georgiaand Florida coasts, then, conform to the trend sum-marized here. That is, populations known to haveinclude d matze as a component of diet (late prehis-toric and contact periods) have generally higher per-centages of teeth (>7Vo) affected by dental cariesthan populations that did not (less than seven per-cent). This trend is apparent despite problems arisingfrom interobserver recording variation and sampleheterogeneity (see also Milner, 1984).

Precontact Agricultural-EarlyContact Comparisons

Why the small decrease in frequency of cariouslesions in the early contact period relative to the pre-contact agricultural period? Like the above, one ex-planation may be related to the age composition ofthe two subsamples used in the analysis. However,comparison of age at death in the two periods showsthat the early contact sample is older than the pre-

|/'50-fao'F 40

()S30

Larsen et al.

Incisors Canines Premolars Moiars

Fig. 4. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: female.

10

contact agricultural period. Thus, &ge of observedindividuals does not explain the slight decrease infrequency of carious lesions in the early contactperiod.

A more important consideration relates to compo-sition of the precontact agricultural sample. That is,most (7 5To) of the individuals in the agricultural pre-contact sample are from the Irene Mound site. TheIrene Mound site is a Mississippian ceremoniavhab-itation center that may contain individuals ingestingrelatively more maize than non-Irene Mound site in-dividuals. The latter include individuals not associ-ated with a Mississippian center but are roughly con-temporaneous with the Irene Mound site.

By way of comparison, 60 .lVo of the Irene Moundsite individuals were affected by dental caries, and47 .lvo of non-Irene Mound site individuals were af-fected by dental caries. This difference is not statis-tically significant (chi-square: p<0.5). Comparisonof these two samples by frequency of teeth affectedby dental caries, however, indicates a statisticallysignificant difference between Irene Mound site andnon-Irene Mound site (chi-square: p<0.005). Thatis, 11.3Vo (366/3217) and 8"0Vo (8411043) of the re-spective Irene Mound site and non-Irene Mound siteteeth were carious. The difference in frequency ofcarious lesions between Irene Mound site and non-Irene Mound site samples might also be explained bydifferent age compositions of the two subsamples ifthe Irene Mound site contains a greater number of

FEMALE

K\N Precontact PreagriculturalI-l Precontact AgriculturalI Early ContactN Late Contact

Dental Caries and Diet

MALE

t5i\ Precontact Preagricultural

I EarlY ContactN Late Contact

187

80

70

60

o50q-o'E 40oS30

20

lncisors Canines Premolars Molars

Fig. 5. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: male.

TABLE 4. Frequency (Vo) of Carious Teeth per Tooth Type: Female"

PP PA EC LC )eX-

(p<0.05)Tooth %oVoVoVonb

MaxillaI1T2

CP3

P4M1M2M3

MandibleI1T2

CP3

P4M1M2M3

Total

48395261

61

737773

3342606576798692

1,0r7

8266

103

100

l14r44r29109

588498

r24135

131

131

rL7

1,,725

0.00.00.00.00.00.00.00.0

0.00.00.00.00.01.3t.21.1

r.2

3.76.0

17.02r.014.416.718.317 .4

0.02.45.18.1

13.926.83l .526.1

15.2

2325374038434232

25274lM3731

3533

553

8.68.05.4

r7 .55.2

20.97.1

12.5

4.00.07.3

11.310.829.020.024.2

12.3

35 3r.438 31.s37 29 "729 34.440 47 "533 51 .529 65.524 79.r

39 7.6M 20.44 29.539 35.833 51 .521 6r.919 84.221 80.9

525 4r.9

EC/LCEC/LCPP/PA,EC/LCPP/PAPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,ECILC

EC/LCEC/LCPP/PA,EC/LCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,EC/LCPP/PA,PA/EC ,EC/LCPP/PA,ECILC

PP/PA,ECILC

aPP, Precontact Preagricultural; PA, hecontact Agricultural; EC, Early Contact; LC, Late Contact.bNumber of teeth observed for presence of absence of carious lesions.

"Comparisons that show statistically significant change.

older individuals than the non-Irene Mound sites.

However, statistical comparison of the age profilesshows that the Irene Mound site sample is consider-

ably younger than the non-Irene Mound site sample

(Kolmogorov-Smirnov: p<0.05). Therefore, it is

highly unlikely that the Irene Mound site sample is

more carious than the non-Irene Mound site samplebecause of differences of age composition.

188

T.A,.BLE 5. Frequency

Larsen et al.

(Vo'l of Carious Teeth per Tooth Type: Male"

PP PA EC LC )cX-

(p<0.05)Tooth nb VoVoVoVo

MaxillaI1T2

CP3

P4M1M2M3

MandibleI1T2

CP3P4M1M2M3

Total

37

31

35

3938464740

15

2442434l474745

617

2.r0.00.00.00.00.00.00.0

0.00.00.00.00.02.r2.12"1

0.6

2r2531

323033

3436

19

2T

2633

33232728

452

394T

49504633

33

35

63 0.058 1.782 4.988 27 .689 r3.494 18.589 13.581 16. 1

58 0.070 r.485 0.093 3.292 8.0100 22.085 r2.998 22.9

r,325 10.9

PA/EC

tt,toPPIPAPP/PAEC/LCPP/PA,ECILC

EC/LCEC/LCECILCEC/LCPP/PA,EC/LCPP/PA,ECILCPP/PA,EC/LC

PP/PA,PA/EC ,ECILC

4.70.06.4

12.513.32r.l29.430.5

5.24.70.06.03.0

30.037 .O

39.2

15.9

12.812"r20"426.030.442.463.657 .r

7.625.022.429.445.478. s90.365.7

36.3

39M4951

M2831

35

&7

uPP, Precontact Preagricultural; PA, Precontact Agricultural; EC, Early Contact; LC, Late Contact.bNumber of teeth observed for presence or absence of carious teeth.

'Comparisons that show statistically signifrcant change.

Interestingly, in both the non-Irene Mound site

dentitions and the early contact dentitions, 8.0Vo ofteeth were affected by dental caries. These data sug-

gest, then, that Irene Mound site individuals may

have had a relatively greater component of maize Ln

their diets than both the contemporary non-Irene

Mound individuals as well as the later early contact

period population. However, study of stable isotopic

carbon and nitrogen compositions suggests that the

early contact population from St. Catherines Island

ingested more maize and less marine foods than the

earlier Irene Mound population. Alternatively, it is

possible that the early contact population had a

higher rate of premortem tooth loss, therefore elim-

inating teeth from observation. Unfortunately, the

generally poor preservation of maxillary and mandib-

ular skeletal elements in the St. Catherines mission

series prevents us from examining this issue in detail.

It is quite possible that other, unknown factors might

be responsible for the similarity in dental caries prev-

alence in the non-Irene Mound and Santa Catalina

series.

Although there is a statistically significant reduc-

tion in frequency of dental carious lesions for all

tooth types combined (I1 + 12 + "' M3) in the early

contact sample relative to the precontact agriculturalsample (chi-square: p<0.05), comparisons for the

individual tooth types shows that most of the differ-ences in the individual tooth type comparisons are

not statistically significant (see Table 3). Most of the

differences shown in the precontact preagricultural/precontact agricultural and early contact llate contact

comparisons are statistically significanto however(see Table 3). We conclude that the reduction in fre-quency of carious lesions from the precontact agri-

cultural period to the early contact period is not ofgreat importance. Rather, the more important change

in frequency of carious lesions occurs prior to Euro-

pean contact with the adoption of maize as well as

late in the contact period.

Early Contact-Late Contact Comparisons

Why the profound increase in carious lesions dur-

ing the late contact period? Perhaps the increase

merely reflects an older population in the late contact

period than in the preceding periods. Indeed, com-

Dental Caries and Diet

Female/Male Comparisons

189

80

7A

60

20

I CPMM I CPMMPrecontact Preagricultural Precontact Agricultural

70

60

50

20

parison of mortality (age at death) profiles for the

four periods shows a clear pattern of change from the

precontact preagricultural to the late contact period(Fig. 9). Comparison of the late contact mortalitycurves shows a generally older population, with a

greater number of individuals in the 35 years and

older cohorts compared with the early contact curve.This difference is statistically significant (Kolmog-orov-Smirnov: pa0.01). Given the presence of a

greater number of older adults in the late contact

I Femaler-1 Male

a50{J

o'F 40oS30

10

I CPMMEarly Contact

I CPMMLate Contact

Fig. 6. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: female/male comparisons.

P recontact Preag ricu ltu ralPrecontact AgriculturalEarly ContactLate Contact

Canines Premolars Molars I Incisors Canines Molars

i oecIDUoUS TEETHPERMANENT TEETH

Fig. 7. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries: preadult.

FSN

IN

torr-.9 40l-$

a\

;30o\

N

10

NN

period sample, one would expect a greater frequencyof carious lesions relative to earlier time periods.

In order to test the hypothesis that the increase incaries experience is not a product of age compositionof the subsamples, we have applied a hierarchicallog-linear analysis to caries experience (presence/ab-

sence of carious lesions) and age at death (ages dis-tributed in four l0-year age classes: 10-19.9, 20-29.9, 30-39.9, 40- 49.9) for the four periods(precontact preagricultural, precontact agricultural,

PREADULT

190 Larsen et al.

TABLE 6. Frequency (%o) of Carious Teeth per Tooth Type: Preadult"

Tooth

Maxilla

PP PA EC LC 2c

X

(p<0.05)no VoVo7oVo

9

8

6

5

419

5

0

2223303725

IIT2

CP3P4M1M2M3

2849475r31

7l5018

915

265656

l313

T6

18

16

302It4

13

l0t22620

l115

T2

T9

t733

2510

7

11

T9

2829

458

0.00.00.00.00.00.00.00.0

0.00.00.00.00.0

0.00.00.00.00.00.0

16.00.0

0.00.00.00.00.0

0.9

3835404532704929

19

18

284749

0.00.00.00.00.02.92.00.0

10.511. 1

0.019.18.2

0.00.00.00.00.0

12.76.05.6

0.00.00.05.45.4

3"9

31

4r4039367542

8

910

2T

2451

394437474l81

462r

7

10

2T

3746

904

0.00.00.00.00.08.00.00.0

0.00.00.0

20.87.8

0.00.00.00.00.01.28.64.7

14.20.00.00.0

15.2

4.3

0.0t2"516 "620.075.052.660.00.0

4.54.3

13.324.332.0

0.00.00.00"0

75.065 "275.00.0

6.85.72"7

27.940.5

20.8

EC/LCEC/LCECILCEC/LCEC/LCEC/LC

rtrcPA/EC,ECILC

dIldrzdCdMldMz

MandibleI1t2CP3P4M1M2M3

dIldrzdCdMldM2

Total 1,006

I2l1

5

7

423

40

2935

364334

436

tcrtaPA/EC,EC/LCECILC

*rtc

PP/PA,ECILC

"PP, Precontact heagricultural; PA, Precontact Agricultural; EC, Early contact; LC, Late Contact.oNumber of teeth observed for presence or absence of carious lesions."Comparisons that show statistically significant change.

early contact, late contact) following statistical pro-cedures outlined by Everitt (1977). This analysis wasapplied to six teeth: maxillary and mandibular rightfirst, second, and third molars. The distribution (pe-riod, age group, frequency) of carious teeth for eachof these teeth is shown in Table 8.

For the simultaneous assessment of the interactionof the three variables (caries, age at death, and period)and their relative importance, hierarchical log-linearmodels were fit to cell frequencies (see Knoke andBurke, 1980)" That is, the logarithm of the expectedcell frequency is written as an additive function ofmain effects and interactions in a manner similar toanalysis of variance models. The three-dimensionalrnodel is expressed in the following equation:

logF,r*: T + L" + L. + Le + L". + L"n + L.n+- L""o

were F jo is the expected value of the observed cellfrequency, T is the "grand mean," and L representsthe main effects of caries (c), age (a), and period (p),the two dimensional interactions between the threevariables, and the three-dimensional interaction, re-spectively. In such a hierarchical model, the presenceof higher order effects (e.g., caries-age-period) im-plies the presence of all lower order effects involvingthe three variables (see Bishop et al. , L975; Fienberg,1977). A test of a particular model involves the com-putation of the expected cell frequencies under thatmodel and uses the likelihood ratio statistic G2 as a

T.ABLB 7. Frequrency of CariousSketretal Series

Dental Caries and Diet

Lesions (%o) in Selected Eastern North

191

Arnerican Archaeological

Site(s)Period/cultural

affiliation %ou Sourceb

Overhill CherokeeSaukRI-1000SilverheelsRipleyKleissKleinburgCartonChristian IslandMaurice OssuaryMiltonOrchidRoebuckShaver HillPine HarborOakwood MoundHardin VillageMadisonvilleAngelCentral Illinois RiverStone QuarryKane MoundsMississippi ValleyLubbubMoundvilleNodenaPowers Phase

CaddoTurpinAnderson VillageVariousSerpent PitsBelcher MoundBentsen-ClarkCaddo sitesSam KaufmanBunolaCampbellVarnerMenands BridgeMcFayden MoundScioto TrailsHatten MoundLibbenBennettGlenn WilliamsMillerMcCutchenSam and Wann sitesFourche MalineMound City

ContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactContactMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianMississippianLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandLate WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle Woodland

14.52.5

32.918.914.627 .940.627.323.327.617 .530.325.028.r8.98.2

32.r34.710.37.8

2r.028.34.5

12.58.6

18.311.525.324.8t3.27.8

10.8ra.714.l43.416.23r.217 .734.222.013.02.2

15.522.430.222.426.47.57.80.13.3

1

1

222

t213

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

l4

467

10

13

2

3

7

911

1,3

13

13

II5

7

(continueA

192 Larsen et al.

TABLE 7. Frequency of Carious Lesions (Vo) in Selected Eastern North American ArchaeologicalSkeletal Series (Continued)

Site(s)Period/cultural

affiliation Vou Sourceb

Schultz FocusLeVesconte MoundDonaldson IISerpent MoundsSurmaCowan Creek MoundGalbreath MoundMcMurray MoundsSidner MoundsDonaldson IMuzzey LakeStratton-WallaceWilliams CemeteryWilliams KameHatten MoundIndian KnollIndian KnollOld Copper sitesDuPontDavisBooseKirian TregliaMcKeeStech Shulte

Middle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandMiddle WoodlandEarly WoodlandEarly WoodlandEarly WoodlandEarly WoodlandEarly WoodlandArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaic

7.26.57.72.67.46.23.03.42.00.06.97.01.1

0.73.40.43.70.42.52.44.33.94.85.7

8T3

13

r313

1

13

677

777

"% (number of carious teethltotal number of teeth) x 100.bSources: l, Milner, 1984;2, Kelley et al., 1987; 3, Wilson, 1986 4, Powell, 1986; 5, Powell, 1985; 6, Perzigian et al.,1984;7, Sciulli and Schneider, 1986; 8, Phenice, 1969;9, Klepinger and Henning, 1976; lO, Andrews, 1934-35; ll,Fanno, 1968; 12, Gillings and Beck, 1967;13, Patterson, 1984;14, Larsen, unpublished data.

measure of fit. The data were analyzed using the

BMDP program 4F (Dixon, 1985).

Table 9 presents the results of log-linear three-wayinteraction analysis for partial association of vari-ables (caries, l9a at death, period). The chi-squarevalues are for the three-way interaction only. None ofthe three-way interactions reaches statistical signifi-cance (p<0.05) indicating, therefore, that there is no

significant three-way interaction between the three

variables. It should be stressed that this analysis isnot synonymous with the test for mutual indepen-dence by use of three-dimensional contingency tables(cf. Zar, 1984:72:14). The test for mutual indepen-dence tests the null hypothesis that there are no in-teractions (either three-way or two-way) among anyof the variables. This stage of the application of log-linear analysis merely examines association in three-way interaction.

Having established that no significant three-wayinteraction is present, a saturated log-linear analysis

was applied to the three variables (caries, period,age at death). All models with at least one two-wayinteraction were considered in addition to the modelof complete independence. Table 10 gives the like-lihood ratio chi-square values, degrees of freedom,and significance for each of the possible models start-ing with the model of complete independence. Vari-able C is the presence/absence of carious lesions,variable P is the period (precontact preagricultural,precontact agricultural, early contact, late contact),and variable A is the age at death (distributed intofour l0-year age classes).

In log-linear analysis, the null hypothesis is anal-ogous to a model as represented by a particular equa-tion. In the analysis, the acceptance of a particularmodel is not simply determined by the significance ofthe test statistic computed for that model. Rather, onemust also consider the difference between the modelsin a given hierarchy. Because a likelihood ratio sta-tistic is also computed for each difference, it can be

L93

PeriodFig. 8. Percentage of teeth affected by dental caries in selected eastern North American archaeological samples. (Each

dot on the vertical bars represents an archaeological dental sample.)

e-+)o.oF

330o

t-l-Go:Oo\

determined if the addition of an interaction term sig-

nificantly reduces the differences between the ob-

served and the expected values.

It has been suggested that dental caries is an age

dependent phenomenon. The samples from the fourperiods exhibit very different age compositions and

frequencies of carious lesions. It has already been

demonstrated that the increase in caries over the fourperiods is not likely related to an increase in age at

death over time. To examine further the relationships

between the variables, all two-way interactions were

included in the hierarchical log-linear analysis and

the differences between models compared.

Table 11 presents the results of the comparisons

among models. For each of the six teeth obsenred,

there is a significant interaction between period and

age at death (difference between models a and b).

There is also a significant interaction between period

and caries (difference between models b and d).

However, only two teeth (maxillary first and second

molars), show a significant interaction between car-

ies and age at death (difference between models b

and c). Furthennore, only one tooth (maxillary firstmolar) shows a significantly better "fit" with the

addition of an interaction between caries and age at

death (difference between models d and e).

Because it is appropriate to choose the simplest

model that adequately fits the observed data, model

d offers a better choice for the maxillary second

and third molars and the mandibular molars. There-

fore, three two-way interactions (caries-age, age-pe-

riod, caries-period) are required to fit a model to the

data for the maxillary first molar, whereas only twotwo-way interactions (age-period, caries-period)

are required for the maxillary second and third mo-

lars . '

This pattern (adding the interaction of caries-age)

may be explained by the difference in age of eruptionfor the permanent molars. Because the frst molar

erupts approximately six years earlier than the second

molar and approximately 12 years earlier than the

third molar, there should be a greater caries-age in-teraction in the first molar than in either the second orthird molars. That is, the first molar is exposed to

caries prornoting factors for a longer period of timethan the other two molars. In this study, the rnandib-

ular frst molar does not seem to adhere to this hy-pothesis. In sum, although there is some age inter-

Dental Caries and Diet

Dental Caries in Eastern North America

ArchaicEar|yMidd|eLateMississippianContactWoodland Woodland Woodland

194 Larsen et al,

Precontact Preagricultural (pp)Precontact Agricultural (PA)Early Contact (EC)Late Contact (LC)

PA

EC

25 30

AGEFig. 9. Mortality comparisons in precontact preagricultural, precontact agricultural, early contact, and late contactgroups.

be\/FJFGOin

='v

action, increasing age at death for the four periodsdoes not explain increase in cariogenic activity.

Female-Male Comparisons

Why the greater number of female teeth affectedby dental caries than male teeth? Like the above com-parisons, it is possible that age at death for females isgenerally greater than age at death for males. How-ever, application of hierarchical log-linear analysis toeach of the two subperiods showing higher preva-lence of carious lesions in females than in males (pre-contact agricultural and late contact) indicates thatthe interaction between the three variables of caries,age, and sex is not significant (Table I2).

Although a review of the anthropological literatureand clinical literature shows little consensus oncauses of gender differences in dental health, includ-ing dental caries prevalence, two areas of interpreta-tion for these differences is most often cited-phys-iological and behavioral. Walker (1986) summarizedthese interpretations and we draw from his discussionbelow.

With regard to physiological factors, it is knownthat female teeth erupt earlier than male teeth, there-fore resulting in a relatively longer exposure to car-ies-promoting factors in them (Dunbar , 1969; DePa-ola et &\., 1982). It has long been thought that

pregnancy compromises dental health, and leads toan increase in periodontal disease and dental caries.Review of the dental literature, however, does notsupport this interpretation (e.g., Ziskin, 1926; Dun-ning , 1962; Toverud et 11., 1952).

various researchers have examined mineral com-position of teeth of pregnant women. No evidencecould be found for gender differences that might beresponsible for differences in the caries experience(e.g., Deakins and Looby , L943; Dragiff and Kar-shan, 1943). A number of workers have shown anincrease in gingival inflammation during the latterpart of pregnancy (.f. Loe and Silness , 1963; Loe,1965; Arafat, 1974), but found no association be-tween this condition and tooth loss. Maier and orban(1949) showed no significant differences betweenpregnant and nonpregnant women in severity of gin-gival inflammation.

Thus, it seems unlikely that physiological differ-ences could explain variation in frequency of dentalcarious lesions between females and males. If phys-iological differences between females and males didexplain variation, it would be expected that a consis-tent pattern of cariogenic variation in all human pop-ulations would exist. Although many populationsshow a higher prevalence of dental caries in femalesthan males (e.g., Hrdlidka, L9I6; Hooton, 1930;

Dental Cades and Diet

TABLE E. Frequency of Carious Teeth (Vo) by Age and Period for Each Tooth

195

Age group

10-19.9 20-29 "9 30-39.9 40-49 "9

Tooth Periodu VoVoVoVonb

MaxillaM1

M2

M3

MandibleM1

M2

M3

PPPAECLC

PPPAECLC

PPPAECLC

PPPAECLC

PPPAECLC

PPPAECLC

15

4I25

7

15

4027

6

10

24L6

3

t74629

6

T9

M31

5

13

31

t73

18

4749

5

L9

4l4

5

L7

3742

4

2l4837

4

2343M

5

2l47M

5

t22326T2

13

222611

10

18

26l2

0.030.415 "458 .3

0.018.223.r72"7

0.033.4t5 "450.0

11

10

515

10

10

610

10

8

4t2

16

10

47

16

l13

10

0.02.40.0

57 .l

0.05.00.0

66.7

0.020.80.0

100.0

0.028.213.8

100.0

5.227.36.4

100.0

7.71,9.3

5.9100.0

0.08.52"0

40.0

0"09"7

t8"280.0

IL.716.223.875.0

0.016.613.550"0

0.018.629 "580.0

t4"32r.331"880.0

16 0"020 25.016 r8.78 50.0

16 0.019 10"526 7.710 80"0

19 0.019 10.528 35 "712 75 "0

0.030.040.033.3

0.010.020.050"0

0.00.0

50.050.0

0"010.050.07I "4

0.09"10.0

80.0

0.00.0

50.050"0

t792

10

uPP, Precontact Preagricultural; PA, Precontact Agricultural; EC, Early Contact; LC, Late Contact.bNumber of teeth observed for presence or absence of carious lesions.

Newman and Snow, 1942; Swiirdstedt, 1966;

Behrend, 1978; Hillson, 1979; Burns, 1979; Turner,1979; Kelley, 1985; Schmucker, 1985; Bennike,

1985; Walker, 1986; Formicola, 1986-1987; Rath-

bun, 1987; Kestle, 1988; see discussions in Larsen,

1983 ,I987a; see also Chapter 11 , this volume), there

are a number of notable exceptions indicating that

this is not a universal pattern (e.9., Barmes, 1962;

Walker and Hewlett, 1990; Burns , 1979, 1982;

Wells, 1980).

As we have established, the increase in frequency

of carious lesions from the preagricultural precontact

period to the late contact period reflects a dietary

change. Because the increase is less marked in

TABLE 9. Three-Dimensional Log-LinearAnalysis: Interaction for Caries, Age, andPeriod (Partial Association)

Tooth D.F. xt

MaxillaM1M2M3

MandibleM1M2M3

14.076.99

15.25

7.989.39

11"03

0.29640.85820.2283

0" 78650.66920.5259

t2t2I2

t2I2t2

196 Larsen et al.

TABLE 10. Log-Linear ^A,nalysis for Caries, Period, and Age

Model Interaction variablesLikelihood ratio

xt (Gt) D.F.

Right maxillary Ml(a)(b)

Right maxillary Mz(a)(b)

(c)(d)(e)

Right maxillary M3(a)(b)

(c)(d)(e)

Right mandibular Ml(a)(b)

(c)(d)(e)

Right mandibular M2(a)(b)

tc) {P} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} {cP}{cP} {cA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {PA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

{c} {P} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} tcP}{cP} {cA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {PA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

{c} {P} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} {cP}{cP} {cA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {PA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

{c} tP} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} {cP}{cP} tcA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {cA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

{c} {P} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} {cP}{cP} {cA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {PA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

(c)(d)(e)

I 12.8169.M92.3269.6949.2148.9526.3314.07

103.2r7r.3089.9848.0034.7858.0816.106.99

79.r9M.2276.9051.8349.544r.9316.86t5.25

106.8970.92

103.1446.7643.0067 .r710.797.98

r39.9393.63

136.4062.r558.6190.1015.859.39

31t927282415

16

T2

31

T9

27282415

16

T2

31

r927282415

16

12

0.00000.00000.00000"00000.00180.00000.04960.2964

0.00000"00000.00000"0r070.07 r70.00000.44620" 8582

0.00000.00090.00000.00400.00160"00020.39480"2283

0.00000.00000.00000.0 r450.00990.00000.82240.7865

0.00000.00000.00000.00020.00010.00000.46360.6692

(continueO

3119

27282415

T6

t2

31

t927282415

T6

t2

(c)(d)(e)

TABLE 10. Log-Linear Analysis

Dental Caries and Diet

for Caries, Period, and Age (Continued)

197

Model Interaction variablesLikelihood ratio

X, (G2) D.F.

Right mandibular M3(a)(b)

{c} tP} {A}{c} {PA}{P} {cA}{A} {cP}{cP} tcA}{cA} {PA}{cA} {PA}{cP} {cA} {PA}

(c)(d)(e)

r04.3460.54

r0t.4259.4756.5457 "6r15.6611.03

0.00000"00000.00000.00050.00020.00000.47680.5259

31

19

27282415

16r2

TABLE 11. Differences Arnong Log-Linear Models

Differencebetween models

Likelihood ratio

X, (G,) D.F.

Right maxillary Ml(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

Right maxillary Mz(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

Right maxillary M3(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

Right mandibular M1(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

Right mandibular M2(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

Right mandibular M3(a) and (b)(b) and (c)(b) and (d)(d) and (e)

43 "3720 "4943.rr12.26

3r.9r13.2255.209.11

34.972.29

27.361.61

35.973.7 5

60. 13

2.8r

46.303.53

77 .786.46

43.802.93

44.884.63

t243

4

t243

4

I243

4

T2

43

4

t243

4

T2

43

4

<0.001<0"001<0"001<0.025

<0.010<0" 025<0.010

n. s.

<0.001n" s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

<0.001n. s.

males, we suggest that males were ingesting a rela-tively smaller proportion of maize than were theirfemale counte{parts. These findings are consistent,

we believe, with the sexual division of labor reportedfor most Southeastern U.S. native populations. Hud-son (1976) and others (see Swanton, 1942, 1946;

198

TABLE 12. Three-Dimensional(Fartial Association)

Larsen et a[.

Log-Linear Analysis: Interaction for Caries, Age, and Sex

Period Tooth D.F. x'Precontact Agricultural

Late Contact

MaxillaM1M2M3

MandibleM1M2M3

MaxillaM1M2M3

MandibleM1M2M3

444

3. 13

r.362.95

0.150.78r.73

1.912.774.46

r.396.7 |4.87

0.53600.85170.5668

0.99720.94100.7852

0"75200.59750.347 6

0.84670 "r52r0.3014

444

444

444

Van Doren, L928) described a strict sexual division

of labor for most activities. Among other activities,

females were responsible for most plant gathedng,

planting and care of crops, and food preparation. Bycontrast, males were responsible for hunting. A case

could be argued for a greater consumption of maize

in that component of the population that is responsi-

ble for its care and preparation for food. That is,

because females care for crops and prepare food,

they would have relatively greater exposure to cari-

ogenesis than males. This interpretation is consistent

with ethnographic accounts whereby individuals in-

volved in hunting (males) receive a relatively greater

proportion of meat than do those individuals not in-

volved in hunting (females) (cf. McArthur, 1960;

Lee, 1968; Woodburn, 1968; Meehan, 1977; Hay-

den, 1979, 1981).

Another behavioral factor is difference in pattern

and frequency of eating between females and males.

In experimental laboratory animals and in humans,

individuals ingesting cariogenic foods frequently

have a higher frequency of carious lesions than indi-

viduals who restrict eating to a few times daily(Gustafsson et &1., 1954; Weiss and Trithart, 1960;

Konig et al., 1969; Konig , 1970; Nizel , 1973; Rowe,

197 5). Because females are primarily responsible forfood preparation in virtually all societies, they have

greater access to caries-promoting foods than do

males, who are not generally responsible for this ac-

tivity. This factor may explain in part the differences

in caries rates between females and males reported byus and by other workers.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of prevalence of dental caries shows a

general increase through time in the Georgia Bight.The increase in frequency of carious lesions first oc-

curs in the last few centuries prior to European con-

tact, probably as a result of the introduction and in-tensification of maize agriculture in the region.Although analysis of isotopic data reveals a furtherincrease in consumption of maize during the earlycontact period, there is a slight decline in frequency

of carious lesions. However, the late contact periodis marked by a dramatic increase in the disease. Mostlikely, this phenomenon reflects yet a further in-crease in focus on plant carbohydrates, namely

maize. These data stroirgly suggest, then, a reorien-

tation of native subsistence prior to and after the es-

tablishment of mission centers by Europeans. The

dietary reorientation was especially drarnatic during

the Spanish mission period. This change in dietary

focus appears to have had a relatively greater impact

on dental health in females than in males in these

populations.

ACKNOWI-EDGMENTS

Support for fieldwork was provided by generous

finding from the Edward John Noble and St. Cathe-rines Island Foundations for St. Catherines Island,

Georgia, and by private contributions from Dr. and

Mrs. George H. Dorion for Amelia Island, Florida.The analysis was supported by grant awards BNS-

8406773 and BNS-8703849 from the National Sci-

ence Foundation" We wish to acknowledge the sta-

tistical advice provided by Jerrold H. Zar, the

Graduate School, Northern Illinois University;Charles E" Stegman, College of Education, NorthernIllinois University; Linda Lucek, Computer User

Services, Northern Illinois University; and Bal-

akrishna Hosmane, Statistical Consulting Labora-

tory, Northern Illinois University. Lisa L. Gosciejew

and Prisca Kolkowski prepared the artwork. The

careful reading of earlier drafts by Katherine F. Rus-

sell, Paul P. Kreisa, Mary Lucas Powell, and George

R. Milner and their suggestions for improvements are

appreciated.

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Advances inDentalAnthropology

Editors

Marc A. KelleyDepartment of Pathology and

Laboratory MedicineSchool of MedicineUniversity of MinnesotaDuluth, Minnesota

Clark Spencef LarsenAnthropology SectionDepartment of Sociology and

AnthropologyPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

U/ILEY-LISSA JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICAIION

NEW YORK r CHICHESTER . BRISBANE . TORONTO . SINCAPORE

l?r,

Contents

Contributors... vii

1. IntroductionClark Spencer Larsen and Marc A. Kelley 1

2. Historical Perspective of Dental AnthropologyAlbert A. Dahlberg 7

3. Scoring Procedures for Key Morphological Traits of the Permanent Dentition:The Arizona State University Dental Anthropology SystemChristy G. Turner II, Christian R. Nichol, and G. Richard Scott . 13

4. What Big Teeth You Had Grandma! Human Tooth Size, Past and PresentC. Loring Brace, Shelley L. Smith, and Kevin D. Hunt 33

5. Selective Compromise: Evolutionary Trends and Mechanismsin Hominid Tooth Size

James M. Calcagno and Kathleen R. Gibson 59

6. The Dental Anthropology of Prehistoric Baluchistan:A Morphometric Approach to the Peopling of South Asia

John R. Lukacs and Brian E. Hemphill . .. . 77

7. Ethnic Differences in the Appo*ionment of Tooth SizesEdward F. Hanis and Ted A. Rathbun . 121

8. Standards of Human Tooth Formation and Dental Age AssessmentB. Holly Smith .. L43

9. Estimating Age From Tooth Wear in Archaeological PopulationsPhillip L. Walker, Gregory Dean, and Perry Shapiro . . 169

10. Dental Caries Evidence for Dietary Change: An Archaeological ContextClark Spencer Larsen, Rebecca Shavit, and Mark C. Grffin . t79

11. Contrasting Patterns of Dental Disease in Five Early Northern Chilean GroupsMarc A. Kelley, Dianne R. Levesque, and Eric Weidl . . . ... 203

12. Dental Disease in Nineteenth Century Military Skeletal SamplesPaul S. Sledzik and Peer H. Moore-Jansen . .. . 215

13. Measurement and Description of Periodontal Disease in Anthropological StudiesCharles F. Hildebolt and Stephen Molnar .. . . 225

vl Contents

14. Physiological, Pulpal, and Periodontal Factors Influencing Alveolar BoneNigel G. Clarke and Robert S. Hirsch . Z4l

15. Abnormal Tooth-Loss Patterns Among Archaic-period Inhabitantsof the Lower Pecos Region, TexasPhilip Hartnady and Jerome C. Rose . . . 26Z

16. Dental Enamel Hypoplasias as Indicators of Nutritional statusAlan H. Goodman and Jerome C. Rose . . .. . . ZZg

17. Anthropological Aspects of Orofacial and Occlusal Variations and AnomaliesRobert S. Comrccini ... . Zg5

18. The Principal Axis Method for Measuring Rate and Amountof Dental Attrition: Estimating Juvenile or Adult Tooth wearFrom Unaged Adult TeethRobert A. Benfer and Daniel S. Edwards . . . . . 325

L9. Dental Microwear: What Can It Tell Us About Diet and Dental Function?Mark F. Teaford .. 34t

20. Teeth as Artifacts of Human Behavior: Intentional Mutilation andAccidental ModificationGeorge R. Milner and Clark Spencer Larsen . . 357

Index ..... 3Zg