Democracy on the African Continent: Colonialism, Tribalism and the Future

Country Focus: Nigeria

Democracy

Is democracy an instrument? A tool for achieving value based goals?

Human rights

Justice

Is democracy dependent on the emergence of stable, diversified economies?

What is the role of an independent civil society?

Status – Liberal Democracy Commitment:

Benin

Botswana

Mali

Madagascar

Mauritius

Namibia

South Africa

Country Status: Economic Reform, Multi-party Elections

Burkina Faso

Kenya

Malawi

Mozambique

Senegal

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Country Status: Development without Democracy

Burundi

Eritrea

Gabon

Gambia

Niger

Ethiopia

Rwanda

Country Status: Collapse

Angola

Cameroon

Chad

Congo

Nigeria**

Sierra Leone

Somalia

Sudan

Economic & Political Liberalization

Is democratization the only solution to systemic political crisis?Are there economic alternatives beyond liberal market economies?Does democracy spring from economic and social pluralism?

For some this is indeed the true explanation for the global spread of democracy.How would these scholars address China?Clearly there is a connection but it is not necessarily causal (Thus, liberal economies may be a necessary condition of democratization but they are clearly NOT sufficient conditions).

Western models applied to Africa?

Western policymakers handicapped by their fundamental misunderstanding of African nations, the conflicts, the needs, wants, demands of citizens.Equivalent to statement “Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy caused the collapse of the Soviet Union”.Democratic formation is not linear.

History and Political Culture: Decolonization and Nationhood“The scramble of Africa”Decolonization and the creation of national borders for independence occurred quickly and according to the convenience of colonial powers.Result is a continent-wide structure of countries whose citizens have little reason to identify with one another (nationhood)

Cultural, economic, environmental, realities were ignoredToday extremely diverse groups of people must co-habit as “citizens”Significant barrier to growth of a common identity (nation)…no “glue”, no common culture.

Civil Society in Africa?The autonomous sphere between the state and the family or individual. This sphere limits governmental action (stops the entropy).Artificial national borders enhance cultural and linguistic disunity…making it virtually impossible for an “autonomous sphere” to emerge.

Some local level groups: age, ethnicity, religion, self-help, local issue groups.No systematic integration of these groups into the economy (subsistence production continues).

Explanation for absence of civil society?

Predatory state in post-colonial era has pushed people out of a broader society.Tribalism, ethnicity, kinship enhanced.These structures are so discrete that they cannot produce a broad base of support for anything => no chance for democracy.Modern tribalism the dominant organizational form in Africa today.

Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Chad, BurundiChronic violence based in tribalism, ethnicity, kinship

Requirements of Democracy – Barriers in Africa

Accountability via communication.

Education, citizen identification of public versus private.

Pro-modernization values.

Africans dispersed in rural communities.

Absence of education, no systematic national identification.

Anti-modernization values (subsistence).

Religion provides social/economic foundation of traditional societies. Differences of faith are not reconcilable. This supercedes government action

and reinforces ethnic/regional cleavages. Extreme poverty keeps other citizens from participation in the political system.

Economic re-adjustment?IMF programs have forced structural adjustment in many African nations.In many cases programs have enjoyed some success but still citizens remain poor, and large numbers of citizens are poorer than before.

Ex: Tanzania 50% of population at $1/day.Conclusion: economic development before democratization?Sources of Africa’s problems? Itself, international community, international trade system (complexity).

Africa and the World

Increasingly marginalized in global economy.

Debt increases with few options for reduction.

International community pushing democracy but not promoting rational economic development, i.e, 50% of a national population cannot stay in poverty if democracy is to stabilize and expand.

Equality of opportunity non-existent.

Personal rule emerged post-independence, lacks institutional foundation.

NigeriaPopulation 120 million

Independence 1960

Democratic transition: 1979, 1989, 1995, 1999

President: Olusegun Obasanjo

Religion: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10% indigenous beliefs

Primary export: oil

Political Culture: Geography and Ethnicity

250 ethnic groups Size of the groups variesGroups are geographically concentrated

Hausa-Fulani (north)Igbo (southeast)Yoruba (southwest)

Political Culture: History1800s dominated by various foreign groups

Goal of occupying groups: extraction of resources and exploitation of people for cheap labor (slave trade)1807-1850 slave trade eliminated; Trade in goods continued

1914-1960 British colonyColonial government inappropriate to Nigerian political situation, i.e., tribal divisionsMore authoritarian approach on the part of British authorities

• One set of rules for the British• Second set of rules for the Nigerians• Consequence is conflicting message about democracy

Democratic institutions Authoritarian political culture

Religion

Religion reflects Muslim/Christian split from north to south

Hausa-Fulani • Islam• Militaristic• Northern region politically dominant

Yoruba • Christian (some Muslims or indigenous belief systems)• Southwest region, part of the commercially dominant south

Igbo• Southeast region, part of the commercially dominant south• Christian

Nigerian Nationalism

Return of freed slavesWorld war II veteransEducated returneesCivil violence experiences

Coups prior to Biafran WarBiafran War coalitionContinued national recruitment by military

Domination of officer corps by elites

Effects of FragmentationNigerians oriented toward political involvement are identified by

Exposure to formal educationInvolvement in modern economy (participant versus subject or parochial orientations)

Pattern of involvement - clientelism Limited legitimacy of oppositionHigh efficacy but low trustPolitical corruption problematicTwo dominant democratic orientations:

Freedom and political accountability

Political SocializationAgents of socialization

Family, nuclear or extended (polygamous in the north)Schools, valued as necessary to advancement (community builders)Language, linguistic pluralismNewspapers, primary source of political information but limited by illiteracyMass media and propaganda – radio critical sourceThe state – launches propaganda UrbanizationReligion

Political RecruitmentPoliticization of the military

Recruitment of officers from university graduatesRecruitment according to ethnic group

Transfer of officer corps after Biafran war1966 independence movement of oil rich eastern region

Leadership of military and professed belief in civilian ruleBacking by administrative classExclusion of strangers

Nigeria and the Niger River Valley