Chapter 1: The BeginningsIntroduction

The modern world began in the first century of 1600, in which America was founded1. Capitalism Came in the First Ships

New England – unfertile soil, Chesapeake – fertile soilPeople flocked to this land because of its promiseThe vast land ruined people’s belief that land was scarce and labor was manyLand brought hope as land was given out almost for freeMany, like the Dutch, tried to bring feudalism with them, but it didn’t surviveLord Baltimore was more successful than the Dutch in Maryland, but slaves and plantations still wonCarolina still tried, creating a full system of ranks, but peasant class was completely absentWealth was not generated by the class system, but by other means, allowing others to get wealthy tooPrivate property was created in New England, where the feudal system was left behindThe lack of feudalism created a profit-driven society, which left very few European-conservativesThis American mentality forces the recruitment of the best men available, and Americans constantly seek to expand their wealthInstead of aristocracy, Puritanism and Quakerism was brought, bringing backward-looking and forward-looking economic attitudesPuritans believed that work was offering to GodPuritanism also brought social obligation to look goodPuritans also adopted tradingQuakers also adopted a plain, trading lifestyleQuaker businessmen were known to work hard and continue practicing their religionAs New England and the Middle West grew, Puritanism did tooFranklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac was a saying full of Puritan quotes, under the name of Yankees

2. Were the Puritans “Puritanical”Puritans are rumored to fear happinessThey believed God created the world to survive, not for pleasureThey accepted wine but not drunkards, the lottery but not gamblingPuritans tried to control provocative clothes, but little change was madeDress was accepted based on class; only the higher class was allowed to wear luxuriesPuritans hated music in the church, but loved music otherwise and brought opera with themThere is little evidence about Puritans and art, except that they had somePuritans married for the sake of marrying, but women were used for goodThey had relatively easy divorce lawsSigns of affection were okayPuritans accepted sinners, but the 17th century time was one of punishmentRelationships between husband and wife were much more loving than people believeIn the end, Puritans were still serious and soberPuritans strived to achieve new levels of moralitySuch spirituality led to narrow-mindednessThey were quite different, but all were common in that they believed in their cause stronglyPuritans knew that they had to sustain themselves after breaking away from the Roman Church during the ReformationPuritans left resistance to oppressionThey believed that the most religious was the most intellectualMost Puritans believed that the “feeling” of salvation does not allow one to give up religious conductPuritans valued education, as colleges in New England had far more graduates than in the SouthThey valued the education of ministers extremely highlyPrimary education was important so that people can go to collegeFamilies were obliged to send their children to school, or at least teach them to read at homeHigh education standards were otherwise uncommonQuakers did not have even close to an equivalent education standardVirginia had some education, but not equal to the standard of New England

There definitely is a connection between education in the past and education nowThe colleges were created as byproducts of spreading religionA pattern was set for education for allHowever, Puritans were still not religiously tolerant

3. Rights of EnglishmenA republic was set-up accidently and casuallyThe king allowed a representative assembly when the Virginia charter was revoked and Virginia became a royal colonyThis set-up a basis for the governments of all royal coloniesIn Massachusetts hundreds applied for citizenshipMassachusetts had a direct democracy while Virginians and Massachusetts fought for the right to tax themselvesAs more people came to Massachusetts a representative democracy was adoptedThe people strongly wanted self-governmentRepublicanism was born, and democracy had already been for some timeRepublicanism was already practiced in Puritan churchesAmerica seemed to have no supreme government just local onesPuritans settled in compact farms, different than VirginiaIn Virginia, people took large land for tobacco farmingThis gave rise to counties in Virginia and meetinghouses in New EnglandThe New England town meetings allowed anyone to speak, and all males to voteThese events shaped ideas of 1776

4. Black People in a White People’s CountrySlavery only started in the late 1770’sVirginia consisted mostly of slave plantationsIn the 1720’s, slavery surpassed servants, but still did not skyrocketSlavery was the cause of racism against all blacksIn England, slaves did not cause racismDiscrimination began before slavery and grew with slaveryJust because someone was different they were racially discriminatedThe fact that slaves came on a ship and were considered “cargo” played a large role to discriminationThe correct status of slaves was still being builtNative Americans were also being used as slavesVirginia and New England were not the first to have slaves: English settlements in Bermuda and the Caribbean already had slave systems and codesAs early as the 1630’s, the governments were singling out blacks, not allowing them to bear arms Slaves received harsher punishments than other servantsBlacks were also more valuable in trade, as they were worth more than similar white servants (who had limited years left)This fact suggests that blacks were already considered as slaves, as newborns were also born into slaveryOne case shows that servitude lasted longer than 20 years and slavery status could be inheritedHowever, in 1660, slaves were hardly mentioned in lawsHowever, in the mid-60’s, laws directly targeted slaves, as newborns followed the hereditary status of the mother or fatherSlowly, blacks were considered as slaves: personal propertyBefore blacks were actually considered “slaves” or were a large portion of the population, they were discriminated against by lawsOnly blacks were persecuted, even if free and even if slaves were not a big part of the economyEven though records of the importation of blacks are little, they contain information about slavesEven Puritans recognized and used slaves, as captured Indians were often traded for slavesEven there were few slaves in New England; even they were prohibited to bear armsIn New England, practice came before law just like in the South; providing good reason to create the lawsDiscrimination was directed toward all blacks, proving that discrimination came before slaveryThe discrimination was hardened with the early laws and economic importance of slavesThe full implications of the problem would not be realized until the 1800’s

Chapter 2: The Awakening of American Nationality7. “All of Us Americans”

During the Zenger trial, Andrew Hamilton expected the attorney general to stop using English examples in America, even though Americans mostly used British lawBy the 1740’s, Americans believed themselves more and more separate from the BritishThe Americans saw their differences starting from the war with France in the 1740’s, in which Britain expected more colonial supportAmericans saw the British as cruel, while the British saw the Americans as cowardsAfter Quebec fell in 1759, Americans were grouped together more with America than BritainDutch and Indian influences changed American languageAmericans also created their own words to match the new environmentsSome familiar English words took on new meaningsAmerican pride grew as they separated themselves from BritainEspecially as relations worsened with the Stamp Act, differences enlargedJohn Morgan considered himself both British and American within a year, and helped establish a medical schoolAmericans believed that their life was better than England’s, which cause more separationBoth sides saw America pure and free from corruptionOnce the French were defeated, some Americans saw independence coming as they didn’t need the British anymoreBritain debated whether or not to kick out France from all of the Americas, because they believed the Americans might try to revolt if given the freedom to expandIn addition to the French conflict, America was becoming ripe with knowledge and powerBritain’s aristocratic ways were separate from the Americans’ preservation of freedomIn the end, America was ready to become independent by the 1760’s; the only thing that was needed was something to make them realize the change

Chapter 3: A New Kind of RevolutionIntroduction

America was the first successful colonial revolutionIt is amazing that the revolution did not interrupt development

1. Causes Were ConsequencesThe French and Indian War showed the split between Britain and AmericaAlthough the victory gave Britain power, Britain was in debt because it had to continue to protect the landBefore the war, Americans never had to pay for the army, except through the Navigation ActsAfter the war, The British allowed the French molasses in the West Indies and setup the Stamp and Townshend Acts to gain revenue for the debtThe colonists were not asked to pay much, only 1/3 of their own defense and 1/50 of the average BritishHowever, the colonists expected to return to the lax lifestyle after the war, and rebelled when they could notThe Americans believed only they had the right to tax themselves, especially Britain hadn’t taxed them in so longThe Americans now saw themselves as separate people, while the British continued to see them as BritishThe Americans continued to make high demands while Britain didn’t do anything to crush themSomehow, they believed that Britain planned to crush their liberties, but Britain couldn’t even control themBritain’s mistake is that they themselves did not know what they should do: see them as British or notSince Britain did not know what to do, it allowed America to run itself, a big mistake especially when they tried to regain control after the Boston Tea PartyAmericans believed that Britain was trying to confine, if not stifle, their economy with mercantilismHowever, the laws were actually acceptableThe colonies felt they were oppressed because the British suddenly changed their taxes from heavy to lightThe Revolutionary ideas originated from Britain, as all ideas came from BritainThe post-war stress forced Britain to tax the Americans, but the Americans were so used to the lax taxes that they finally realized they had become different peopleAmerica never wanted to break just for the sake of breaking, but had a firm reason to do soBritain had made an attempt to restore old terms; repeal the Stamp, Townshend, and Mutiny Acts, restore trial by jury, and remove restrictions on settlements; but the Americans wanted a break

2. New Governments in Old ChartersThe new governments of America laid basis for the future and were directly related to the minds of the Founding FathersJohn Locke and the Mayflower Compact created the basis for the governmentMaryland asserted that the powers of government are derived from the compact of the peopleThe Constitutional Convention followed the compact in that it was created by the people; most states required the Constitution to have a separation of powersA few states only changed a little bit of their constitutions, but most added a bill of rights, continuing to follow ideas of the BritishPeople believed that only through separation of powers could freedom be secured and it is one of the fundamental ideas of the American ConstitutionSuffrage remained mostly the same; mostly property holders could vote and only property holders can hold positions of office

3. Revolutionaries Can be ConservativeThe terms "radical" and "conservative" greatly changed before and after the revolutionThe pre-1776 radicals were ones who opposed Britain and may even have thought of independence, while conservatives were ones who wanted to get back together with BritainFrom 1770-1780 radicals were ones who feared a central government because it took local control and threatened freedom while conservatives were ones who feared a central government because it was BritishAfter 1780, radicals were ones who wanted more local power and favored the Articles of Federation, while conservatives were ones who wanted a strong central government and favored the American ConstitutionIn the Constitutional Convention of 1787, there were many conservatives, and this is why the Constitution had a strong central governmentThe states were severely restricted as they lost a lot of abilities and the government could directly tax people of the states

In the Shay's Rebellion of 1787, Congress was too weak to do anything, but in the Whisky Rebellion of 1794, the new government was able to crush it with its newfound military powerEventually, even the radicals came to agree with the Constitution, creating stability that lasted for yearsThe new job for the radicals was to stop the government from gaining even more power than it had already by interpreting the Constitution strictlyIt is ironic that the same problem has lasted through the many yearsThe Jeffersonian were the radical group that stopped the government from gaining more power, just as the radicals did before 1776As mostly farmers, the Jeffersonians opposed Hamilton's central banking system, in which industrialization had no use to themAlthough the Jeffersonian fought the Hamiltonians for long, it is good that the Hamiltonians won because the laissez faire strategy of the Jeffersonians would not have gotten the nation farHowever, Jeffersonian ideology has impacted American a lot as a lot of other groups drew from the ideaThe Jeffersonians trusted the people's ability to govern themselvesWhen elected in 1800, Jefferson showed that they are willing to compromise by retaining the bank, paying off the debts and buying the Louisiana territoryFisher Ames of Mass. believed that ruling was more a matter of method than principleBoth parties agreed that restraints were needed on the peopleTheir disputes were mostly about banks and debts, not basic assumptions like freedom of property and businessBoth parties did not completely hate the other side and wanted to please everybodyThe Constitution both allowed personal freedoms as well as sustained a strong personal governmentThe framework of government has remained the same even through these battles

4. Conservatives Can be InnovatorsMany unforeseen consequences occurred with some of these decisionsWhen the Anglican Church was not supported anymore, Virginia allowed religious freedom, leading to the separation of church and stateThe Constitution furthered the division between church and state when it prohibited religious tests for holding officeAmericans changed the trend when it declared that religion would not affect one's protection of lawsBy 1833, all states had severed their ties with the church and made official by the 14th Amendment which stated that separation was a freedom granted by the ConstitutionAmerica was not antireligious because religion lived on through the majority of the peopleAmerica was the first to break the government away from the church and not support the churchPeople began to questions slavery with the Declaration of Independence's statement "All men are created equal"Women's rights also grew after the war, where women received more responsibility during the revolutionary effortAfter the revolution, women began making demands such as divorce, suing for separation, and property settlementsWomen began calling for education, too, to raise the new sons and daughters of the Republic properlyHowever, women still did not have other jobs, and a real feminist movement was to come later, where blacks and women both called upon the Declaration of Independence for equalityNot only were those words just a popular saying, but the movement to try to achieve that was taking place, tooForeigners praised America's ability to avoid looking at rank at birthSocial distinction were falling, and although some people were rich, everyone had the ability to tryRegular people began holding office in government and capitals were moved away from established citiesThe freedom of the American economy began after the revolution, as merchants were able to target new marketsEven with all the changes, society remained quite the sameNo new social classes came to power after the revolutionAlthough many powerful Loyalists were exiled, not all the people of high position left and many new radicals replaced themThe signers of the Declaration of Independence were men of power, wealth, and officeMost people who held office before the Revolution held office after, too, proving that the Revolution was an upper-middle class affairMen were moved from a good status before the Revolution to an equal or better status afterThis created social stability not often thought of

Land seized was mostly given to rich landowners, and took a long time, if at all, to reach the poor farmerLand was sold in order to reduce state debts, but this did not have much impact on social life because most people could get land very easilyUsually, land was not given away as it was inheritedThe abolition of entail did not have a great effect eitherThe Revolution did not affect much: class structure, capitalism, property distribution, and good government remainedThis is because the colonists under Britain were already quite well-offWhen Britain disturbed this, the Americans began to design a new way of lifeWith the Ordinance of 1787, America avoided the chaos of accepting new states by allowing them to have equal rights in order to create a united AmericaThe combination of the Constitution, leaders, and the people preserved the nation

Chapter 4: To Make a More Perfect UnionIntroduction

Between The War of 1812 and the Spanish-American War of 1898, most of America’s issues were internal and domestic, concerning settling and taming the landAlthough vast lands divided the nation, between 1812 and the Civil War, America was able to bond so well that it lasted a rebellion

1. Agrarian ImperialismIn 1800, America did not go past the Mississippi River and did not even have FloridaWithin a short period of time, the nation grew 3 times its sizeThe acquisition of new land was never needed, as there were large areas of land unsettled within the original boundaries of the U.S.It was the appeal of free land of the West that drew Americans to seek landLand just came to the Americans; the French proposed the Louisiana Purchase randomly, marking the beginning of America’s lust for landIn the case of Spain, settlers rushed into the area called Mobile, and offered it to the U.S.However, only during the War of 1812 was this officially taken, and only in 1819 was the Florida Purchase Treaty madePeople soon began to believe that the U.S. was destined to control all of North AmericaIn the 1830’s, Americans had settled and revolted against Mexico, creating another opportunity for the U.S.When Texas asked to be annexed into the U.S., Mexico agreed to acknowledge their independence as long as they don’t do it; however, the U.S. annexed Texas anyways, setting up the stage for warThe border dispute between Mexico and Texas also became a problem; Texans argued it was the Rio Grande, Mexicans argued that it was the NuecesAlthough it was once thought to be slaveholders’ conspiracy, the acquisition of Mexico is considered to be part of the Manifest Destiny: the goal to have the U.S. reach the Pacific OceanThe Americans could not resist taking land for a such a small cost, and resulted in the creation of California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and TexasMeanwhile, Polk made a compromise with Britain to extend the northern border of the U.S. to the 49th parallel across the northern border, leaving America looking as it does todayThis acquisition of land led to an abundance of resources such as wheat and bread producing land, pasture lands for cows, timber, copper, zinc, lead, silver, and gold

2. More Than SentimentHowever, there were economic problems in the West that were more importantAmerica was larger than all nations except Russia and Austria-Hungary, making travel of people and news slowWithout transportation, goods had to remain within the society, leading to mostly subsistence lifestylesAs people pushed even farther West, communication became even dimmerThe main method of transportation in the 1800’s was the Mississippi River, which was finally purchased along with the rest of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 to unite the nationThis was in fact necessary, was General James Wilkinson and Aaron Burr continually tried to separate the union

The Transportation Revolution laid the basis for emotional national unityThe Transportation Revolution was a revolution because in just 50 years it was completed in which there were a few hundred years that there was no transportationIt began at the end of the 1700’s and ended at the beginning of the 1800’sImproved roads and turnpikes were created, and a national effort connected Maryland with IllinoisSince before the railroad only animals were used, the Erie Canal was widely successful, leading to a large increase in canal buildings that connected inner riversThe Erie Canal, which connected the Great Lakes states and New York City, largely cut costs Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois were connected to the ocean through either the Erie Canal through the north or the Mississippi River through the southCanals were built in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and New JerseyThe steamboat was adapted into the interior riversThe steamboats were adapted to work in shallow waters and had an extremely powerful engineIn 1815-1817, Henry Shreve was able to unlock the full potential of the steamboat, ending Fulton’s monopolyThe riverboat made upstream rivers possible, creating whole economies dependent on its powerThe other revolutionary invention was the railroadThe railroad was the first land transportation that rivaled the steamboats, and its speed made up for its slightly higher costsImportance can be measured by looking at how much governments helped; the Erie Canal was entirely state built, just as the Blue Ridge Railroad of Virginia and the Western and Atlantic of Georgia were, tooThe main method of creating the railroads were through mixed enterprises, which were funded 60% by private companies and 40% by statesMissouri, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts all spent millions of dollars on railroad construction and about 60% of Southern railroads were publicly fundedLocal communities and cities also gave money, including Baltimore, Cincinnati, and towns in the SouthThis evidence shows that America would much rather get the job done than to worry about economic concernsThe railroad outshined even the steamboats, for the sole reason that boats needed water while railroads could be made almost anywhereThe economies of states like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were expanded north, east, and mostly southRailroads connecting the West and the North allowed an economic alliance during the Civil War and ruined the South’s trade monopoly over the Mississippi RiverIn addition, the telegraph invented by Samuel Morse helped bring a revolution in communication

3. The Factory ComesThe Industrial Revolution can be said to have started in 1816, in which the first protective tariff was imposed to protect American manufacturers from cheap British goods after the War of 1812

There was support for the tariff from all over, including manufacturers and visionaries who wanted an America free from British goodsThe Industrial Revolution began with textile factories, which women largely controlledMany women went to Lowell, Massachusetts, where they began the fight for lower hours, higher wages, and better working conditionsFactories were spreading across the U.S., as Eli Whitney introduced muskets to the factory systemWhitney created the idea of interchangeability of parts and the machinery to do so, created cheaper and mass productsWith a lack of labor and skill, this idea was revolutionary and was picked up by other manufacturersManufacturing had spread past New England into the Middle Atlantic States, and soon would pose a threat to farmingIn 1860, less than 60% of the people were in agriculture, and this number would decrease after the Civil WarThe South had only 15% of the nation’s manufacturing facilities, which greatly hampered it effectiveness in the Civil War

4. Does Land Make People?It was long believed that the frontier shaped the character of the nationFrederick Jackson Turner was revolutionary when he stated that the frontier shaped the peopleHe believed that democracy came out of the frontier and that it cannot be attributed to European influence, the Susan Constant, the Mayflower, or the ConstitutionHowever, Turner gives multiple definitions of the frontier: 1) the area where wilderness meets civilization 2) the western part of the U.S. 3) an abundance of resources 4) a process of settling vacant landsTurner believes that Europeans enter the wilderness, become stripped down to Native Americans, then change the wilderness to something new, the AmericanTocqueville noticed that you find the same type of civilized person in New York than you do in the wilderness of the frontier, which is what unites AmericaMen on the frontier tried to reproduce civilization as quickly as they couldOne accepted part of Turner’s theory is that democracy came from the frontier, as the western states were the first to have universal manhood suffrage, elected officials, etc.However, Kentucky and Tennessee had constitutions as conservative as Pennsylvania, which shows that frontier states just model the eastOnly a handful of clauses of the state constitutions were original when compared to those of the eastern statesThe democratic ideas can be traced back to those of the Levellers of 17th century EnglandConsidering the fact that the western states were successful in implementing these democratic ideas shows that the frontier did have an impact of creating a clean slateThe vast land provided opportunity to practice democratic ideas, but this should not be confused with the fact that the ideas did not actually originate from the frontier as Turner imaginedMcKitrick and Elkins believed that the newness of the land, the necessity of establishing new communities, and active participation in community affairs is what constitutes democracy, and therefore, the frontier was democratic

The lack of leaders and the need to have common citizens solve problems created the American character of democracyThe participation in the affairs of government reinforces self-confidence and self-relianceHowever, this democracy did not extend to women, who found less opportunity in the frontier than in the citiesIt was believed that the West was a back-up for the dejects of the EastHowever, this was not true as 1) two historians could not find evidence for workers emigrating to the West, 2) starting a farm had cost 1 and a half years income if they found work 3) workers had to be helped to even get to the West 4) more people moved into the city rather than move to the frontierRather than look at it this way, it is better to see urban areas as centers to let out farm discontentThe frontier’s existence as an expanding agriculture improved the wage levels of urban workersHigher wages encouraged workers to use machines, which increased American productivityThe American character has been molded by the abundance of land and of industrializationWhether it was true or not, the belief that the West was a safety valve led to an increase in optimism and liberal land lawsTherefore, when the frontier was considered closed, people lost motivation in workIn the end, the belief had a powerful social influence that separated it from EuropeHowever, some believe that wilderness does not create cultures but just molds themChanges were already implicitly defined in their original cultures, they just had to opportunity to come outWhen comparing two wildly different cultures who moved into vacant lands, the result is different because the original culture has a large impact on the resultThis can be seen in the South African Boers and the Russians, who had a czarist regime instead of democracyThis can also be seen as the English and the Germans were settling America, as each had a different way of doing thingsVacant land allows for the opportunity of social advancement and wealth accumulation of an already existing societyAndrew Jackson represented the West, and therefore, also represented democracy

Chapter 5: The Great ExperimentIntroduction

America was known as the great experiment in democracyPeople became their own rulers, there were many foreigners and the party system was in place

1. Let the People RuleAfter 1815, Americans expanded suffrage to rest the responsibility of government on everyone who was governedThe basis for suffrage was now manhood or citizenship, not propertyStake in society theory abolished as all had a right in the governmentThis was drastic because it happened so rapidly and even property requirements to hold office were droppedGovernors and other positions were popularly elected instead of chosen by legislatures, surprisingly even some judgesDuring this time, states found it necessary to submit its constitution to the people for ratificationDemocracy went to such a great extent in trust of man that Jefferson would not have even gone toFaith in the people grew, as they believed that all people cannot do wrong on purposeThis is a new concept, as the Democratic-Republicans, Federalists, and Whigs never had this much faith, but after this time it was never challenged againJackson removed the concept that the same people be reelected into office foreverThis rotation of public officials proved that any common man can become a state officialPeople took this opportunity and savagely sought office until it had to be controlledThis rotation made sure that the officials were always in touch with the people and led to a more democratic governmentAndrew Jackson and James K. Polk strengthened the executive officeJackson made the president a direct representative of the people by trying to have popular elections and vetoing bills that the public did not favorJackson asserted the president’s power to control his cabinetPolk used his power as Commander in Chief of the armed forces fully during the Mexican War by appointed generals and making a planJackson and Polk also used the veto power liberally when they did not think a law was rightIt is important to note that no veto was overridden until later, showing that people agreed with the vetoesThe veto only became acceptable once the president seemed like a direct representative of the people and was not feared like a monarchPeople finally recognized the importance of a strong executive, and this popular representation of government lasts even today

2. All Men are Created EqualPeople saw this time as the fall of the American aristocracy, if one even existed, as aristocracy was scorned and condemned People tried to make an equal societyFor example, people attacked West Point as an aristocratic institutionThe standard of living for the average citizen increasedAlthough the imbalance between the rich and the poor was increasing, and there were many poor, it was easy to become rich without displacing the others because the total wealth was always increasingSocial classes began to blur togetherProperty was not in danger as property was plentiful

3. Jacksonian LiberalismAndrew Jackson himself became a big personality as he was a common man who became presidentHe was the first president to do many thingsIn the 1830’s, the modern party system began, one party headed under JacksonAlthough the Jacksonian ideology was made up of many thoughts of farming and business from all regions, economic freedom was one belief that remained the sameEconomic freedom meant that the government would not favor one group over the otherFor example, the Bank of the U.S. was not rechartered because it was given special privileges other banks were not givenJackson appointed Roger Taney as the new Supreme Court Justice, who followed Jackson and Marshall’s principles

Marshall had taken away many state rights through cases like Fletcher vs. Peck and Dartmouth vs. WoodwardIn one case, the Charles River Bridge Company sued Massachusetts because the bridge set up by the government reduced traffic through the company’s bridgeTaney went against Marshall, saying states should get the benefit of the doubt when concerning chartersHowever, Taney was still mindful to progress in transportation and the economySometimes, Jackson was seen to practice laissez faire, but this is oversimplified as Jackson supported internal improvementsGovernmental interference was unopposedHowever, laissez faire was necessary in the case of printing money, which was decided to be printed on a supply and demand basisAfter 1837, corporations were created more widely and became the dominant form of American businessThe working class shared the same benefits as businessmenUntil the 1830’s, governments were extremely hostile to labor organizationsIn Commonwealth of Massachusetts vs. Hunt in 1842, Lemuel Shaw decided that labor organizations should not be seen as bad and should be allowed so that the working class can get its rights

4. On the Road to DamascusThe period was one of change and everything was questioned except democracyPeople focused upon what was forming the American characterPeople believed that progress was unlimited as they have already seen so much changeReformation was changed in that it affected all people, including the lower classesIt also created a sense of pity among people, leading to humanitarianism that lasted foreverPeople today still believe that America is the role model for the worldPeople traced the progress back to the people themselves, believing that they are all chosenThe belief that education was the background for democracy and progress grewHowever, people’s beliefs exceeded their actions as not much was done for educationIn 1830 and 1840, people decided to reverse this lack of education and created a free school system in the North by the Civil WarChildren were required to go to school, they were supported by public funds, they were under the authority of states, and religion was kept separateBefore, schools were mostly supported by high tuitionsIn state constitutions, it was soon common that no schools funds would be spent on religion, and therefore, not be included in the curriculumPeople looked toward schools to help solve the conflicts of the nationSchools increased the social responsibility of the citizen, since they were the ones running the governmentHowever, slavery was one issue that could not be decided upon

Chapter 9: Machines, Men, and SocialismIntroduction

After the Civil War, the U.S. went under huge change1. Revolutionary Challenge

At the end of the century, America was an industrial nation with larger population and more workersRailroads grew drastically 30,000 to 200,000It was extremely inexpensive to transport materialsGeography played an important role in the economic boomAmerica was blessed with great resources: oil, iron, steel, copper, and mineralsThere was also great political unity to not hinder the marketThey had some problems, like climate, Indians, etc.Even before the Civil War, the transportation network was laidGovernment actions after the war increased greatly, lots of subsidies Quid pro quo- railroads furnished government with transportation at cheap costInvestors believed that the railroads held the key to destiny (federal, state governments)Even with this government funding, a lot was done privately, tooMany of the government loans were marked with corruption and fraudHowever, government aid was still hugely importantThis value cannot be counted in numbers, but more as an atmosphereThe great increase in immigration also attributed to growthMany inventions also added to growth (Bessemer process, telephone, steel, refrigeration, typewriter)Machines were readily replacing workers as they were efficientMany machines were of European originEuropeans also helped by investing capital into American businessesThere was also an American drive or spirit that made people workMost of the new rich were not from the bottom of the social ladder, they were well-off to begin withHowever, their personalities cannot be generalizedThey all had a passion to workTheir chance to become big often came early in their careersThey were looking for more of a challenge than for profitEither way, a lot of them used corruption or monopoly to get their wayThere is no way that their actions can be considered ethicalIn the end, the industrial America was built, and it drastically changed social and human life

2. The Industrial LeviathanIndustrialization came with bigness, as people wanted more control and wanted to eliminate oppositionThe American Steel Corporation was one of the biggest in the timeCompanies started coming together to form trustsThis can be seen in steel, railroads, sugar, beef, oil, money, etc.Investment banking also grewJ.P. Morgan gained power by investing into railroadsThe Money Trust made financial banking formal and powerfulThese trusts moved away from the ideal of perfect competitionAlthough these monopolies have high output, they have to be balanced with protecting the customerThe Interstate Commerce Commission was created to control the economic power of railroadsThe Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was an answer to protestsThe ICC tried to regulate the railroads, but it proved ineffectiveThe Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was another response

3. The Reconstruction That TookThe economic revolution was nationwide, but the South did not become just like the North

The South became the cotton manufacturing center of the nationThe South was more accustomed to towns, but the industries needed laborUsually, whole families were forced to work to earn enoughSteel, iron, tobacco, and oil also had big manufacturing in the SouthIn the end, however, the industries barely reached to the Southern way of life

4. Dollars Mean SuccessThe spread of industrialism meant the spread of the belief of social mobilityThe teaching of the secret to success became a business within itselfSome religious preachers still believed in hard work and moralityAlthough the opportunities were few, there were still someUpward mobility was either career related, or generational relatedThere were substantial opportunities to riseIt made Americans believe in social equalityBusinessmen were accepted as friends of the common people and against privilegeThere were both low levels and high levels and the belief to move to the latter

5. The Worker’s ResponseIndustrial capitalism created the labor movementThe labor movement mirrored the growth of industrial capitalismLabor movements can be considered conservative because they are reactions to the industrialismCapitalism frees land, labor, and capitalLand became available rapidly, as it was sold and bought at will, capital grew with banking, and labor finally grew with the end of serfdom and slaveryTherefore, labor was still reduced to a commodity in the endThis new movement gave men more freedom, but also made them individualistic and without a societyThe labor union fills this hole and creates a communityAlthough men became a commodity, to increase them for profits also increases them in populationLabor is weird in that it is part of the person who sells itLabor unions are conservative because they formed to preserve humanity and social characterHowever, labor unions avoided getting into capitalism and turned to socialism insteadThe hardest challenge was to stay organizedThe Knights of Labor and the AF of L were two unionsThe Knights of Labor were famous for their cooperativesThus, it conserved the small shopkeeper mentality instead of moving toward big businessHowever, the Knights were as threatening as other labor unions because they only used strikesThe Knights were organizing workers on a national scale larger than beforeThe AF of L sought to better the working conditions of allGompers, the leader of the AF of L, understood its boundariesHe made trade unions a business, shown by the long time it lastedThe AF of L was for the working man, but did not threaten anyone else

6. Nobody Here but Us CapitalistsAmerica had a good chance to become SocialistThe American history of staying away from socialism shows conservatism because it stuck with capitalismSocialism required a class-conscious working class, but since no American believed in classes, it never bloomedThis is because of the fluidity of the social structurePeople who hope to rise do not identify themselves with the present classThe fact political revolution came before the industrial revolution adds to this, as people saw themselves as citizens and equals before workingmenImmigrants did not support socialism either because they were not included in groupsLastly, the success of capitalism overshadowed socialism

The American Dream also prevented people from turning to socialismEach thing socialism brings was already part of the American culture

Chapter 10: Out of Many, OneIntroduction

Around 1900, immigration was larger than it has been ever before2/3 of the immigrants came to the US, no other country even comes closeOnly in America are so many nationalities mixed together

1. The Widening StreamAmerica is the frontier of Europe and people who want to take a second chanceImmigration constantly increased Old Immigration (1850-1900) – Northern/Western EuropeNew Immigration (1900-) – Southern/Eastern EuropeThe American pull was extremely strongAmerica was seen as a land of opportunity, equality, and hopeSome immigrants exaggerated their material possessions in their letters back homeSome immigrants returned home, having stories to tell to othersThe immigrants claimed that they were more acute than before and can notice changes in EuropeThis bright view of America was instilled into all Europeans

2. Hewers of Wood and Drawers of WaterAmerica had an unquenchable thirst for laborImmigrants greatly added to the value of America through their workThey performed more work than the native-born even though they had fewer numbersThis was because most of the immigrants were in their prime age for workingIn the new immigration, mostly men came, not familiesAlthough most weren’t, some immigrants added skills such as bakers, tailors, and shoemakersHowever, unskilled was even more important, although lowlyOld immigrants had helped settle the land For example, Wisconsin agriculturally grew mostly because of immigrantsAlthough many were industrial workers, others pushed the frontier and settled in new landsLarge percentages of farmers in the Great Plains were immigrantsOf the new immigrants, although only few were farmers, others played huge roles in some statesNorth and South Dakota were states that gsreatly grew because of immigrationEither way, the typical immigrant was a worker in a factory or mineAlthough many claim that immigrants displaced native-borns from labor jobs, it actually benifitted them by giving them better jobsThis was the case in politics as wellThey also created a need for industries to mechanize to make the work unskilled so immigrants can do itStill, immigration did not create jobs nor did it stimulate the economy as discussed earlierA drop in immigration always followed a decline in economy, not the other way around

3. Immigrants Have VotesThe political influence of the immigrants was strong in addition to the economic influenceOnly after the First World War were immigrants actually holding large officesImmigrants slowly rose to the top of politics as they learned the ways of the USHowever, along the way immigrants were a large influence in voting for othersPolitics was largely influenced by ethnic and religious concerns and valuesImmigrants often voted for their own kind or people who value their kindThe isolationism policy of America was influenced by ethnicity, not geographyThis love for their homeland also created cultural isolationThis also worked the other way, as immigrants wanted political policies that would help their homeland

4. Melting Pot or Salad BowlImmigrants also shaped the growth of the cityMost immigrants stayed in big cities (not small ones)This made nativists, who were already mostly rural farmers, hate the city even moreThey most contributed to the growth of nationality ghettosImmigrant cities were the frontier of the industrial expansionThe bottom line is that Europeans largely added to the urbanization of AmericaAs nationalities converged, immigrants slowly dropped some traditional values and retained othersFor example, few immigrants stayed with their old religionThis mix of races created new denominations and churchesHowever, religions was still divided between Protestant, Catholic, or JewishImmigrants helped found Catholicism and Judaism in AmericaThe Irish dominated the leadership of the Roman Catholic ChurchBy leading this, they also added their own values into the religionProtestantism also reflected these immigrant valuesPuritanism helped protect immigrants from the strong pull of AmericanizationBeing in a new land strengthened immigrant desires to stick with their old churchThis created a strong attachment between the people and the ChurchSimilarly, immigrants followed conservatism stronglyDo immigrants mix cultures and become a new American identity? Or do many retain their old cultural values?Some do mix, others do keep their old habits

5. Who are AmericansThere were 2 outburts of nativism starting in 1830 and 1890The first was the Know-Nothing Party, which mainly tried to stop immigrant influence in politicsMost see it as a bad time in the US, but closer examination shows it had some reasonsIt was a practicals means for welding the opponents of the Democratic PartyIt did not enact any nativist legislationHowever, a lot of nativist groups were not this moderateThe bottom line of hatred is that immigrants were different than native bornsIn the end, the Know-Nothing party failed and died as quickly as it cameIn the 1890’s, the nativist movement was under the American Protective Association, which was more severe and tried to attack the Roman Catholic ChurchA broader movement was taking place at the same time, which tried to restrict the amount and type of immigrationMany groups were concerned about this restrictionIntellectuals argued that immigration was badThis was also the popular belief at the timeThe literacy test was installed to weed out people of lesser valueHowever, this was vetoed 3 times by presidentsSome people believed restricting by race was the optionPeople did not want some races to stain the American bloodIn the 1920’s, severe reduction in numbers was enactedPeople believed that the proper ethnic mix was attained, and that no further change was necessaryThis conservative view stayed for 40 years until the 1960’sThe US followed practices that were broader than those of other countriesIn the end, Americans accepted immigrants into their society

Chapter 15: The Making of a World PowerIntroduction

The U.S. was able to escape world affairs at first, but could not avoid it laterThe change from isolationism to activeness was sometimes painful

1. A New Diplomacy for a New EraThe new ideals of America caused it to always exude its differenceThe Americans always sought to differentiate themselves from EuropeansThe Americans created a new philosophy that rejected alliances because they were so differentFrom the beginning, the U.S. tried to limit relations with Europe to only tradeIt only called for cut-off from political relations, not economicHowever, commercial relations should be encouragedAmericans already believed these values, which is why Washington’s Farewell Address was so highly acceptedThere was another belief that as long as Europe was interested in the New World, U.S. would always be entangled in its affairsSometimes, the nation aggressively sought new business relationsAt the time, the Monroe Doctrine didn’t say much and only called on the help of the British navy to back it upOnly after a long time was the Monroe Doctrine ever called upon or used as a basis of foreign policyThere was also an underlying ideology that went further than U.S. protection that included the belief that the hemispheres should be separate and alliedThere has always been a connection between people and domestic and foreign issues, which led the U.S. to make moralistic decisionsThis view has been even more exemplified in the 1900’sWoodrow Wilson used the American power to advance and sustain idealismAlthough this idealism is a main ingredient in U.S. policy, there is also realism and self-interestThis policy suite the nation well in the 1800’sHowever, with the coming of the 1900’s, the U.S. could not keep itself out of foreign affairs

2. Looking OutwardThe move toward an empire was technically not newIt originated from the manifest destiny time periodThe acquisition of Alaska or Hawaii directly moved the U.S. into extra-continental expansionThe Spanish-American War, mostly a domestic issue, started the imperialismThe rising recognition at home and abroad that the U.S. was a world power increased its desire for CubaInfluential people such as Alfred T. Mahan and others believed the same thingSome of the desire came from uncertainty and fearFarmers depended on overseas marketsAmerica’s capacity to manufacture goods increased significantly in the late 1800’s and demanded new marketsAt this time, the Cubans revolted and gave the U.S. an opportune moment to actThe first effect of this imperialism was the reawakened interest in annexing HawaiiTheodore Roosevelt’s role as Secretary of the Navy also affected U.S. imperialismMcKinley’s decision to keep the Philippines was a result of the U.S. wanting to be an empire and from economic interests in AsiaThey were especially interested in trade with China

American imperialism was different than that of Europe because the U.S. sought access to markets, not control over governmentPhilippines was kept for economic interests, not to subject people, as seen by the decline in desire to acquire more territory in the 1900’s and by the Open Door PolicyThe Open Door Policy stated U.S. interests in China, although the U.S. was not willing to back it up by force and violated it sometimes as wellIt was an extension of freedom of trade and self-determinationThe Spanish-American War and colonization marked the traditional policy of isolationism

3. The Most Fateful StepThe fact that the U.S. declared neutrality in both mind and state showed that it still had a sense of isolationism from EuropeIt was American diplomatic tradition to ask for free seas and free tradeWilson had the conception of neutral rights that guaranteed free trade for noncombatant groupsThe only way Germany could match Britain’s superior navy was to use submarines and sink merchant shipsThe Germans knew that this would be bad for international law, but they did not want to give up their advantageThe U.S. entered World War I with the sole purpose of protecting neutral rightsIf it had abandoned its conception of international law and neutral rights, it could have stayed out of the warIn WWII, the U.S. readily abandoned their neutrality rights through the Neutrality ActsThe real reason that the U.S. entered the war, however, was to maintain the balance of power in Europe and restrict GermanyWilson’s reasons to enter the war did not include anything about U.S. self-interest

4. The Flight from CommitmentWilson was disappointed when the U.S. did not join the League of Nations because he expected the world to have new order at the end of the warThe defeat of the League did not stem out from deep hatred from AmericansIt was defeated because the U.S. wanted to return to the old isolationismHowever, the U.S. was quick to realize that it could not stay out of European conflicts forever, as exemplified by the signing of the Washington Naval ConferenceIt signaled American importance in world affairsThe U.S. also became increasingly active economically in EuropeThis was because the U.S. had a new dominant position in the world and because U.S. bankers sought to stabilize the international economy by working with governments around the worldHarding and Coolidge actually expanded American enterprise abroad, even though they abandoned political ideals in foreign policyThe Kellogg-Briand Pact was also an instance of U.S. involvement in world affairsHowever, these examples can also be seen as continuation of past policyThis isolationism meant that the U.S. was free to do whatever it please internationallyBoth isolationism in the past and WWI influenced this new isolationismIsolationists also feared another world war that would shake the stability of the worldThey were also afraid the nation could not freely act in foreign affairs, which is the reason many rejected the League of NationsAlthough the U.S. seemed to be out of European affairs, it fell into WWII just the same

The shift in outlook was not sudden or easyThe rise of Hitler posed a threat to the balance of power in the new world and Nazis posed a threat to the U.S.The U.S. wasn’t justified to declare war on Germany after Pearl Harbor, but luckily they declared war on the U.S. firstFDR did not believe the public would follow him into a full-out war with Japan and Germany, which is why he gave full support to BritainMost people believed the U.S. should go to war, especially after Pearl Harbor, whereas most people didn’t want war in WWIAnother example of a change in isolationism is the fact that most people wanted to join a peacekeeping organization after WWII

5. Challenge and ResponseWWII did not give enough reason for the U.S. to assert its military power around the worldIt was the complete destruction of the German Nazis that brought military power to EuropeThe fear of Russian power was out of proportionTruman did not properly deal with the situation with Russia because of the disparity in power between the 2 powers and the fact that he was inexperiencedFDR believed that postwar peace would only happen if the U.S. and USSR had good relationsThe interests of big powers in the postwar world were understandable to FDR, even if they were not identicalFDR was not an idealist; it was completely possible for the U.S. and USSR to lay terms of peace at the timeRussia’s role in postwar Europe was under contention; it believed that all its surrounding states be communist as wellThis was against American principles of self-determination and freedomThey also disagreed about the future of Germany; the U.S. wanted to rebuild it, the USSR believed it was a constant menaceAnd of course, they disagreed about ideology, as the U.S. constantly feared the spread of communist ideologyThen, the USSR made a series of actions that deepened these differencesAmericans saw these actions as ungratefulU.S. reaction to these actions were made clear when the U.S. went ahead and merged its parts of Germany with Britain and FranceAmerica had a completely different foreign policy toward its dealings with communismThe containment policy had two modes of attack; one was to use military force to repel the communists, and the other was to satisfy the demands of countries so that they wouldn’t have any reason to support the communistsIn this context, the Marshall Plan was a success, as shows by the USSR’s deep hatred toward itNext, NATO helped western European countries to adequately defend themselves from communismThe Truman doctrine, which wanted to repel communists in Greece and Turkey, was drawn to the incident between North and South Korea as wellIt could be doubted that North Korea’s invasion over South Korea was a purely Soviet effort to spread communism to Asia since Europe was now takenThe Korean war was the first example of collective security practiced by a formally constituted international organization

For the U.S., it was the first example of resisting aggression outside EuropeWhen the U.S. decided resisting communism militarily and ideologically was necessary, it noticed it had a lot of stuff to doAmerica’s hands-off policy in assisting China came to an end when North Korea invaded South KoreaThe Americans have the privilege of doing what should be done, and not only what is possible to be doneThe Vietnam War was a result of the Korean WarThe U.S. did not help the French take back their colony of Indo-China, and instead established North and South VietnamEven though the U.S. spent so much money on the effort, they did not winWhen South Vietnam was overrun, an era in U.S. foreign policy endedIn the 1900’s, the U.S. newly decided that it was its responsibility to police the natural law originally defined by the Founding FathersThe loss of Vietnam, however, brought this time period to a closeThere was still some foreign involvement when Jimmy Carter advocated for human rightsHowever, he was not prepared to use military force, like Wilson did in WWI