Declarative Constraints for Complex Business Rules and Improved Performance
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Transcript of Declarative Constraints for Complex Business Rules and Improved Performance
Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Declarative Constraints for Complex Business Rules and Improved
Performance
Carl DudleyTradba Ltd
UKOUG Official
2Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
ConstraintsConstraints
Constraints – Origins and Syntax
NULLs and Foreign Key Constraints
Deferring and Enforcing Constraints
Data Dictionary Support
Complex Constraints and Query Transformations
Working with Oracle since 1986
Oracle DBA - OCP Oracle7, 8, 9, 10
Oracle DBA of the Year – 2002
Oracle ACE Director
Regular Presenter at Oracle Conferences
Consultant and Trainer
Technical Editor for a number of Oracle texts
UK Oracle User Group Director
Member of IOUC
Day job – Tradba Ltd
3Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints – a Brief HistoryConstraints – a Brief History
1970 – Ted Codd— A Relational Model for Large Shared Databanks
1984 DB2— Rudimentary support
SQL 1986— Initial requirements
1987 OracleV6— Documentation support
SQL 1989— Referential Integrity
1992 Oracle7— Full support
4Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Declarative Constraints Declarative Constraints
Preserve data integrity through the use of constraints — Cover rows already present in the table plus any rows which are
subsequently created
Implement simple business rules such as ‘salaries should not exceed $5000’
— More complex business rules need to be handled by application logic within transactions or by the use of database triggers
Not independent objects — Created and manipulated only via CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE
5Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Primary Key Constraints Primary Key Constraints
Constraints can be used to enforce — Entity Integrity (no duplicate rows?)— Referential Integrity
EVERY table should have a primary key (to enforce entity integrity)
— The primary key column(s) will be1. UNIQUE and NOT NULL 2. Automatically indexed (use can be made of an existing index)
CREATE TABLE emp(empno NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT emp_pk PRIMARY KEY,
:
6Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Primary Key ConstraintsPrimary Key Constraints
Unique and not null data values— Should not contain ‘meaningful’ data and should not be updated
• Usually numeric columns and as short as possible — Can be composite - but usually single columns
• Composite keys can be big and require complex join criteria • Cannot be assigned simple sequence numbers
Often named using primary key column or table name(s) with a ‘_pk’ suffix
Use ALTER TABLE to place a primary key on an existing table
ALTER TABLE deptADD CONSTRAINT dept_pk PRIMARY KEY(deptno);
7Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Unique and NOT NULL ConstraintsUnique and NOT NULL Constraints
Unique Constraints are like primary keys but allow NULL values— Unlimited as all are considered unique! — Any number allowed on a table — Often named with unique key column name(s) plus a ‘_uk’ suffix
NOT NULL constraints do not allow NULLs in a column— Not named and usually defined when a table is created
CREATE TABLE emp (empno NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
ename VARCHAR2(20), sal NUMBER(7,2) NOT
NULL, comm NUMBER(7,2), deptno NUMBER(2) NOT
NULL);
ALTER TABLE empADD CONSTRAINT ename_deptno_uk UNIQUE (ename,deptno);
8Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
CHECK Constraints CHECK Constraints
Simple business rules can be enforced — Based on constants and column values of only the row being updated — References to data in other tables via subqueries is not possible
• sysdate and user are not allowed due to implicit subquery— A common naming convention is to use a ‘_ck’ suffix
Optimised beneath the SQL layer
Not violated if evaluate to unknown
— A NULL sal will allow a negative comm to pass the check— In this case, it may be advisable to declare both columns as NOT NULL
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT sal_ck CHECK (sal > 0 OR comm >= 0);
9Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
CHECK Constraint ExamplesCHECK Constraint Examples
Ensure gender values are always uppercase ‘m’ or ‘f’
CREATE TABLE emp (gender VARCHAR2(1) CONSTRAINT gender_ckCHECK (gender IN UPPERCASE(‘m’,’f’));
ALTER TABLE emp (ADD CONSTRAINT comm_ckCHECK (comm < sal*0.25);
ALTER TABLE emp (ADD CONSTRAINT hiredate_ckCHECK (hiredate <= sysdate);
— Error because sysdate implies a subquery
Ensure that hiredate is not later than the current date
Ensure that commission is never more than ¼ of an employee’s salary
10Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Referential IntegrityReferential Integrity
Maintains integrity of master-detail relationships
— Operations on the primary key of the parent table are constrained if dependent rows exist in the child table
— Operations on the foreign key in the child table are prevented if they result in values which do not exist in the parent (referenced) table
• In Oracle, foreign keys may be set to NULL regardless of any referential constraint
empno ename mgr deptno----- -------- ---- ------7369 SMITH 7566 207499 ALLEN 7698 107521 WARD 7698 307566 JONES 7521 107654 MARTIN 7521 107698 BLAKE 30
Foreign keys
deptno dname------ ---------- 10 ACCOUNTING 20 RESEARCH 30 SALES 40 OPERATIONS
Emp Dept
11Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Foreign Key (Referential) Constraints Foreign Key (Referential) Constraints
May be single or composite columns
Must match data type of the referenced column(s)
No limit to number of foreign keys
Referenced columns must already be PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE columns — Referenced columns may be in the same table
Foreign key columns may be NULL or partly NULL (regardless of any Foreign Key constraint)
Indexes are not automatically created on the foreign key columns
12Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
In-line and Out-of-line Constraints In-line and Out-of-line Constraints
An in-line constraint is specified on the same line as the column definition— Also known as a column-level constraint— Datatype definition is not actually required for foreign key
CREATE TABLE ... :
deptno NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fkREFERENCES dept(deptno);
CREATE TABLE ...:
divno NUMBER(3),deptno NUMBER(4),
:CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (divno,deptno) REFERENCES dept(divno,deptno);
An out-of-line constraint is specified in a separate clause— Also known as a table-level constraint— Suppose dept has a composite key of divno and deptno
13Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
General Foreign Key Constraint Actions General Foreign Key Constraint Actions
Oracle supports : Restriction of UPDATEs to referenced columns
Restriction of DELETEs to referenced columns
DELETE CASCADE (deletion of dependent rows)
DELETE SET NULL
No support for UPDATE CASCADE — Must be performed via triggers or application logic
The SQL standard proposes a ‘PENDANT’ facility — When the last remaining employee in a department is deleted, the
department record must also be deleted
RESTRICT SET NULL SET DEFAULT CASCADE
Four options are generally recognised for actions performed by foreign key constraints
14Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
The DELETE CASCADE Action The DELETE CASCADE Action
Syntax for DELETE CASCADE :
Oracle will report only on rows which are deleted from dept when this referential action occurs
ALTER TABLE empADD CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (deptno) REFERENCES dept(deptno)ON DELETE CASCADE;
DELETE FROM dept WHERE deptno IN (10,20);
2 rows deleted
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Conterminous Paths Conterminous Paths
Each table has one row with the value ‘x’
What would be the effect of? :
TableA
TableB TableC
Delete CascadeDelete Cascade
Delete Cascade
Delete Restrict
TableD
DELETE FROM a WHERE col = ‘x’;
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Enabling/Disabling ConstraintsEnabling/Disabling Constraints
— Relaxes the constraint— Often done to increase speed of DML (e.g. bulk data loads)— Drops any associated UNIQUE index by default
— Enforces the constraint— Checks rows for violations— Any violations prevent the constraint being enabled— Locks out activity on the table— Builds any associated index (may take some time)
Constraints are enabled by default on creation
ALTER TABLE emp DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_pk;
ALTER TABLE emp ENABLE CONSTRAINT emp_pk;
17Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Foreign Key Indexes and LockingForeign Key Indexes and Locking
Most foreign keys should be indexed— If the unique or primary key is updated or deleted
• Indexes are even more important for ON DELETE CASCADE — If there are many joins between parent and child
When a foreign key is unindexed :— DML on the parent primary key results in a table level lock on the child
preventing DML on it — The child table lock is obtained and released immediately for each update of
row in parent— Lock exists for short period, but can cause significant contention on child
When a foreign key is indexed :— DML on parent primary key results in a row share table lock on child table— Prevents other transactions gaining table locks on the child table, but does
not block DML on either the parent or the child table— Only rows relating to the parent primary key are locked in the child table
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Indexes on Foreign KeysIndexes on Foreign Keys
Foreign keys are not indexed by default— Very significant locking implications— MONITORING USAGE does not detect use of indexes for concurrency— 11gR2 invisible indexes on FKs are also 'invisible' for concurrency
Support document 1019527.6 has a script that generates advice/report— Not accurate if foreign key columns present in an index in different order
• Interprets this as unusable indexChanging data in table DEPT will lock table EMP Create an index on table EMP with the following columns to remove lock problem Column = DEPTNO (1) Changing data in table ITEM_CATEGORIES will lock table ITEMS Create an index on table ITEMS with the following columns to remove lock problem Column = ITEM_CAT (1) Column = ITEM_BUS_UNIT (2) Changing data in table EMP will lock table EMP Create an index on table EMP with the following columns to remove lock problem Column = MGR (1)
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Constraints and Entity ModelsConstraints and Entity Models
No constraints (other than referential) on the foreign key
Additional NOT NULL constraint on the foreign key
Additional UNIQUE constraint on the foreign key
Additional UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints on the foreign key
X Y
X Y
X Y
X Y
20Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
ConstraintsConstraints
Constraints – Origins and Syntax
NULLs and Foreign Key Constraints
Deferring and Enforcing Constraints
Data Dictionary Support
Complex Constraints and Query Transformations
21Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Single column foreign key values must match primary key or be NULL
Composite foreign key values must match primary key or be wholly or partly NULL
Partly NULL keys are not checked for the integrity of the NOT NULL part
Foreign Keys and Nulls Foreign Keys and Nulls
Newdept
Divno Deptno Desc----- ------ ----------1 1 Finance1 2 Sales2 1 Operations2 2 Design2 3 Chemicals
Newemp
Divno Deptno Ename----- ------ ------2 1 Smith1 2 Adams2 1 Carter2 NULL BestNULL NULL CoxNULL 9 Scott1 NULL King2 5 Ford
PK = divno,deptno
FK = divno,deptno
Scott passes the integrity check, but Scott’s NULL can not be updated— The row for Ford will be checked out
22Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Matching NullsMatching Nulls
A composite foreign key may be (i) all NULL
(ii) all non-NULL
(iii) partially NULL
— There are three possible matching rules for such keys
1. Match Full All columns must be NULL or all columns must have matching values in the primary key
2. Match Partial All columns must be NULL or Some of the columns may be NULL and the
remainder must match values in their respective primary key columns
— Match none All columns must be NULL or one or more columns are NULL and the remainder may take any value
Oracle by default uses the Match None rule
23Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Matching Partial NULLs Matching Partial NULLs
Partial NULLs are allowed in foreign keys (ANSI standard)
To prevent partial NULLs – use a CHECK constraint
— This will force the ‘Match Full’ rule for NULLs — The ‘Match Partial’ rule can not be properly implemented using
declarative integrity constraints – database triggers must be used
CONSTRAINT divno_deptno_ck CHECK ( ((divno IS NOT NULL) AND (deptno IS NOT NULL)) OR (((divno IS NULL) AND (deptno IS NULL)))
24Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
ConstraintsConstraints
Constraints – Origins and Syntax
NULLs and Foreign Key Constraints
Deferring and Enforcing Constraints
Data Dictionary Support
Complex Constraints and Query Transformations
25Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Handling ExceptionsHandling Exceptions
To deal with rows which are violating (and preventing) a constraint
1. Construct an exceptions table using the UTLEXCPT script
2. Issue a statement to create a constraint – for example :
This will place the ROWIDs of any offending rows in the exceptions table so that the rows can be identified
and dealt with
3. Optionally remove all rows causing violations (could be dangerous)
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp_pkPRIMARY KEY (empno)EXCEPTIONS INTO exceptions;
ROW_ID OWNER TABLE_NAME CONSTRAINT------------------ ---------- ----------- ----------AAABFJAACAAAFA3AAN SCOTT EMP EMP_PKAAABFJAACAAAFA4AAN SCOTT EMP EMP_PK
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ROWID IN (SELECT row_id FROM exceptionsWHERE constraint = <constraint_name>);
26Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Deferred ConstraintsDeferred Constraints
Constraint checking can be deferred until end of transaction at commit time— If the constraint is violated, the entire transaction is rolled back
INITIALLY DEFERRED— On creation, constraint is not checked until commit
INITIALLY IMMEDIATE— On creation, constraint is checked after each DML statement (default)
DEFERRABLE, NOT DEFERRABLE— Governs whether behaviour of constraint can be subsequently changed to
DEFERRED or IMMEDIATE
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT ... :
[INITIALLY DEFERRED | INITIALLY IMMEDIATE][DEFERRABLE | NOT DEFERRABLE];
27Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Deferred Constraint ExampleDeferred Constraint Example
Scenario (hypothetical example for illustration only):— The dept table has a primary key on deptno
— The emp table has a deferrable foreign key on deptno referencing dept, initially set to ‘IMMEDIATE’
ALTER TABLE dept ADD CONSTRAINT dept_pk PRIMARY KEY(deptno)
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fkFOREIGN KEY (deptno) REFERENCES dept(deptno)INITIALLY IMMEDIATE DEFERRABLE;
28Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Deferred Constraint Example (continued)Deferred Constraint Example (continued)
It is required to update a department number from 10 to 99
Changes will need to be made by separate update statements as follows1. UPDATE dept SET deptno = 99 WHERE deptno = 10;2. UPDATE emp SET deptno = 99 WHERE deptno = 10;
The first update fails with the following error message
— The constraint is checked ‘immediately’ and therefore too early• Reversing the updates does not help
— Maybe we can change the constraint mode
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.EMP_DEPT_FK) violated - child record found
29Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Changing the Constraint ModeChanging the Constraint Mode
Two methods available to toggle constraint modes
1. SET CONSTRAINT— Used to change the mode for a single transaction
2. ALTER SESSION— Changes mode for all deferrable constraints for an entire session
— Reset to default (initial) validation using the keyword DEFAULT
SET CONSTRAINT constraint_name,...,constraint_nameIMMEDIATE | DEFERRED;
SET CONSTRAINTS ALL IMMEDIATE | DEFERRED;
ALTER SESSION SET CONSTRAINTS = IMMEDIATE | DEFERRED;
ALTER SESSION SET CONSTRAINTS = DEFAULT;
30Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Processing the Update TransactionProcessing the Update Transaction
1. Set the constraint to be deferred until the end of the transaction— Constraint checked when commit occurs
2. Execute both updates— These both succeed in changing deptno values in emp and dept from 10
to 99
3. Issue the commit — The entire transaction will succeed as all the data is now consistent at time
of commit
SET CONSTRAINT emp_dept_pk DEFERRED;
31Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Index Support for Deferred ConstraintsIndex Support for Deferred Constraints
Index must be non-unique for deferred constraints— Index uniqueness could be violated DURING the transaction
Dropping a deferrable constraint does not drop the index (by default)
Creating a deferred constraint will use an existing non-unique index on the intended primary key column— Uniqueness will now be enforced— Index name will not be changed to constraint name
Any constraint built on an MV should be deferrable— The refresh process requires this
32Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Enforced ConstraintsEnforced Constraints
Existing data is not checked— Checks made only on changes after enabling the constraint
Used when constraints do not apply to historical data or when it is known that existing data already complies with the constraint
Example : No new employees can have a salary > $3000
— Constraint is created even though existing rows violate it
Attempt to insert a new row which violates the constraint
— Rejected with the following error message
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT sal_ck CHECK (sal <=3000) ENABLE NOVALIDATE;
INSERT INTO emp (empno,ename,sal,deptno)VALUES (8888,’COX’,5500,10);
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.EMP_CK) violated
33Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Validating Enforced ConstraintsValidating Enforced Constraints
After eliminating all violations, the constraint can be validated so that it acts upon all rows in the table
If King’s salary of $5000 is still present the following error message is generated
ALTER TABLE emp ENABLE VALIDATE CONSTRAINT sal_ck;
ORA-02293: cannot enable (SCOTT.EMP_CK) - check constraint violated
34Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Setting up Primary Keys with NOVALIDATESetting up Primary Keys with NOVALIDATE
Suppose you have a table of historical data that could already have duplicate rows which are of no immediate consequence
You want to restrict any new data to be unique
1. Create a non-unique index on the 'primary key' column(s)
2. Create a primary key constraint in NOVALIDATE state
The normal instigation of a primary key builds a unique index even in NOVALIDATE state— Any duplicate rows already present will foul the creation of the index— If no duplicates, there will still be a delay before the constraint is enforced
due to creation of the unique index
35Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Non_unique Indexes for Primary KeysNon_unique Indexes for Primary Keys
CREATE TABLE empn AS SELECT * FROM emp;
INSERT INTO empn SELECT * FROM empn WHERE empno = 7369;
ALTER TABLE empn ADD CONSTRAINT empn_pk PRIMARY KEY(EMPNO)USING INDEX (CREATE INDEX empn_pk ON empn(empno)) NOVALIDATE;
Table altered. --succeeds because non-unique index can be built
INSERT INTO empn SELECT * FROM empn;
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.EMPN_PK) violated
ALTER TABLE empn ADD CONSTRAINT empn_pk PRIMARY KEY(empno) NOVALIDATE;
ORA-02437: cannot validate (SCOTT.EMPNOVAL_PK) - primary key violated
Build a table with duplicate data already present
Try to enforce a (non-DEFERRABLE) primary key with a unique index
Enforce primary key with non-unique index
36Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
RELYRELY
Tells Oracle that it should rely on the data complying with the constraint
Basically you are asking the optimizer to trust you to guarantee the data
RELY allows the optimizer to 'use' a NOVALIDATE constraint— Main relevance is for materialized views
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT sal_ck CHECK (comm = sal) ENABLE NOVALIDATE RELY;
37Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints and IndexesConstraints and Indexes
Constraints are logical entities
Indexes are physical structures
Primary key and unique constraints do not theoretically require indexes— An index is used (and built if needed) to enhance performance
• Full table scan could be used to check for duplicate values
A non-unique index can support a constraint— Must be used for deferred constraints— May be used if it already exists and has the chosen primary key column(s)
as the leading edge— Remains live if the constraint is dropped, unless DROP INDEX is used— Can be selected from the set of suitable indexes with USING INDEX
• Or built on creation of the constraint with CREATE INDEX
38Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Support for Legal SQL StatementsSupport for Legal SQL Statements
UPDATE emp SET empno = empno + 5;
Empno
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Empno
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
6^
7^
8^
9
10
11
12
13
Yet another reason why you should not attempt to substitute constraints with your own code— Non-unique index support tends to generate more redo
before after
39Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Non-Unique Indexes - Examples of UseNon-Unique Indexes - Examples of Use
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT pk_emp PRIMARY KEY(empno) USING INDEX(CREATE UNIQUE INDEX twocol
ON emp(empno,ename));
ORA-14196: Specified index cannot be used to enforce the constraint.
Existing indexes can be used— Could help minimize number of required indexes— Can overload unique index with extra columns to avoid table access
Presence of additional columns works only for Non-unique indexes
ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT pk_emp PRIMARY KEY(empno) USING INDEX(CREATE INDEX empno_ename ON emp(empno,ename));
Default : KEEP for non-unique indexes DROP for unique indexes
ALTER TABLE emp DROP PRIMARY KEY [KEEP | DROP INDEX]; KEEP allows Nulls
40Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Efficient Use of Integrity Constraints: A ProcedureEfficient Use of Integrity Constraints: A Procedure
Using states of integrity constraints in the following order can ensure the best benefits:1. Place constraint in disable state2. Perform the DML operation (load, export, import).3. Enable the constraint in novalidate state4. Fully enable the constraint (validate)
Some benefits of using constraints in this order are:— No locks are held— All constraints can go to enable state concurrently
• Constraint enabling is done in parallel— Concurrent activity on table is permitted
41Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
ConstraintsConstraints
Constraints – Origins and Syntax
NULLs and Foreign Key Constraints
Deferring and Enforcing Constraints
Data Dictionary Support
Complex Constraints and Query Transformations
42Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints in the Data DictionaryConstraints in the Data Dictionary
Details of constraints can be found in user_constraints
The constraint_type column can have the following values
C : Check constraint (tables only)P : Primary key constraintR : Foreign key constraintU : Unique key constraintV : WITH CHECK OPTION constraint on a
viewO : Read only view (not table)F : Constraint involving a REF columnS : Supplemental LoggingH : Hash expression
TABLE_NAME CONSTRAINT_NAME CONSTRAINT_TYPE R_CONSTRAINT_NAME STATUS-------------- ---------------- --------------- ----------------- --------DEPT DEPT_PK P ENABLEDEMP EMP_PK P ENABLEDEMP EMP_JOB_CK C DISABLEDEMP SYS_C001415 C ENABLEDEMP EMP_DEPT_FK R DEPT_PK ENABLEDEMP SYS_C011791 ?
43Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints in the Data Dictionary (continued)Constraints in the Data Dictionary (continued)
Columns suffering constraints are found in user_cons_columns
SELECT constraint_name ,table_name ,column_name ,position FROM user_cons_columns;
CONSTRAINT_NAME TABLE_NAME COLUMN_NAME POSITION----------------- ------------ ------------ --------EMP_JOB$DEPTNO_UK EMP JOB 1EMP_JOB$DEPTNO_UK EMP DEPTNO 2DEPT_PK DEPT DEPTNO 1EMP_PK EMP EMPNO 1
44Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
CREATE VIEW v2 AS SELECT * FROM emp;
ALTER VIEW v2 ADD PRIMARY key(empno) DISABLE NOVALIDATE;
ALTER TABLE emp DROP PRIMARY KEY;
SELECT constraint_name ,constraint_type ,table_name ,status ,validated ,rely ,invalid ,view_related FROM user_constraints WHERE invalid IS NOT NULL;
CONSTRAINT_NAME C TABLE_NAME STATUS VALIDATED RELY INVALID VIEW_RELATED--------------- - ---------- -------- ------------- ---- ------- --------------SYS_C0011765 P V2 DISABLED NOT VALIDATED INVALID DEPEND ON VIEW
Constraints in the Data Dictionary (continued)Constraints in the Data Dictionary (continued)
Example of INVALID constraint
45Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints in the data Dictionary (continued)Constraints in the data Dictionary (continued)
Supplemental logging shows up in user_constraints— Log groups are not shown— The constraint_type is shown as ‘?’ (NOT ‘S’)
ALTER TABLE emp ADD PRIMARY key(empno);
ALTER TABLE emp ADD SUPPLEMENTAL LOG DATA(PRIMARY KEY) COLUMNS;
ALTER TABLE emp ADD SUPPLEMENTAL LOG DATA(ALL) COLUMNS;
ALTER TABLE emp ADD SUPPLEMENTAL LOG GROUP sal_comm(sal,comm);
SELECT constraint_name, constraint_type, table_name FROM user_constraints WHERE table_name = 'EMP';
CONSTRAINT_NAME C TABLE_NAME------------------------------ - ------------------------------SYS_C0011794 P EMPSYS_C0011795 ? EMPSYS_C0011796 ? EMP
46Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Types of Constraints in the DictionaryTypes of Constraints in the Dictionary
Definition of dba_constraints shows some of the types as ‘?’ or not at all— type# can have a value of 1-17 in cdef$
decode(c.type#, 1, 'C', 2, 'P', 3, 'U', 4, 'R', 5, 'V', 6, 'O', 7, 'C', '?'), : :and c.type# != 8 /* don't include hash expressions */and c.type# != 12 /* don't include log groups */
47Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
dbms_metadata Supportdbms_metadata Support
SELECT dbms_metadata.get_dependent_ddl ( 'REF_CONSTRAINT', 'EMP' ) fks_on_emp FROM dual;
FKS_ON_EMP------------------------------------------------------------ ALTER TABLE "SCOTT"."EMP" ADD FOREIGN KEY ("DEPTNO") REFERENCES "SCOTT"."DEPT”(“DEPTNO”) ENABLE ALTER TABLE "SCOTT"."EMP" ADD CONSTRAINT “MGR_FK” FOREIGN KEY (“MGR")REFERENCES "SCOTT".“EMP”(“EMPNO”) ENABLE
SELECT * FROM ( SELECT c.table_name, cc.column_name, cc.position column_position FROM user_constraints c, user_cons_columns cc WHERE c.constraint_name = cc.constraint_name AND c.constraint_type = 'R' MINUS SELECT i.table_name, ic.column_name, ic.column_position FROM user_indexes i, user_ind_columns ic WHERE i.index_name = ic.index_name )ORDER BY table_name, column_position;
Script showing unindexed foreign key columns
48Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
ConstraintsConstraints
Constraints – Origins and Syntax
NULLs and Foreign Key Constraints
Deferring and Enforcing Constraints
Data Dictionary Support
Complex Constraints and Query Transformations
49Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Foreign Keys Referencing Non-unique ColumnsForeign Keys Referencing Non-unique Columns
Problem :
Need to enforce a foreign key constraint on the occupation column in the empdep table based on data in the emp table— Requires a reference to a non-unique column (job) in the emp table
Reference a materialized view carrying only unique values of job
EMPNO JOB----- -------- 7366 SALESMAN 7500 MANAGER 7902 MANAGER 7566 CLERK 7934 SALESMAN
JOB--------SALESMANMANAGERCLERK
ENAME OCCUPATION-------- ----------WOODS CLERKJOHNSON MANAGERCOX CLERKPITT CLERKSPINK SALESMANDRAPER MANAGER
EMP
EMP_V1
EMPDEP
primary keyforeign key
50Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Enforcing Foreign Keys Without Primary keysEnforcing Foreign Keys Without Primary keys
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW LOG ON emp WITH ROWID,PRIMARY KEY,SEQUENCE(job) INCLUDING NEW VALUES;
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW emp_v1REFRESH FAST ON COMMITENABLE QUERY REWRITEAS SELECT job FROM emp GROUP BY job;
ALTER MATERIALIZED VIEW emp_v1 ADD PRIMARY KEY (job);
ALTER TABLE empdep ADD CONSTRAINT empdep_emp_v1 FOREIGN KEY (occupation) REFERENCES emp_v1;
UPDATE empdep SET occupation = 'X';ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SCOTT.EMPDEP_EMP_V1) violated - parent key not found
job is not unique in emp
job is unique in MV
empdep must have only jobs in the emp table
51Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Enforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized ViewsEnforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized Views
Limit the total amount_sold of a single product sold through a single channel to 563000000
Create a materialized view, prod_chan_mv, which returns the maximum amount sold for any product on any channel
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW prod_chan_mvBUILD IMMEDIATEREFRESH FAST ON COMMITASSELECT prod_id, channel_id, SUM(amount_sold) sum_amount_soldFROM salesGROUP BY prod_id, channel_id;
— REFRESH FAST ON COMMIT is necessary• The constraint must be checked each time a change to the sales table
is committed
52Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Enforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized Views (continued)Enforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized Views (continued)
Find the maximum amount sold across all products within channels
SELECT prod_id, channel_id, sum_amount_soldFROM prod_chan_mvWHERE sum_amount_sold = (SELECT MAX(sum_amount_sold) FROM prod_chan_mv);
PROD_ID CHANNEL_ID SUM_AMOUNT_SOLD---------- ---------- --------------- 18 3 562565473
As the maximum amount sold was 562565473 it is sensible to make the constraint on the sum_amount_sold column 563000000
ALTER TABLE prod_chan_mvADD CONSTRAINT amount_sold_checkCHECK (sum_amount_sold < 563000000)DEFERRABLE;
— Constraint is checked on commit rather than on update
53Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Testing Complex Constraint Checking with Materialized Views Testing Complex Constraint Checking with Materialized Views
Insert a row with an amount_sold value of 8000000 which causes the constraint on the MV to be violated
INSERT INTO sales VALUES(18, 1, '01-jan-2002', 3, 999, 1, 8000000);
Constraint is not enforced until the commit (and refresh) takes place
SQL> COMMIT;COMMITERROR at line 1:ORA-12048: error encountered while refreshing materialized View "SH"."PROD_CHAN_MV"ORA-02290: check constraint (SH.AMOUNT_SOLD_CHECK) violated
Could lead to large numbers of rows in the MV when constraint is repeatedly NOT violated
54Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Attempt to Avoid Storage Overheads when Enforcing Constraints with Materialized Views Attempt to Avoid Storage Overheads when Enforcing Constraints with Materialized Views
A HAVING clause makes it possible to collect into the MV only those rows that have amount_sold greater than 563000000
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW prod_chan_mvBUILD IMMEDIATEREFRESH FAST ON COMMITASSELECT prod_id ,channel_id ,SUM(amount_sold) sum_amount_soldFROM salesGROUP BY prod_id, channel_idHAVING SUM(amount_sold) > 563000000;
BUT there is a limitation— The presence of HAVING makes the view a ‘complex MV’ which is not able
to be refreshed on commit• Still the case in Oracle11g
55Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Enforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized View JoinsEnforcing Complex Constraints with Materialized View Joins
Problem – employees are assigned to projects
Assignment period must be contained within the duration of the project
Tables :
CREATE TABLE proj ( projno NUMBER PRIMARY KEY ,start_date DATE NOT NULL ,end_date DATE NOT NULL);
CREATE TABLE proj_asst ( empno NUMBER NOT NULL ,projno NUMBER NOT NULL ,start_date DATE NOT NULL ,end_date DATE NOT NULL ,PRIMARY KEY (empno, projno, start_date));
56Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Sample Input DataSample Input Data
proj
PROJNO START_DATE END_DATE------ ---------- --------- 1 01-AUG-09 31-AUG-09 2 22-JUL-09 29-SEP-09 3 01-MAR-08 30-APR-08
proj_asst
EMPNO PROJNO START_DATE END_DATE----- ------ ---------- --------- 7369 1 12-AUG-09 19-AUG-09 7369 2 21-AUG-09 28-AUG-09 7369 2 18-AUG-09 25-SEP-09 7369 1 01-AUG-09 31-AUG-09 7369 1 02-JAN-08 31-MAY-08 7369 3 23-SEP-09 30-SEP-09 Bad rows
57Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
The Materialized ViewThe Materialized View
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW LOG ON proj WITH ROWID(projno,start_date,end_date) INCLUDING NEW VALUES;
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW LOG ON proj_asst WITH ROWID(empno,projno,start_date,end_date) INCLUDING NEW VALUES;
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW proj_asst_mv REFRESH FAST ON COMMIT AS SELECT pa.projno ,pa.start_date pa_start_date ,pa.end_date pa_end_date ,p.start_date p_start_date ,p.end_date p_end_date ,pa.rowid pa_rowid ,p.rowid p_rowid FROM proj_asst pa ,proj p WHERE pa.projno = p.projno AND NOT (pa.start_date >= p.start_date AND pa.end_date <= p.end_date);
View designed to collect only the 'bad' rows
58Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
The Constraint to Avoid Storage OverhaeadThe Constraint to Avoid Storage Overhaead
MV is designed to capture as part of the transaction, only the invalid rows
The CHECK constraint prevents these rows being inserted into the view— Thus causing the initiating transaction to fail
• Valid rows are not considered for the MV – no storage overhead
ALTER TABLE proj_asst_mv ADD CONSTRAINT proj_asst_mv_ckdates CHECK (pa_start_date >= p_start_date AND pa_end_date <= p_end_date) DEFERRABLE;
The MV will always be empty — On 11g Release2 with DEFERRED_SEGMENT_CREATION it may never be
built!
59Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Complex 'Constraints' with Unique IndexesComplex 'Constraints' with Unique Indexes
Suppose we can have a maximum of only one manager in each department
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX emp_ind ON emp (CASE WHEN job = 'MANAGER' THEN TO_CHAR(deptno)||job ELSE NULL END);
Ensures unique combinations of job and deptno columns only for managers
— But ---Index can be dropped— Need to think about Null values
UPDATE emp SET job = 'MANAGER' WHERE ename = 'SMITH';ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.EMP_IND) violated
UPDATE emp SET job = 'CLERK';14 rows updated.
60Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
NOT NULL Constraints Effects on QueriesNOT NULL Constraints Effects on Queries
Specify NOT NULL constraints wherever possible— Cuts down tests for, and coping with, possibility of NULLs— Could allow greater use of indexes
• Query transformations• Fast Full Index scans
• Indexes are 'skinny'• Could eliminate sorts
Inserting nulls into NOT NULL columns
Inserting nulls into NOT NULL DEFERRABLE columns
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SCOTT"."EMP"."DEPTNO")
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C0012066) violated
61Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Behaviour with NOT NULL ConstraintsBehaviour with NOT NULL Constraints
Table empn has ~ 60000 rows— job column does not contain any nulls and is not indexed
Constraint type No constraint
NOT NULL NOT NULL NOVALIDATE
NOT NULL DEFERRED
Consistent gets 397 0 397 397
NOT NULL constraint has prevented an entire table access for this query
NULL IS NOT NULL is added to the query as a filter— If in NOVALIDATE or DEFERRED state, the optimization is lost
• Think carefully before using these states— Does not seem to apply to virtual columns --??
Enforcing not null via CHECK syntax does not have this optimization effect— null$ in col$ remains set to 0
SELECT * FROM empn WHERE job IS NULL;
62Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
NOT NULL Constraints and the OptimizerNOT NULL Constraints and the Optimizer
Wide 1m row emp table with 500 extra characters in each row— Five different jobs in an indexed job column— Two queries under test
SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp; --Q1SELECT job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY job; --Q2
Q1 No constraint on job NOT NULL constraint on job
Query Plan HASH UNIQUE TABLE ACCESS FULL EMP
HASH UNIQUE INDEX FAST FULL SCAN EMP$JOB
Disk Reads 70805 2419
CPU Time 0.87s 0.46s
Elapsed Time
12.19s 0.85s
fat table skinny index
63Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
NOT NULL Constraints and the Optimizer (continued)NOT NULL Constraints and the Optimizer (continued)
If OPTIMIZER_MODE = FIRST_ROWS_1, Q1 with job as NOT NULL gives :
SELECT job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY job; --Q2
SORT GROUP BY NOSORT INDEX FULL SCAN EMP$JOB
Q2 No constraint on job NOT NULL constraint on job
Query Plan HASH GROUP BY TABLE ACCESS FULL EMP
HASH GROUP BY INDEX FAST FULL SCAN EMP$JOB
Disk Reads 70805 2419
CPU Time 0.95s 0.65s
Elapsed Time
12.40s 1.10s
64Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
NOT IN subqueriesNOT IN subqueries
SELECT * FROM dept WHERE deptno NOT IN (SELECT deptno FROM emp);
No constraint on deptno NOT NULL constraint on deptno
Query Plan
HASH JOIN ANTI NA TABLE ACCESS FULL EMP TABLE ACCESS FULL DEPT
HASH JOIN ANTI SNA TABLE ACCESS FULL DEPT INDEX FAST FULL SCAN EMP$DEPTNO
Disk Reads
70811 1801
CPU Time
0.84s 0.53s
Elapsed Time
12.24s 0.83s
— NA : NULL Aware anti-join— SNA : Single NULL Aware anti-join
10g does :
Both are 11g features
FILTER TABLE ACCESS FULL DEPT TABLE ACCESS FULL EMP
65Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Counting the Rows in a TableCounting the Rows in a Table
NULL values not stored in Btree indexes— Oracle cannot guarantee that the count of index entries is equal to number
of rows in table— Full table scan must be executed - slow
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM s;
COUNT(*)-------- 918843
Elapsed: 00:00:03.17
-------------------------------------------------------------------| Id | Operation | Name | Rows | Cost (%CPU)| Time |-------------------------------------------------------------------| 0 | SELECT STATEMENT | | 1 | 5250 (1)| 00:01:03 || 1 | SORT AGGREGATE | | 1 | | || 2 | TABLE ACCESS FULL| S | 918K| 5250 (1)| 00:01:03 |-------------------------------------------------------------------
Statistics----------------------------------------------------------19214 consistent gets
66Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Counting the Rows in a Table (continued)Counting the Rows in a Table (continued)
Inform Oracle that there cannot be any NULLs in seqid via a constraint
Index will now be used to count the rows – fast— Oracle knows that scanning the index will definitely give the right answer
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM s;
COUNT(*)-------- 918843
Elapsed: 00:00:00.07-------------------------------------------------------------------------| Id | Operation | Name | Rows | Cost (%CPU)| Time |-------------------------------------------------------------------------| 0 | SELECT STATEMENT | | 1 | 562 (2)| 00:00:07 || 1 | SORT AGGREGATE | | 1 | | || 2 | INDEX FAST FULL SCAN| S$SEQID | 918K| 562 (2)| 00:00:07 |-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Statistics----------------------------------------------------------2062 consistent gets
ALTER TABLE s MODIFY seqid NOT NULL;
CHECK (sal IS NOT NULL)does not work in this way
67Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints and Query TransformationConstraints and Query Transformation
Constrain jobs in a top_jobs table
SELECT * FROM top_jobs;
JOB_ID JOB MAXSAL------ --------- ------ 1 PRESIDENT 6000 2 MANAGER 4000 3 ANALYST 3500
ALTER TABLE top_jobs ADD CONSTRAINT ck_top_jobs CHECK (job IN ('PRESIDENT','MANAGER','ANALYST'));
CREATE INDEX emp$job ON emp(job);
Index the job column in the emp table
SELECT ename,job,sal,t.maxsal FROM emp e,top_jobs t WHERE t.job = e.job AND e.deptno = 10;
Join top_jobs to emp
68Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Constraints and Query Transformation (continued)Constraints and Query Transformation (continued)
Query transformation takes place
NESTED LOOPS NESTED LOOPS TABLE ACCESS FULL TOP_JOBS INDEX RANGE SCAN EMP$JOB TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID EMPaccess("T"."JOB"="E"."JOB")filter("E"."DEPTNO"10)
HASH JOIN INLIST ITERATOR TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID EMP INDEX RANGE SCAN EMP$JOB TABLE ACCESS FULL TOP_JOBS access("T"."JOB"="E"."JOB") filter("E"."DEPTNO"=10) access("E"."JOB"='ANALYST' OR "E"."JOB"='MANAGER' OR "E"."JOB"='PRESIDENT')
If the constraint is removed a very different plan is obtained
69Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Conditional Constraints using DECODE or CASEConditional Constraints using DECODE or CASE
An active project has status = 1, otherwise it is archived
The job has to be unique in the same teamid for the active projects— Means teamid and job have to be unique while status = 1
Solved with a function based index (FBI) using DECODE or CASE
CREATE TABLE project ( project_ID NUMBER PRIMARY KEY ,teamid NUMBER ,job VARCHAR2(100) ,status NUMBER(1));
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX project_idx ON project ( DECODE(status, 1, teamid, NULL ), DECODE(status, 1, job, NULL ));
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX project_idx ON project ( CASE WHEN status = 1 THEN teamid ELSE NULL END, CASE WHEN status = 1 THEN job ELSE NULL END);
70Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Join EliminationJoin Elimination
emp table has deptno column as a foreign key referencing dept
SELECT e,empno, e.enameFROM emp e, dept dWHERE e.deptno = d.deptno;
---------------------------------|Operation | Name |Rows |---------------------------------|SELECT STATEMENT | | 14|| TABLE ACCESS FULL| EMP | 14|---------------------------------Predicate Information-----------------------------1 - filter("EMP"."DEPTNO" IS NOT NULL)
— Join to dept table is eliminated in 10.2
SELECT e.empno, e.enameFROM emp eWHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM dept d WHERE d.deptno = e.deptno)
— Anti-Join to dept table is eliminated in 11.1
Predicate added by Oracle
71Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Outer Join EliminationOuter Join Elimination
Can occur even without PK-FK constraints— dept table simply has a unique constraint on deptno
Find employees whether or not in a department
SELECT e.empno, e.enameFROM emp e, dept dWHERE e.deptno = d.deptno(+);
---------------------------------|Operation | Name |Rows |---------------------------------|SELECT STATEMENT | | 14|| TABLE ACCESS FULL| EMP | 14|---------------------------------
— Join to dept table is eliminated in 11.1
— EVERY row in emp is guaranteed to appear ONCE in output• Unique constraint on dept.deptno ensures this
72Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Join Elimination in ViewsJoin Elimination in Views
Badly written queries can benefit from join elimination— Unlikely situation?
Queries are often actioned on views
------------------------------------------------------| Operation | Name | Rows |------------------------------------------------------| SELECT STATEMENT | | 1 || NESTED LOOPS | | || NESTED LOOPS | | 1 || TABLE ACCESS FULL | EMP | 14 || INDEX UNIQUE SCAN | PK_PROJECTS | 1 || TABLE ACCESS BY INDEX ROWID| PROJECTS | 1 |------------------------------------------------------
http://optimizermagic.blogspot.com/2008/06/why-are-some-of-tables-in-my-query.html
CREATE VIEW ed AS SELECT e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc, p.pnameFROM emp e, dept d, projects pWHERE e.deptno = d.deptnoAND e.proj_id = p.proj_id;
pk-fk constraints are present
No join to dept table
73Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Updatable ViewsUpdatable Views
If dept has primary key on deptno column, emp is key-preserved— Columns derived from emp become key-preserved
• 14 rows in the view and 14 rows in the emp table
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW deptemp AS SELECT empno ,ename ,job ,mgr ,hiredate ,sal ,comm ,dept.deptno ,dname ,loc FROM emp ,dept WHERE dept.deptno = emp.deptno
Views on more than one table (join-views) have restrictions for updates— Columns which are updatable must be in key-preserved tables— known 1:1 mapping of rows in the view to rows in the underlying base table
74Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Primary Keys and Key-Preserved TablesPrimary Keys and Key-Preserved Tables
Example scenario with no primary key on dept table— Duplicate rows are possible
dept
deptno dname loc------ ------- ----- 30 SALES LEEDS 50 FINANCE YORK 50 DESIGN BATH
emp
empno ename ... deptno------ ----- --- ------ 2561 COOK 30 4590 BROWN 30 1695 GREEN 50
Result of the equi-join on emp and dept— Note that no table is key-preserved, so no columns are updatable
• deptno values in emp map to more than one row in dept table
empno ename ... deptno dname loc------ ----- --- ------ ------- ----- 2561 COOK 30 SALES LEEDS 4590 BROWN 30 SALES LEEDS 1695 GREEN 50 FINANCE YORK 1695 GREEN 50 DESIGN BATH
75Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Updates on ViewsUpdates on Views
SQL> SELECT * FROM deptemp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO DNAME LOC----- ------ --------- ---- --------- ---- ---- ------ ---------- -------- 7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK 7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK 7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK 7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30 SALES CHICAGO 7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30 SALES CHICAGO 7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30 SALES CHICAGO 7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30 SALES CHICAGO 7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30 SALES CHICAGO 7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30 SALES CHICAGO
The dept table has a primary key on deptno
deptno, dname and loc (columns from dept) are non-updatable
Rows can be deleted but not inserted
76Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
DELETE FROM deptempWHERE deptno = 10;
3 rows deleted.
UPDATE deptemp SET job = 'CLERK’WHERE ename = 'FORD';
1 row updated.
UPDATE deptemp SET dname = 'ACCOUNTING' WHERE ename = 'FORD'; ERROR at line 1:ORA-01779: cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-preserved table
Primary key is necessary on the non key-preserved table (dept)— Otherwise no updates or deletes are possible
Updates on Views (continued)Updates on Views (continued)
77Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
SummarySummary
Constraints
— Are never circumvented
— Apply to all rows and all applications
— Simple to specify - ‘Once only’ definition
— Efficient
— Cannot be used for complex business rules
— Are not checked until data is written to the database
— Do not implement all referential actions
— Are often incompatible with database triggers
— Can be used by the optimizer to eliminate unnecessary operations
• Join elimination
• SET operator elimination
• Eliminate entire table access(es)
• Maximize the use of Materialized Views
Carl Dudley – Tradba Ltd
Declarative Constraints for Complex Business Rules and Improved
Performance
Carl DudleyTradba Ltd
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