Decision Making: Decision Making: The Essence of the The Essence of the

Manager’s JobManager’s Job

Ch 6Ch 6

Decision MakingDecision Making

DecisionDecision Making a choice from two or more Making a choice from two or more

alternatives.alternatives. The Decision-Making ProcessThe Decision-Making Process

Identifying a problem and decision Identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria and allocating weights to the criteria.criteria.

Developing, analyzing, and selecting an Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem.alternative that can resolve the problem.

Implementing the selected alternative.Implementing the selected alternative. Evaluating the decision’s effectiveness.Evaluating the decision’s effectiveness.

Step 1: Identifying the Step 1: Identifying the ProblemProblem ProblemProblem

A discrepancy between an existing and A discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs.desired state of affairs.

Characteristics of ProblemsCharacteristics of Problems A problem becomes a problem when a A problem becomes a problem when a

manager becomes aware of it.manager becomes aware of it.

There is pressure to solve the problem.There is pressure to solve the problem.

The manager must have the authority, The manager must have the authority, information, or resources needed to information, or resources needed to solve the problem.solve the problem.

Step 2: Identifying Decision Step 2: Identifying Decision CriteriaCriteria

Decision criteria are factors that are important Decision criteria are factors that are important (relevant) to resolving the problem.(relevant) to resolving the problem. Costs that will be incurred (investments required)Costs that will be incurred (investments required) Risks likely to be encountered (chance of failure)Risks likely to be encountered (chance of failure) Outcomes that are desired (growth of the firm)Outcomes that are desired (growth of the firm)

Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Step 3: Allocating Weights to the CriteriaCriteria

Decision criteria are not of equal Decision criteria are not of equal importance:importance: Assigning a weight to each item places Assigning a weight to each item places

the items in the correct priority order of the items in the correct priority order of their importance in the decision making their importance in the decision making process.process.

Step 4: Developing AlternativesStep 4: Developing Alternatives

Identifying viable alternativesIdentifying viable alternatives Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that

can resolve the problem.can resolve the problem.

Step 5: Analyzing AlternativesStep 5: Analyzing Alternatives

Appraising each alternative’s strengths Appraising each alternative’s strengths and weaknessesand weaknesses An alternative’s appraisal is based on An alternative’s appraisal is based on

its ability to resolve the issues its ability to resolve the issues identified in steps 2 and 3.identified in steps 2 and 3.

Step 6: Selecting an AlternativeStep 6: Selecting an Alternative

Choosing the best alternativeChoosing the best alternative The alternative with the highest total The alternative with the highest total

weight is chosen.weight is chosen.

Step 7: Implementing the DecisionStep 7: Implementing the Decision

Putting the chosen alternative Putting the chosen alternative into action.into action. Conveying the decision to and Conveying the decision to and

gaining commitment from those gaining commitment from those who will carry out the decision.who will carry out the decision.

Step 8: Evaluating the Decision’s Step 8: Evaluating the Decision’s EffectivenessEffectiveness

The soundness of the decision The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes.is judged by its outcomes. How effectively was the problem How effectively was the problem

resolved by outcomes resulting resolved by outcomes resulting from the chosen alternatives?from the chosen alternatives?

If the problem was not resolved, If the problem was not resolved, what went wrong?what went wrong?

Making DecisionsMaking Decisions

RationalityRationality Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices

with specified constraints.with specified constraints. Assumptions are that decision makers:Assumptions are that decision makers:

Are perfectly rational, fully objective, and logical.Are perfectly rational, fully objective, and logical. Have carefully defined the problem and identified Have carefully defined the problem and identified

all viable alternatives.all viable alternatives. Have a clear and specific goalHave a clear and specific goal Will select the alternative that maximizes outcomes Will select the alternative that maximizes outcomes

in the organization’s interests rather than in their in the organization’s interests rather than in their personal interests.personal interests.

Making Decisions (cont’d)Making Decisions (cont’d)

Bounded RationalityBounded Rationality

Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited (bounded) by their ability to process information.(bounded) by their ability to process information.

Assumptions are that decision makers:Assumptions are that decision makers:

Will not seek out or have knowledge of all Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternativesalternatives

Will Will satisficesatisfice—choose the first alternative —choose the first alternative encountered that satisfactorily solves the encountered that satisfactorily solves the problem—problem—rather than maximize the outcome of rather than maximize the outcome of their decision by considering all alternatives and their decision by considering all alternatives and choosing the best.choosing the best.

Influences on Decision MakingInfluences on Decision Making

Escalation of CommitmentEscalation of Commitment Increasing or continuing a commitment Increasing or continuing a commitment

to previous decision despite mounting to previous decision despite mounting evidence that the decision may have evidence that the decision may have been wrong.been wrong.

The Role of IntuitionThe Role of Intuition Intuitive decision makingIntuitive decision making

Making decisions on the basis of experience, Making decisions on the basis of experience, feelings, and accumulated judgment.feelings, and accumulated judgment.

Problems and DecisionsProblems and Decisions

Structured ProblemsStructured Problems Involve goals that clear,Involve goals that clear, Are familiar (have occurred before),Are familiar (have occurred before), Are easily and completely definedAre easily and completely defined——

inforinformation about the problem is mation about the problem is available and complete,available and complete,

Programmed DecisionProgrammed Decision A repetitive decision that can be A repetitive decision that can be

handled by a routine approach.handled by a routine approach.

Types of Programmed DecisionsTypes of Programmed Decisions

A PolicyA Policy A general guideline for making a A general guideline for making a

decision about a structured problem.decision about a structured problem. A ProcedureA Procedure

A series of interrelated steps that a A series of interrelated steps that a manager can use to respond (applying a manager can use to respond (applying a policy) to a structured problem.policy) to a structured problem.

A RuleA Rule An explicit statement that limits what a An explicit statement that limits what a

manager or employee can or cannot do manager or employee can or cannot do in carrying out the steps involved in a in carrying out the steps involved in a procedure.procedure.

Policy, Procedure, and Rule Policy, Procedure, and Rule ExampleExample

PolicyPolicy Accept all customer-returned Accept all customer-returned

merchandise.merchandise. ProcedureProcedure

Follow all steps for completing Follow all steps for completing merchandise return documentation.merchandise return documentation.

RulesRules Managers must approve all refunds over Managers must approve all refunds over

$50.00.$50.00. No credit purchases are refunded for No credit purchases are refunded for

cash.cash.

Problems and Decisions (cont’d)Problems and Decisions (cont’d)

Unstructured ProblemsUnstructured Problems Problems that are new or unusual and Problems that are new or unusual and

for which information is ambiguous or for which information is ambiguous or incomplete.incomplete.

Problems that will require custom-made Problems that will require custom-made solutions.solutions.

Nonprogrammed DecisionsNonprogrammed Decisions Decisions that are unique and Decisions that are unique and

nonrecurring.nonrecurring. Decisions that generate unique Decisions that generate unique

responses.responses.

Decision-Making ConditionsDecision-Making Conditions

CertaintyCertainty A ideal situation in which a manager can A ideal situation in which a manager can

make an accurate decision because the make an accurate decision because the outcome of every alternative choice is outcome of every alternative choice is known.known.

RiskRisk A situation in which the manager is able A situation in which the manager is able

to estimate the likelihood (probability) of to estimate the likelihood (probability) of outcomes that result from the choice of outcomes that result from the choice of particular alternatives.particular alternatives.

Decision-Making ConditionsDecision-Making Conditions

UncertaintyUncertainty Limited or information prevents estimation of Limited or information prevents estimation of

outcome probabilities for alternatives associated outcome probabilities for alternatives associated with the problem and may force managers to with the problem and may force managers to rely on intuition, hunches, and “gut feelings”.rely on intuition, hunches, and “gut feelings”.

Maximax: the optimistic manager’s choice to Maximax: the optimistic manager’s choice to maximize the maximum payoffmaximize the maximum payoff

Maximin: the pessimistic manager’s choice Maximin: the pessimistic manager’s choice to maximize the minimum payoffto maximize the minimum payoff

Minimax: the manager’s choice to minimize Minimax: the manager’s choice to minimize his maximum regret.his maximum regret.

Decision-Making StylesDecision-Making Styles

Dimensions of Decision-Making Dimensions of Decision-Making StylesStyles Ways of thinkingWays of thinking

Rational, orderly, and consistentRational, orderly, and consistent Intuitive, creative, and uniqueIntuitive, creative, and unique

Tolerance for ambiguityTolerance for ambiguity Low tolerance: require consistency Low tolerance: require consistency

and orderand order High tolerance: multiple thoughts High tolerance: multiple thoughts

simultaneouslysimultaneously

Decision-Making Styles (cont’d)Decision-Making Styles (cont’d)

Types of Decision MakersTypes of Decision Makers DirectiveDirective

Use minimal information and consider few Use minimal information and consider few alternatives.alternatives.

AnalyticAnalytic Make careful decisions in unique situations.Make careful decisions in unique situations.

ConceptualConceptual Maintain a broad outlook and consider many Maintain a broad outlook and consider many

alternatives in making long-term decisions.alternatives in making long-term decisions. BehavioralBehavioral

Avoid conflict by working well with others Avoid conflict by working well with others and being receptive to suggestions.and being receptive to suggestions.

Decision-Making Biases and Decision-Making Biases and ErrorsErrors

HeuristicsHeuristics Using “rules of thumb” to simplify Using “rules of thumb” to simplify

decision making.decision making. Overconfidence BiasOverconfidence Bias

Holding unrealistically positive views of Holding unrealistically positive views of one’s self and one’s performance.one’s self and one’s performance.

Immediate Gratification BiasImmediate Gratification Bias Choosing alternatives that offer Choosing alternatives that offer

immediate rewards and that to avoid immediate rewards and that to avoid immediate costs.immediate costs.

Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)

Anchoring EffectAnchoring Effect Fixating on initial information and Fixating on initial information and

ignoring subsequent information.ignoring subsequent information. Selective PerceptionSelective Perception

Selecting organizing and interpreting Selecting organizing and interpreting events based on the decision maker’s events based on the decision maker’s biased perceptions.biased perceptions.

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias Seeking out information that reaffirms Seeking out information that reaffirms

past choices and discounting past choices and discounting contradictory information.contradictory information.

Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)

Framing BiasFraming Bias Selecting and highlighting certain aspects of Selecting and highlighting certain aspects of

a situation while ignoring other aspects.a situation while ignoring other aspects. Availability BiasAvailability Bias

Losing decision-making objectivity by Losing decision-making objectivity by focusing on the most recent events.focusing on the most recent events.

Representation BiasRepresentation Bias Drawing analogies and seeing identical Drawing analogies and seeing identical

situations when none exist.situations when none exist. Randomness BiasRandomness Bias

Creating unfounded meaning out of random Creating unfounded meaning out of random events.events.

Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)Decision-Making Biases and Errors (cont’d)

Sunk Costs ErrorsSunk Costs Errors

Forgetting that current actions cannot Forgetting that current actions cannot influence past events and relate only to influence past events and relate only to future consequences.future consequences.

Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias

Taking quick credit for successes and Taking quick credit for successes and blaming outside factors for failures.blaming outside factors for failures.

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

Mistakenly believing that an event could Mistakenly believing that an event could have been predicted once the actual have been predicted once the actual outcome is known (after-the-fact).outcome is known (after-the-fact).

Decision Making for Today’s Decision Making for Today’s WorldWorld

Guidelines for making effective decisions:Guidelines for making effective decisions: Know when it’s time to call it quits.Know when it’s time to call it quits. Practice the five “whys”.Practice the five “whys”. Be an effective decision maker.Be an effective decision maker.

Habits of highly reliable organizations (HROs)Habits of highly reliable organizations (HROs) Are not tricked by their success.Are not tricked by their success. Defer to the experts on the front line.Defer to the experts on the front line. Let unexpected circumstances provide the Let unexpected circumstances provide the

solution.solution. Embrace complexityEmbrace complexity Anticipate, but also anticipate their limitsAnticipate, but also anticipate their limits

Characteristics of an Effective Characteristics of an Effective Decision-Making ProcessDecision-Making Process

It focuses on what is important.It focuses on what is important. It is logical and consistent.It is logical and consistent. It acknowledges both subjective and objective It acknowledges both subjective and objective

thinking and blends analytical with intuitive thinking and blends analytical with intuitive thinkingthinking

It requires only as much information and analysis It requires only as much information and analysis as is necessary to resolve a particular dilemma.as is necessary to resolve a particular dilemma.

It encourages and guides the gathering of It encourages and guides the gathering of relevant information and informed opinion.relevant information and informed opinion.

It is straightforward, reliable, easy to use, and It is straightforward, reliable, easy to use, and flexible.flexible.