12-13 March 2013,New Delhi, India

12-13 March 2013,New Delhi, India

IN BETWEEN

Advisory Board Dr. A. Jagadeesh | IndiaDr. Bhamy Shenoy | USAEr. Darshan Goswami | USAElizabeth H. Thompson | BarbadosPincas Jawetz | USA

Ediorial Board Salman Zafar | India

Editor & PublisherM. R. Menon

Business & MediaP. Roshini

Book DesignShamal Nath

Circulation ManagerAndrew Paul

Printed and Published byM.R.Menon at Midas Offset Printers, Kuthuparamba, Kerala

Editorial Office'Pallavi' KulapullyShoranur 679122, Kerala(E-Mail: editor.energyblitz@gmail.com)

Disclaimer: The views expressed in the magazineare those of the authors and the Editorial team | energy blitzdoes not take responsibility for the contents and opinions.energy blitz will not be responsible for errors, omissions or comments made by writers, interviewers or Advertisers.Any part of this publication may be reproduced with acknowledgment to the author and magazine.

Registered and Editorial Office'Pallavi, Kulapully, Shoranur 679122,Kerala, IndiaTel: +91-466-2220852/9995081018E-mail: editor.energyblitz@gmail.com Web: energyblitz.webs.com

ENERGY IBL TZ

Ramanathan Menon

DECEMBER-JANUARY 2013

Energy is the driving engine of our modern society. Every day when we look at issues such as climate change, an increasing volatility and dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, and rising energy costs is necessary to rethink our attitude to energy production and consumption. Therefore, renewable energy sources represent the most logical waytowards a sustainable energy target and greener future.

The years between 2008 and 2011 have been challenging for photovoltaic energy industry and the financial crisis that has affected the global economy has spared no industry sector. Some of the oldest U.S. and European photovoltaic module manufacturers bankrupted. Prices of photovoltaic modules dropped significantly with more than 50% in less than 2 years. This drop on the other hand presented opportunity to many investors for building of more solar installations than planned. However, increased efforts are still necessary to achieve this target. Well balanced mix of renewable energy generation facilities should be priority target for each country.

Concentrated solar power (CSP) is an ideal and utility-scale solar solution that can provide hundreds of megawatts of electricity to the grid. Also, CSP is an important solar technology for homeowners to be aware of because it has the potential to provide significant amounts of clean, renewable energy that could be provided to us by our utility. Of all the current solar technologies, concentrated solar power has the most promise of providing a large-scale, sustainable alternative to fossil-fuel power plants.

The first thing to understand about concentrated solar power is that the primary form of energy it generates is solar thermal energy, also known as heat. This is very important because heat is able to be efficiently stored at significantly less cost than electricity. For solar technologies, energy storage is critical since the Sun isn't always available for energy production. Most often, oil or molten salt is used to store the heat generated by the concentrated solar energy. This is very cost-effective compared to using batteries for storing solar electricity.

It is heartening to note that CSP costs have already begun to decline as production increases. According to a 2008 Sandia National Laboratory presentation, costs are projected to drop to 8 to 10 cents per kilowatt hour when capacity exceeds 3,000 MW. The world will probably have double that capacity by 2013. The price drop will likely occur even if the current high prices for raw materials like steel and concrete continue (prices that also affect the competition, like wind, coal and nuclear power).

CSP plants can also operate with a very small annual water requirement because they can be air-cooled. And CSP has some unique climate-friendly features. It can be used effectively for desalinating brackish water or seawater. That is useful for many developing countries like India today, and it's a must-have for tens if not hundreds of millions of people if we don't act in time to stop global warming and dry out much of the planet. Such desertification would, ironically, mean even more land ideal for CSP.

Finally, we will need more electric transmission everywhere. The good news is that because it matches the load most of the day and has cheap storage, CSP can share power lines with wind farms. When all countries get serious about global warming, we will need to get serious about a building a transmission system for a low-carbon economy, too.

ANERT's Solar Rooftop Programme: Ensuring consistent and clean ENERGY

Current Scenario of India's Renewable Energy IndustryBy Staff Writer

India makes a solar hybrid comebackBy Heba Hashem

The Competitive Challenge Facing Concentrated Solar Thermal PowerBy Harry Valentine

A look at the history of hybrid technology systems worldwide

By Staff Writer

World's largest concentrated solar power plantBy Jonathon Porritt, Environmentalist and Writer

VIEW POINT:Niche 25 MW to 50 MW multipurpose solar pv (low tariff) power project developments at every taluka of good solar irradiation states of India for energy security and food securityBy Praveen Kumar Kulkarni

How a grid connected solar power system works?

By Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi

Concentrated Solar Power and Combined Solar Power to claim their respective share in the ensuing energy revolutionBy Staff Writer

INDUSTRY NEWS:Completion of Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India Delayed -At least half of the U.S. $1.4 billion projects won't be built on time

NEW TECHNOLOGY:Nanoparticles Make Steam without Bringing Water to a Boil

Malaysia: 8 MW of solar PV FiT quota up for grabs Staff Writer

6

13

15

17

25

30

31

35

36

38

42

46

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) emerging as aproven technologyBy M.R.Menon

20

IN BETWEEN

Advisory Board Dr. A. Jagadeesh | IndiaDr. Bhamy Shenoy | USAEr. Darshan Goswami | USAElizabeth H. Thompson | BarbadosPincas Jawetz | USA

Ediorial Board Salman Zafar | India

Editor & PublisherM. R. Menon

Business & MediaP. Roshini

Book DesignShamal Nath

Circulation ManagerAndrew Paul

Printed and Published byM.R.Menon at Midas Offset Printers, Kuthuparamba, Kerala

Editorial Office'Pallavi' KulapullyShoranur 679122, Kerala(E-Mail: editor.energyblitz@gmail.com)

Disclaimer: The views expressed in the magazineare those of the authors and the Editorial team | energy blitzdoes not take responsibility for the contents and opinions.energy blitz will not be responsible for errors, omissions or comments made by writers, interviewers or Advertisers.Any part of this publication may be reproduced with acknowledgment to the author and magazine.

Registered and Editorial Office'Pallavi, Kulapully, Shoranur 679122,Kerala, IndiaTel: +91-466-2220852/9995081018E-mail: editor.energyblitz@gmail.com Web: energyblitz.webs.com

ENERGY BLI ZT

Ramanathan Menon

DECEMBER-JANUARY 2013

Energy is the driving engine of our modern society. Every day when we look at issues such as climate change, an increasing volatility and dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, and rising energy costs is necessary to rethink our attitude to energy production and consumption. Therefore, renewable energy sources represent the most logical waytowards a sustainable energy target and greener future.

The years between 2008 and 2011 have been challenging for photovoltaic energy industry and the financial crisis that has affected the global economy has spared no industry sector. Some of the oldest U.S. and European photovoltaic module manufacturers bankrupted. Prices of photovoltaic modules dropped significantly with more than 50% in less than 2 years. This drop on the other hand presented opportunity to many investors for building of more solar installations than planned. However, increased efforts are still necessary to achieve this target. Well balanced mix of renewable energy generation facilities should be priority target for each country.

Concentrated solar power (CSP) is an ideal and utility-scale solar solution that can provide hundreds of megawatts of electricity to the grid. Also, CSP is an important solar technology for homeowners to be aware of because it has the potential to provide significant amounts of clean, renewable energy that could be provided to us by our utility. Of all the current solar technologies, concentrated solar power has the most promise of providing a large-scale, sustainable alternative to fossil-fuel power plants.

The first thing to understand about concentrated solar power is that the primary form of energy it generates is solar thermal energy, also known as heat. This is very important because heat is able to be efficiently stored at significantly less cost than electricity. For solar technologies, energy storage is critical since the Sun isn't always available for energy production. Most often, oil or molten salt is used to store the heat generated by the concentrated solar energy. This is very cost-effective compared to using batteries for storing solar electricity.

It is heartening to note that CSP costs have already begun to decline as production increases. According to a 2008 Sandia National Laboratory presentation, costs are projected to drop to 8 to 10 cents per kilowatt hour when capacity exceeds 3,000 MW. The world will probably have double that capacity by 2013. The price drop will likely occur even if the current high prices for raw materials like steel and concrete continue (prices that also affect the competition, like wind, coal and nuclear power).

CSP plants can also operate with a very small annual water requirement because they can be air-cooled. And CSP has some unique climate-friendly features. It can be used effectively for desalinating brackish water or seawater. That is useful for many developing countries like India today, and it's a must-have for tens if not hundreds of millions of people if we don't act in time to stop global warming and dry out much of the planet. Such desertification would, ironically, mean even more land ideal for CSP.

Finally, we will need more electric transmission everywhere. The good news is that because it matches the load most of the day and has cheap storage, CSP can share power lines with wind farms. When all countries get serious about global warming, we will need to get serious about a building a transmission system for a low-carbon economy, too.

ANERT's Solar Rooftop Programme: Ensuring consistent and clean ENERGY

Current Scenario of India's Renewable Energy IndustryBy Staff Writer

India makes a solar hybrid comebackBy Heba Hashem

The Competitive Challenge Facing Concentrated Solar Thermal PowerBy Harry Valentine

A look at the history of hybrid technology systems worldwide

By Staff Writer

World's largest concentrated solar power plantBy Jonathon Porritt, Environmentalist and Writer

VIEW POINT:Niche 25 MW to 50 MW multipurpose solar pv (low tariff) power project developments at every taluka of good solar irradiation states of India for energy security and food securityBy Praveen Kumar Kulkarni

How a grid connected solar power system works?

By Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi

Concentrated Solar Power and Combined Solar Power to claim their respective share in the ensuing energy revolutionBy Staff Writer

INDUSTRY NEWS:Completion of Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India Delayed -At least half of the U.S. $1.4 billion projects won't be built on time

NEW TECHNOLOGY:Nanoparticles Make Steam without Bringing Water to a Boil

Malaysia: 8 MW of solar PV FiT quota up for grabs Staff Writer

6

13

15

17

25

30

31

35

36

38

42

46

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) emerging as aproven technologyBy M.R.Menon

20

6

Acute power shortages are crippling the growth of

many states in India, one of the world's fastest growing

economies. Energy deficit figures published by Central

Electricity Authority for the year 2011-12 presents a

strong case for the existence of a market for the diesel

gen-sets as critical back-up power system. An

inevitable increase in the prices of grid electricity and

diesel coupled with Lower Lifetime Operation Cost of

Solar PV Generation opens a clear opportunity for solar

rooftop projects to replace the diesel gensets based

electricity.

beefy penalty of Rs.15 per unit for domestic consumers in case

their monthly usage exceeds the 300-unit mark. Prior to the

order, domestic consumers were paying a flat rate of Rs.7.50

per unit in case their consumption lied in the range of 300 to 500

units. The new tariff has come into force from December 15,

2012 and will be valid until May 31, 2013, during which period

the situation would be reviewed on a monthly basis. Around

96,000 households with monthly consumption more than 300

units are likely to be impacted by this order.

Amidst this dilemma, Kerala Government's scheme of

installing 10,000 solar rooftop systems of

1kW each, seems to have come as a relief to

such consumers afflicted by frequent power

cuts and ever increasing cost of electricity.

Agency for Non-conventional Energy &

Rural Technology (ANERT) published public

notice on 26th September, 2012 inviting

applications from households who wish to be

a part of this scheme. This article provides

insight into the concept & need of solar

rooftops viz-a-viz ANERT's scheme.

What is a rooftop solar photo voltaic power

(SPV) plant?

•Sunrays are absorbed by the solar panels and

converted into DC current

•DC Current is fed to the Inverter which

converts it into AC Current

•Electricity from Inverter and grid/generator

are fed to the Load through distribution panel

•Only the electricity requirement not already

met by the solar power is imported from the

grid/generator

In case of power requirement during night or

excessive power cuts, batteries can be used.

•Batteries are charged using solar panels and

when solar is not available, then by grid

•Batteries supply power during power cuts It is common knowledge that electricity prices have been and can also be used at nightmoving north for various reasons. In particular, the • The system is programmed to operate on following emotional travails of consumers in Kerala do not seem to logicbe reaching an end. In a move that would aggravate their

pains, Kerala Electricity Regulatory Commission (KERC) thin its latest order dated 12 December, 2012, has imposed a

ANERT's Solar Rooftop Programme: Ensuring consistent and clean ENERGYBy Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi

7

A matrix of operating scenarios has been presented data, from the Australian government's Clean Energy in the table above: Regulator and the International Energy Agency, shows

that Australia installed a total of 785 MW of solar Around the world power last year, mostly small-scale panel systems on The SPV residential market in US witnessed a residential and business complexes.quarterly record high of 118 MW of solar panels being installed, growing 12% sequentially. The What you get in ANERT's 1kW scheme?

Typically, a solar rooftop system works in the following manner:

6

Acute power shortages are crippling the growth of

many states in India, one of the world's fastest growing

economies. Energy deficit figures published by Central

Electricity Authority for the year 2011-12 presents a

strong case for the existence of a market for the diesel

gen-sets as critical back-up power system. An

inevitable increase in the prices of grid electricity and

diesel coupled with Lower Lifetime Operation Cost of

Solar PV Generation opens a clear opportunity for solar

rooftop projects to replace the diesel gensets based

electricity.

beefy penalty of Rs.15 per unit for domestic consumers in case

their monthly usage exceeds the 300-unit mark. Prior to the

order, domestic consumers were paying a flat rate of Rs.7.50

per unit in case their consumption lied in the range of 300 to 500

units. The new tariff has come into force from December 15,

2012 and will be valid until May 31, 2013, during which period

the situation would be reviewed on a monthly basis. Around

96,000 households with monthly consumption more than 300

units are likely to be impacted by this order.

Amidst this dilemma, Kerala Government's scheme of

installing 10,000 solar rooftop systems of

1kW each, seems to have come as a relief to

such consumers afflicted by frequent power

cuts and ever increasing cost of electricity.

Agency for Non-conventional Energy &

Rural Technology (ANERT) published public

notice on 26th September, 2012 inviting

applications from households who wish to be

a part of this scheme. This article provides

insight into the concept & need of solar

rooftops viz-a-viz ANERT's scheme.

What is a rooftop solar photo voltaic power

(SPV) plant?

•Sunrays are absorbed by the solar panels and

converted into DC current

•DC Current is fed to the Inverter which

converts it into AC Current

•Electricity from Inverter and grid/generator

are fed to the Load through distribution panel

•Only the electricity requirement not already

met by the solar power is imported from the

grid/generator

In case of power requirement during night or

excessive power cuts, batteries can be used.

•Batteries are charged using solar panels and

when solar is not available, then by grid

•Batteries supply power during power cuts It is common knowledge that electricity prices have been and can also be used at nightmoving north for various reasons. In particular, the • The system is programmed to operate on following emotional travails of consumers in Kerala do not seem to logicbe reaching an end. In a move that would aggravate their

pains, Kerala Electricity Regulatory Commission (KERC) thin its latest order dated 12 December, 2012, has imposed a

ANERT's Solar Rooftop Programme: Ensuring consistent and clean ENERGYBy Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi

7

A matrix of operating scenarios has been presented data, from the Australian government's Clean Energy in the table above: Regulator and the International Energy Agency, shows

that Australia installed a total of 785 MW of solar Around the world power last year, mostly small-scale panel systems on The SPV residential market in US witnessed a residential and business complexes.quarterly record high of 118 MW of solar panels being installed, growing 12% sequentially. The What you get in ANERT's 1kW scheme?

Typically, a solar rooftop system works in the following manner:

8

The heart of every PV system is the array of photovoltaic 1. Efficiency

modules. Today, the overwhelming majority of PV 2. Bill of Materials (BoM) (Components used for

modules are crystalline silicon, made from the second manufacturing of panels)

3. Warranty terms

4. Certifications from IEC/MNRE

5. Temperature co-efficient

The other important component of the rooftop system would

be a solar Power Conditioning Unit (PCU), which is an

integrated system consisting of a solar charge controller,

inverter and a grid charger. It charges the battery bank either

through solar output or

grid. The PCU

continuously monitors

the state of battery

voltage, solar power

output and the loads.

The most conspicuous most abundant element on earth. But despite the fact that

differentiating factor most PV modules utilize similar technology, there can be

about the systems that considerable variations in performance. Some of the

need to be provided under the ANERT scheme is the battery, following critical factors are used while selecting the

which can be based on two technologies: VRLA and Tubular modules:

Gel technology. A comparison has been presented below:

9

Stratification is caused by the fact that the electrolyte in times, an over-discharged battery cannot be recharged, it the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all is not reusable.mixtures, one component, the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate at the Civil Structure for Module Mountingbottom of the battery. This higher concentration of acid at Protecting your existing structure is paramount. Typically, the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of lead

galvanized iron with a thickness of 80 microns should be sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity used for erecting structure for mounting panels on them. The and battery life.

structure should be able to withstand wind velocity of 150 Notably, however, charge input from solar arrays some kmph and should be designed as per the load bearing capacity times is insufficient to keep the batteries fully charged.

of the roof.During cloudy or rainy days, batteries are discharged but not charged. These conditions result in battery operating in PSOC, cycling and deep-cycling conditions. Also, solar Maintenancesystems are installed in open atmosphere exposing the In order to realize the optimized generation potential of the batteries to extreme temperatures. Other lead acid batteries

system, a comprehensive maintenance program is fail in such conditions due to sulphation, stratification, necessary. This includes regular (weekly) cleaning of the corrosion and plate shedding. In such rigors of operations,

the combination of tubular plate and gelled electrolyte (T- panels, digital monitoring and analysis of performance, Gel) is better equipped for solar applications. emergency response and regular inspection of array

connections/safety considerations. A proper care of system, When a battery has been subjected to deep discharge as prescribed by the manufacturers, will ensure a long life (commonly referred to as over-discharge), the amount of

electricity which has been discharged is actually 1.5 to 2.0 and in turn help realize the true worth of the investment. times as great as the rated capacity of the battery. The following preventive maintenance practices are Consequently, a battery which has been over-discharged

recommended:requires a longer charging period than normal. Many a

Depends on the wind zone of the site

8

The heart of every PV system is the array of photovoltaic 1. Efficiency

modules. Today, the overwhelming majority of PV 2. Bill of Materials (BoM) (Components used for

modules are crystalline silicon, made from the second manufacturing of panels)

3. Warranty terms

4. Certifications from IEC/MNRE

5. Temperature co-efficient

The other important component of the rooftop system would

be a solar Power Conditioning Unit (PCU), which is an

integrated system consisting of a solar charge controller,

inverter and a grid charger. It charges the battery bank either

through solar output or

grid. The PCU

continuously monitors

the state of battery

voltage, solar power

output and the loads.

The most conspicuous most abundant element on earth. But despite the fact that

differentiating factor most PV modules utilize similar technology, there can be

about the systems that considerable variations in performance. Some of the

need to be provided under the ANERT scheme is the battery, following critical factors are used while selecting the

which can be based on two technologies: VRLA and Tubular modules:

Gel technology. A comparison has been presented below:

9

Stratification is caused by the fact that the electrolyte in times, an over-discharged battery cannot be recharged, it the battery is a mixture of water and acid and, like all is not reusable.mixtures, one component, the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid will begin to settle and concentrate at the Civil Structure for Module Mountingbottom of the battery. This higher concentration of acid at Protecting your existing structure is paramount. Typically, the bottom of the battery causes additional build-up of lead

galvanized iron with a thickness of 80 microns should be sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage capacity used for erecting structure for mounting panels on them. The and battery life.

structure should be able to withstand wind velocity of 150 Notably, however, charge input from solar arrays some kmph and should be designed as per the load bearing capacity times is insufficient to keep the batteries fully charged.

of the roof.During cloudy or rainy days, batteries are discharged but not charged. These conditions result in battery operating in PSOC, cycling and deep-cycling conditions. Also, solar Maintenancesystems are installed in open atmosphere exposing the In order to realize the optimized generation potential of the batteries to extreme temperatures. Other lead acid batteries

system, a comprehensive maintenance program is fail in such conditions due to sulphation, stratification, necessary. This includes regular (weekly) cleaning of the corrosion and plate shedding. In such rigors of operations,

the combination of tubular plate and gelled electrolyte (T- panels, digital monitoring and analysis of performance, Gel) is better equipped for solar applications. emergency response and regular inspection of array

connections/safety considerations. A proper care of system, When a battery has been subjected to deep discharge as prescribed by the manufacturers, will ensure a long life (commonly referred to as over-discharge), the amount of

electricity which has been discharged is actually 1.5 to 2.0 and in turn help realize the true worth of the investment. times as great as the rated capacity of the battery. The following preventive maintenance practices are Consequently, a battery which has been over-discharged

recommended:requires a longer charging period than normal. Many a

Depends on the wind zone of the site

Economics of the system: would be sold at an average price of Rs 2 lakhs and the

The tariff at which domestic consumers are billed has been subsidies are available from the MNRE and ANERT,

increasing steadily and expected to do so in the future. As consumers installing the system are expected to recover

per the new tariff regime in Kerala, per unit usage above their investments in less than 5 years. The following

300 units will be billed at Rs 15. Considering the fact that economics work out for the project:

ANERT's 1 kW system with 5400 Wh T-Gel batteries

Loads a 1kW system can handle:

A 1-kW solar rooftop system can power most of our home appliances.

Typically, the following loads can work with this system:

Motor loads like these might entail a surge, which could be handled by the PCU, subject to appropriate protection

Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi: Both are key management personnel at Gensol.

Gensol has worked on solar power projects worth 350 MW capacity and is currently

working on a large number of rooftop projects across India. Both of them have a keen

focus to make ANERT's solar rooftop programme a huge success.

Comparative analysis of the solar rooftop system, diesel generator sets and inverter-battery systemMerits and de-merits of each of these systems have been tabulated below:

References: power-tariff-to-go-up-in kerala/article4192323.ece http://www.nasdaq.com/article/us-rooftop-solar-boom-will-

Http://www.kseb.in/index.php?option=com_jdownloads help-sunpower-cm199182#.unrdz2_qkvu&itemid=&task=view.download&catid=4&cid=5960 http://www.solardaily.com/reports/australia_leads_in_rooftohttp://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/domestic- p_solar_999.html

Ali Imran Naqvi

Anmol Singh Jaggi

To sum it all up, solar is the best alternative and ANERT troubles and enjoy the benefits of consistent and clean

solar rooftop programme has the required recipe to help e n e r g y , n o t t o m e n t i o n , a f f o r d a b l y !

the people of Kerala do away with their power-related

10 11

Economics of the system: would be sold at an average price of Rs 2 lakhs and the

The tariff at which domestic consumers are billed has been subsidies are available from the MNRE and ANERT,

increasing steadily and expected to do so in the future. As consumers installing the system are expected to recover

per the new tariff regime in Kerala, per unit usage above their investments in less than 5 years. The following

300 units will be billed at Rs 15. Considering the fact that economics work out for the project:

ANERT's 1 kW system with 5400 Wh T-Gel batteries

Loads a 1kW system can handle:

A 1-kW solar rooftop system can power most of our home appliances.

Typically, the following loads can work with this system:

Motor loads like these might entail a surge, which could be handled by the PCU, subject to appropriate protection

Anmol Singh Jaggi & Ali Imran Naqvi: Both are key management personnel at Gensol.

Gensol has worked on solar power projects worth 350 MW capacity and is currently

working on a large number of rooftop projects across India. Both of them have a keen

focus to make ANERT's solar rooftop programme a huge success.

Comparative analysis of the solar rooftop system, diesel generator sets and inverter-battery systemMerits and de-merits of each of these systems have been tabulated below:

References: power-tariff-to-go-up-in kerala/article4192323.ece http://www.nasdaq.com/article/us-rooftop-solar-boom-will-

Http://www.kseb.in/index.php?option=com_jdownloads help-sunpower-cm199182#.unrdz2_qkvu&itemid=&task=view.download&catid=4&cid=5960 http://www.solardaily.com/reports/australia_leads_in_rooftohttp://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/domestic- p_solar_999.html

Ali Imran Naqvi

Anmol Singh Jaggi

To sum it all up, solar is the best alternative and ANERT troubles and enjoy the benefits of consistent and clean

solar rooftop programme has the required recipe to help e n e r g y , n o t t o m e n t i o n , a f f o r d a b l y !

the people of Kerala do away with their power-related

10 11

12 13

“Energy-starved India is becoming a vibrant market for renewable energy. This bodes well for a country that has often seen its industrial and economic growth inhibited by a truncated supply of conventional power”

Incentive-fuelled

Incentive-laden policies have fuelled growth in India's renewable energy sector. Wind power is the fastest growing with a record 3,163 MW of wind energy capacity added in the

Grid-connected renewable power today accounts for as financial year 2011/12, bringing the country's total wind much as 20.2 GW or 11% of India's 182.3 GW of installed capacity to 17.4 GW. This marks a steady rise, from 2,350 MW power capacity. The majority share - 55%, or 99.8 GW is the previous year, 1,565 MW in 2009/10 and 1,485 MW in still accounted for by coal-based thermal power. Gas-fired 2008/09. India thereby retains third place, behind China and the thermal power, totalling 17.7 GW, contributes an U.S., in terms of new installations. The addition of 3,500 MW additional 10%, while the 38.7 GW of hydropower of wind capacity now appears within reach in 2012/13, foreseen accounts for 21%, and nuclear 2.6% with 4780 MW. or unforeseen drawbacks not withstanding.

Solar, wind and biomass are finding increased favour, with Grid-connected solar capacity also surged from 18 MW in 2010 burdensome coal and gas supplies denting capacity targets. to 277 MW in 2011, again making 500 MW of capacity seem Only 52 GW of the 78.6 GW originally envisaged under attainable this year. Solar photovoltaic (PV) power plants the 11th Five Year Plan that ended March 2012, has been totalling over 180 MW were set up in the country and off-grid added, at a cost of US$145 billion. The 10th Plan (2002- installations of over 50 MW were completed as well. 07) also saw a meagre 21.2 GW capacity added, against a

target of 41.1 GW. The 12th Plan (2012-17) now aims for a Renewable power has been particularly beneficial for an capacity addition of 103.3 GW at a combined investment enormous, (3.28 million km2) over-populated (1.2bn) country of US$223.7bn, which includes commensurate like India. Hundreds of thousands of solar lights, solar water transmission and distribution capacities. heating systems and biogas plants have been installed in the

country, illuminating over 9,000 remote and inaccessible The continuing trend of missed targets has widened peak villages so far.demand deficit in the country to 12%. This has clearly undermined the Government's avowed mission of Power Soaring investmentto All by 2012.

Clean energy investments in India reached a record US$10.3bn

Current Scenario of India's Renewable Energy IndustryBy Staff Writer

12 13

“Energy-starved India is becoming a vibrant market for renewable energy. This bodes well for a country that has often seen its industrial and economic growth inhibited by a truncated supply of conventional power”

Incentive-fuelled

Incentive-laden policies have fuelled growth in India's renewable energy sector. Wind power is the fastest growing with a record 3,163 MW of wind energy capacity added in the

Grid-connected renewable power today accounts for as financial year 2011/12, bringing the country's total wind much as 20.2 GW or 11% of India's 182.3 GW of installed capacity to 17.4 GW. This marks a steady rise, from 2,350 MW power capacity. The majority share - 55%, or 99.8 GW is the previous year, 1,565 MW in 2009/10 and 1,485 MW in still accounted for by coal-based thermal power. Gas-fired 2008/09. India thereby retains third place, behind China and the thermal power, totalling 17.7 GW, contributes an U.S., in terms of new installations. The addition of 3,500 MW additional 10%, while the 38.7 GW of hydropower of wind capacity now appears within reach in 2012/13, foreseen accounts for 21%, and nuclear 2.6% with 4780 MW. or unforeseen drawbacks not withstanding.

Solar, wind and biomass are finding increased favour, with Grid-connected solar capacity also surged from 18 MW in 2010 burdensome coal and gas supplies denting capacity targets. to 277 MW in 2011, again making 500 MW of capacity seem Only 52 GW of the 78.6 GW originally envisaged under attainable this year. Solar photovoltaic (PV) power plants the 11th Five Year Plan that ended March 2012, has been totalling over 180 MW were set up in the country and off-grid added, at a cost of US$145 billion. The 10th Plan (2002- installations of over 50 MW were completed as well. 07) also saw a meagre 21.2 GW capacity added, against a

target of 41.1 GW. The 12th Plan (2012-17) now aims for a Renewable power has been particularly beneficial for an capacity addition of 103.3 GW at a combined investment enormous, (3.28 million km2) over-populated (1.2bn) country of US$223.7bn, which includes commensurate like India. Hundreds of thousands of solar lights, solar water transmission and distribution capacities. heating systems and biogas plants have been installed in the

country, illuminating over 9,000 remote and inaccessible The continuing trend of missed targets has widened peak villages so far.demand deficit in the country to 12%. This has clearly undermined the Government's avowed mission of Power Soaring investmentto All by 2012.

Clean energy investments in India reached a record US$10.3bn

Current Scenario of India's Renewable Energy IndustryBy Staff Writer

15

in 2011, up 52% from the US$6.8bn invested in 2010, away in the U.S., the ongoing financial crisis in Europe, and according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF): China already going flat out, it is gratifying to see some of the “This was the highest growth figure of any significant world's other major potential markets coming alive,” he economy in the world, the country accounting for 4% of remarks. “India is firmly in the lead group and we are seeing global investments in clean energy,” says Ashish Sethia, interest around the world in being part of what is unfolding Head of Bloomberg's India research. “The large growth there.”was driven by a 7-fold increase in funding for grid-connected solar projects: From US$0.6bn in 2010 to Powering aheadUS$4.2bn in 2011, almost the same level of investments as wind, which totalled US$4.6bn.” Renewable energy is central to India's climate change

mitigation efforts. The country's vast market potential and Sethia mentions that while there was concern at the industrial, financing and business infrastructure have made it a beginning of last year that increasing lending rates might favourable destination for Clean Development Mechanism hit investment, policy measures like the Jawaharlal Nehru (CDM) projects, with renewable energy projects having the National Solar Mission (JNNSM) and renewable energy's major share. There have been 727 registered CDM projects in increasing cost competitiveness eventually made 2011 a India, accounting for a fifth of such projects worldwide. Of record year. While an addition of 15 GW of wind capacity these, 520 are renewable energy projects, of which wind has been proposed for the 12th Plan, the National Solar accounts for 225, followed by 6 for solar energy and 82 for Mission of the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy hydropower.(MNRE) aims at adding 20 GW of solar power capacity by 2022. The Ministry estimates the potential for solar energy India has hitherto established 3,056 MW of power capacity

based on biomass/bagasse co-generation, with a further 2,600 MW targeted for the 12th Plan period. Incentives such as concessional customs duty on machinery and component imports, excise duty exemption, accelerated depreciation on major components, and relief from taxes and capital subsidy are being provided for the set up of biomass power projects. A preferential tariff is also provided for the sale of power from biomass power plants.

The National Solar Mission aims at promoting grid-connected solar power to a level that will bring the cost of solar power generation to grid parity. December's competitive bidding for projects totalling 350 MW witnessed some of the lowest quoted tariffs in the world. They averaged Rs. 8.77/kWh (US$0.18/kWh), the lowest having been Rs. 7.49/kWh (US$0.15/kWh). Tariffs exceeded Rs. 18/kWh (US$0.36/kWh) at the start of the for most parts of the country to be around 20 MW/km2 of

Mission two years ago. All indications are for further decreases open, shadow-free area covered with 657 GW of installed in solar PV, though costs have not come down this fast for capacity.concentrated solar power (CSP), where they are still in the range of Rs. 12-13/kWh (US$0.24-0.26/kWh).Asset financing for utility-scale projects remains the main

type of clean energy investment in India, with US$9.5bn in Wind too is competitive as an electricity resource. There is no 2011. Venture capital and private equity investments also competitive bidding in wind so far, the tariffs ranging Rs. 3.5-revived, with US$425 million invested in 2011, over four 4.5/kWh (US$0.07-0.09/kWh): “Barring China, India has the times the 2010 figure. A stock market slump, however, lowest cost-per-MW for wind energy in the world up to 60% dampened equity-raising via the public markets last year, cheaper than Europe,” notes Tulsi Tanti, founder, chairman and with only US$201m raised compared with a record managing director of the Pune-headquartered Suzlon Energy US$735m in 2010.Ltd. “It has absolutely no fuel costs, providing a stable pricing visibility for over 20 years a huge competitive advantage to BNEF chief executive Michael Liebreich deems India's corporate India, particularly to SMEs.” The billionaire record performance in 2011, and the momentum it is entrepreneur estimates wind energy to have saved India 67m carrying into 2012, as one of the bright spots in the clean tonnes of coals imports, translating to savings of US$6bnenergy firmament: “With support mechanisms falling

turbines or biomass.

Lessons could be learnt from China's Hanas New Energy G r o u p , w h i c h i s building Asia's first ISCC station in Yanchi with a goal of 92.5MW for completion by October 2013, or from Italy's Enel, which is c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e 1.5MW Trebois CSP-biomass bi-generation plant to continuously produce electricity for the city of Rome.

India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is already setting up an

Solar islands at the integrated solar combined cycle power authority to promote plant of Kuraymat, Egypt. Image courtesy Paul Langrockt, and execute biomass-based power projects on the lines of Solar Solar Millennium. Energy Corporation of India (SECI). "We are focusing to

promote biomass-based power generation in the country. For this, the Ministry is planning to set up a company for biomass energy, same as we set up SECI last year”, said Tarun Kapoor, joint secretary of the MNRE. According to MNRE data, biomass availability in India is estimated at about 500 million tons per year, while surplus biomass is estimated at about 120150 million tons per year, corresponding to a potential of about 18,000MW of power generation.

Made for India?In the fiscal year ending March 2012, Tata Power, India's largest private power producer, had imported 5.5 million Considering that peak electricity demand in India has been far tons of coal from Australia and Indonesia and is now greater during recent summers than peak winter demand, and eyeing more overseas mines as it tries to secure fuel that CSP delivers its maximum output during these peak supplies. Similarly, Coal India Limited (CIL) recently p e r i o d s , I S C C declared it could only supply 60% of its requirement and stations would be would not be able to meet its mandatory 80% commitment; i d e a l f o r t h e a dilemma that prompted the state-controlled mining country's changing company to consider imports. As a result, power deficits in p o w e r d e m a n d the southern part of India rose to as high as 4,350MW in characteristics. The May 2012, while the north had a deficit of 3,000MW. In possibility of adding addition, nearly 400 million people, about one-third of thermal s to rage India's population, have no electricity at all. c a p a c i t y a l s o

e x t e n d s C S P ' s An integrated solution operational range.

Moreover, by taking The situation, however, indicates huge potential for CSP advantage of the hybridization, as upgrading existing fuel-fired plants to e x i s t i n g ISCC (Integrated Solar Combined Cycle) systems could i n f r a s t r u c t u r e boost steam production and consequently electrical output associated with the at a relatively low extra cost. Not only can CSP be easily development of a integrated into conventional fossil-fired thermal power c o n v e n t i o n a l plants, but it could also be combined with gas-fired wind thermal power plant

“Amid India's ongoing struggle with domestic coal shortage that has led some power producers to curtail operations and others to start importing coal, the country's MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) has rolled out a pilot program that will take concentrated solar power (CSP) hybridization to another level. Will this help ramp up the much needed power supply?”

India makes a solar hybrid comebackBy Heba Hashem

14

15

in 2011, up 52% from the US$6.8bn invested in 2010, away in the U.S., the ongoing financial crisis in Europe, and according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF): China already going flat out, it is gratifying to see some of the “This was the highest growth figure of any significant world's other major potential markets coming alive,” he economy in the world, the country accounting for 4% of remarks. “India is firmly in the lead group and we are seeing global investments in clean energy,” says Ashish Sethia, interest around the world in being part of what is unfolding Head of Bloomberg's India research. “The large growth there.”was driven by a 7-fold increase in funding for grid-connected solar projects: From US$0.6bn in 2010 to Powering aheadUS$4.2bn in 2011, almost the same level of investments as wind, which totalled US$4.6bn.” Renewable energy is central to India's climate change

mitigation efforts. The country's vast market potential and Sethia mentions that while there was concern at the industrial, financing and business infrastructure have made it a beginning of last year that increasing lending rates might favourable destination for Clean Development Mechanism hit investment, policy measures like the Jawaharlal Nehru (CDM) projects, with renewable energy projects having the National Solar Mission (JNNSM) and renewable energy's major share. There have been 727 registered CDM projects in increasing cost competitiveness eventually made 2011 a India, accounting for a fifth of such projects worldwide. Of record year. While an addition of 15 GW of wind capacity these, 520 are renewable energy projects, of which wind has been proposed for the 12th Plan, the National Solar accounts for 225, followed by 6 for solar energy and 82 for Mission of the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy hydropower.(MNRE) aims at adding 20 GW of solar power capacity by 2022. The Ministry estimates the potential for solar energy India has hitherto established 3,056 MW of power capacity

based on biomass/bagasse co-generation, with a further 2,600 MW targeted for the 12th Plan period. Incentives such as concessional customs duty on machinery and component imports, excise duty exemption, accelerated depreciation on major components, and relief from taxes and capital subsidy are being provided for the set up of biomass power projects. A preferential tariff is also provided for the sale of power from biomass power plants.

The National Solar Mission aims at promoting grid-connected solar power to a level that will bring the cost of solar power generation to grid parity. December's competitive bidding for projects totalling 350 MW witnessed some of the lowest quoted tariffs in the world. They averaged Rs. 8.77/kWh (US$0.18/kWh), the lowest having been Rs. 7.49/kWh (US$0.15/kWh). Tariffs exceeded Rs. 18/kWh (US$0.36/kWh) at the start of the for most parts of the country to be around 20 MW/km2 of

Mission two years ago. All indications are for further decreases open, shadow-free area covered with 657 GW of installed in solar PV, though costs have not come down this fast for capacity.concentrated solar power (CSP), where they are still in the range of Rs. 12-13/kWh (US$0.24-0.26/kWh).Asset financing for utility-scale projects remains the main

type of clean energy investment in India, with US$9.5bn in Wind too is competitive as an electricity resource. There is no 2011. Venture capital and private equity investments also competitive bidding in wind so far, the tariffs ranging Rs. 3.5-revived, with US$425 million invested in 2011, over four 4.5/kWh (US$0.07-0.09/kWh): “Barring China, India has the times the 2010 figure. A stock market slump, however, lowest cost-per-MW for wind energy in the world up to 60% dampened equity-raising via the public markets last year, cheaper than Europe,” notes Tulsi Tanti, founder, chairman and with only US$201m raised compared with a record managing director of the Pune-headquartered Suzlon Energy US$735m in 2010.Ltd. “It has absolutely no fuel costs, providing a stable pricing visibility for over 20 years a huge competitive advantage to BNEF chief executive Michael Liebreich deems India's corporate India, particularly to SMEs.” The billionaire record performance in 2011, and the momentum it is entrepreneur estimates wind energy to have saved India 67m carrying into 2012, as one of the bright spots in the clean tonnes of coals imports, translating to savings of US$6bnenergy firmament: “With support mechanisms falling

turbines or biomass.

Lessons could be learnt from China's Hanas New Energy G r o u p , w h i c h i s building Asia's first ISCC station in Yanchi with a goal of 92.5MW for completion by October 2013, or from Italy's Enel, which is c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e 1.5MW Trebois CSP-biomass bi-generation plant to continuously produce electricity for the city of Rome.

India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is already setting up an

Solar islands at the integrated solar combined cycle power authority to promote plant of Kuraymat, Egypt. Image courtesy Paul Langrockt, and execute biomass-based power projects on the lines of Solar Solar Millennium. Energy Corporation of India (SECI). "We are focusing to

promote biomass-based power generation in the country. For this, the Ministry is planning to set up a company for biomass energy, same as we set up SECI last year”, said Tarun Kapoor, joint secretary of the MNRE. According to MNRE data, biomass availability in India is estimated at about 500 million tons per year, while surplus biomass is estimated at about 120150 million tons per year, corresponding to a potential of about 18,000MW of power generation.

Made for India?In the fiscal year ending March 2012, Tata Power, India's largest private power producer, had imported 5.5 million Considering that peak electricity demand in India has been far tons of coal from Australia and Indonesia and is now greater during recent summers than peak winter demand, and eyeing more overseas mines as it tries to secure fuel that CSP delivers its maximum output during these peak supplies. Similarly, Coal India Limited (CIL) recently p e r i o d s , I S C C declared it could only supply 60% of its requirement and stations would be would not be able to meet its mandatory 80% commitment; i d e a l f o r t h e a dilemma that prompted the state-controlled mining country's changing company to consider imports. As a result, power deficits in p o w e r d e m a n d the southern part of India rose to as high as 4,350MW in characteristics. The May 2012, while the north had a deficit of 3,000MW. In possibility of adding addition, nearly 400 million people, about one-third of thermal s to rage India's population, have no electricity at all. c a p a c i t y a l s o

e x t e n d s C S P ' s An integrated solution operational range.

Moreover, by taking The situation, however, indicates huge potential for CSP advantage of the hybridization, as upgrading existing fuel-fired plants to e x i s t i n g ISCC (Integrated Solar Combined Cycle) systems could i n f r a s t r u c t u r e boost steam production and consequently electrical output associated with the at a relatively low extra cost. Not only can CSP be easily development of a integrated into conventional fossil-fired thermal power c o n v e n t i o n a l plants, but it could also be combined with gas-fired wind thermal power plant

“Amid India's ongoing struggle with domestic coal shortage that has led some power producers to curtail operations and others to start importing coal, the country's MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) has rolled out a pilot program that will take concentrated solar power (CSP) hybridization to another level. Will this help ramp up the much needed power supply?”

India makes a solar hybrid comebackBy Heba Hashem

14

17

such as site access, power transmission links and a steam temperature above 500 Cº; the third will be a CSP plant with 10 turbine power island the economics of the CSP component or more hours of solar thermal salt storage to achieve round the become significantly enhanced. clock operation; and the fourth will comprise a CSP plant with

30% natural gas support, which is likely to be in the form of an As with any solar installation, DNI should be as high as ISCC.possible and cooling methods should be taken into consideration. Many locations in India are known to have “The capacity of each project will be decided based on land high levels of direct normal insolation, while dry cooling availability and the commitment by the respective state could be opted for, as carried out with Algeria's Hassi government. Plant capacity may change from 20MW to 50MW R'Mel ISCC plant. depending upon the land size made available by each state”,

explained a senior adviser on the Indian solar power industry, Rajasthan in particular where a 100MW ISCC project with who preferred to remain anonymous. Commenting on the a solar yield of 35MW was proposed more than two current coal deficits, he stressed that India has huge coal decades ago but remains at the bidding stage has the reserves which need to be explored. “The ongoing reforms and highest solar irradiation in the country of around 5.5- infrastructure development in the coal sector will address the 6.5kWh/m² per day and an average DNI of 2200kWh/m² present crises”.per year. The state also has stretches of government-owned wasteland that are barren and sparsely populated. Demonstration projects in the upcoming CSP hybrid program

will be site-specific and located one each in the different states, “There is tremendous potential for CSP hybridization in including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. India. One could install a small capacity CSP plant near the Most importantly, the government will be facilitating the conventional coal-based thermal power plants as capacity allotment of land, water resources, grid interface and addition mainly for peak load requirements, or one could connectivity, geotechnical reports, environment and forest add conventional fuel-based capacity to a CSP thermal clearances, and Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) with plant as backup for 24 x 7 operations and also during distribution licensees. Projects are expected to be evaluated and cloudy weather”, Hiro Chandwani, CEO and founder of selected through a transparent and competitive bidding process Hiro Energy-Tech, tells CSP Today. under the guidelines of the MNRE and the Renewal Fuel

Standard Program (RFSP).He adds that great potential also lies in designing a hybrid plant with another renewable source like wind, tidal or At present, four ISCC plants are operational worldwide: the wave energy for 24 x 7 supply of power, which is not 150MW Hassi R'Mel in Algeria of which 25MW comes from possible from individual sources alone. This makes ISCC CSP; the 470MW Ain Beni Matar in Morocco where 20MW is ideal for industrial applications that need uninterrupted provided by CSP; the 140MW Kuraymat in Egypt from which power. “The only challenge would be the possibility of 40MW is generated through CSP; and the US's first hybrid solar future scarcity and higher costs of coal”, Chandwani notes. thermal facility the Martin Next Generation Solar Energy

Centre in Florida that has a 75MW CSP capacity.

Hybrid program takes offChina, Mexico and Iran are also constructing ISCC plants, while Turkey is constructing the world's first Integrated The reality of falling PV prices in the international market Renewables Combined-Cycle plant in Karaman. The 530MW cannot be ignored; having reversed the interest of some Dervish project will feature a General Electric combined-cycle developers for investing in CSP, while the cost-gas turbine fed with 50MW of solar-generated steam and competitive bidding route followed by the Indian 22MW of wind turbines, scheduled for completion by 2015.government for awarding solar projects has also limited the

capacity allocation for CSP systems in Phase Two of the Until recently, ISCC technology was not formally recognised National Solar Mission (NSM).under the NSM, and thus related projects could not technically be taken up under the framework. But with the introduction of However, the MNRE recently announced a separate CSP the new solar-thermal hybrid program that comes under the hybrid program through which it will support the MNRE's energy strategy for 2011-2017 and will involve development of four hybrid pilot projects: the first, interaction with the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, the planned for Rajasthan, will be a CSP plant integrating picture is about to change.hybrid cooling, with the objective of reducing water

consumption; the second involves a CSP plant with steam

Heba Hashem is a freelance journalist based in Dubai, reporting regularly on the solar and nuclear energy industries to CSP Today, PV Insider Today, and Nuclear Energy Insider. Her articles have also appeared in the in-flight magazines of Qatar Airways and Emirates Airlines, covering regional business and environmental issues. Holding a B.A. in Communications and Media Studies from Middlesex University, London, and a B.A. in English-Arabic translation from Cairo University, she is a member of the Chartered Institute of Journalists since 2009. Her contact email: enquiry@hebahashem.com website: www.hebahashem.com

Image of the solar furnace at Odeillo in the French Pyrenees

assures a continued market for parabolic reflectors. There are locations around the world where water, including seawater will still be available and where sunshine is plentiful.

“Several energy sector commentators, writers and journalists have recently questioned the viability of Low-Grade Solar Heat: There are many forms of low-grade concentrated solar thermal power conversion, even going solar thermal power conversion that allow for the use of organic so far to proclaim its impending demise. Solar thermal rankine cycle engines. The list of naturally occurring low-grade power conversion in the USA occurs to the north of 30°N, heat sources includes ocean thermal energy conversion the latitude of New Orleans and also Cairo, Egypt and (OTEC) and solar thermal salt ponds at coastal locations. Delhi, India. Except that most of the planned solar thermal Energy researchers in India are still testing the potential to power conversion in the Middle East and India will occur generate electric power using the difference in temperature to the south of 30°N while in Australia it will occur to the between the warm ocean surface (35°C) at tropical locations north of 30°S. Concentrated solar thermal power and cooler water (15°C) found at much greater depths at the conversion outside of the band between 30°N and 30°S is same location.Salt ponds capture rather the infrared spectrum seasonal and less cost competitive than power generated of light while potable and low-salinity water would reflect the inside that band of latitude” infrared spectrum. The temperature at the bottom of salt ponds

can reach temperatures of 65°C to 95°C. Cold ocean currents Recent advances in photovoltaic and concentrated (25°C) flow along several coastal locations around the world photovoltaic technologies have raised efficiency and where salt ponds may be developed and include: West Coast of lowered the price of a very versatile technology. Low- Australia; West Coast of South Africa and Namibia; West coast maintenance PV technology can easily be installed on the of Morocco; West coast of Northern Chile and Southern Peru roofs, sides and incorporated into the window glass of and Northwestern coast of the USA.buildings in mainly small-scale installations in dry and arid locations. While decentralized PV conversion incurs Compared to OTEC operation, an organic Rankine cycle higher cost than buying power from the grid, the PV engine will operate at higher efficiency over the difference in technology along with flow-battery technology serves a temperature between a coastal salt pond and a nearby cold very useful purpose by providing a measure of energy ocean current. A spiral coil of pipe made of corrosion-resistant security at locations where power outages occur material would be installed on the bed of the pond to collect frequently. heat. The salt pond would preheat water flowing through the

spiral pipe at 80-psia after which it would be heated by The competition facing concentrated solar thermal power parabolic reflector technology to 148°C (300°F). The organic conversion places greater emphasis on evaluating the Rankine-cycle engines would then operate at their maximum possible future of the technology while using past allowable temperature and at the efficiency of most development in the field as being part of a learning curve. commercially available PV technology. The solar thermal There is merit to using a parabolic reflector to concentrate technology would incur lower initial and log-term costs.solar thermal energy on the metal water pipe to heat water for some application. The ongoing need for hot water Steam-based Solar Thermal Conversion: It was a natural

The Competitive Challenge Facing Concentrated Solar Thermal PowerBy Harry Valentine

16

17

such as site access, power transmission links and a steam temperature above 500 Cº; the third will be a CSP plant with 10 turbine power island the economics of the CSP component or more hours of solar thermal salt storage to achieve round the become significantly enhanced. clock operation; and the fourth will comprise a CSP plant with

30% natural gas support, which is likely to be in the form of an As with any solar installation, DNI should be as high as ISCC.possible and cooling methods should be taken into consideration. Many locations in India are known to have “The capacity of each project will be decided based on land high levels of direct normal insolation, while dry cooling availability and the commitment by the respective state could be opted for, as carried out with Algeria's Hassi government. Plant capacity may change from 20MW to 50MW R'Mel ISCC plant. depending upon the land size made available by each state”,

explained a senior adviser on the Indian solar power industry, Rajasthan in particular where a 100MW ISCC project with who preferred to remain anonymous. Commenting on the a solar yield of 35MW was proposed more than two current coal deficits, he stressed that India has huge coal decades ago but remains at the bidding stage has the reserves which need to be explored. “The ongoing reforms and highest solar irradiation in the country of around 5.5- infrastructure development in the coal sector will address the 6.5kWh/m² per day and an average DNI of 2200kWh/m² present crises”.per year. The state also has stretches of government-owned wasteland that are barren and sparsely populated. Demonstration projects in the upcoming CSP hybrid program

will be site-specific and located one each in the different states, “There is tremendous potential for CSP hybridization in including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. India. One could install a small capacity CSP plant near the Most importantly, the government will be facilitating the conventional coal-based thermal power plants as capacity allotment of land, water resources, grid interface and addition mainly for peak load requirements, or one could connectivity, geotechnical reports, environment and forest add conventional fuel-based capacity to a CSP thermal clearances, and Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) with plant as backup for 24 x 7 operations and also during distribution licensees. Projects are expected to be evaluated and cloudy weather”, Hiro Chandwani, CEO and founder of selected through a transparent and competitive bidding process Hiro Energy-Tech, tells CSP Today. under the guidelines of the MNRE and the Renewal Fuel

Standard Program (RFSP).He adds that great potential also lies in designing a hybrid plant with another renewable source like wind, tidal or At present, four ISCC plants are operational worldwide: the wave energy for 24 x 7 supply of power, which is not 150MW Hassi R'Mel in Algeria of which 25MW comes from possible from individual sources alone. This makes ISCC CSP; the 470MW Ain Beni Matar in Morocco where 20MW is ideal for industrial applications that need uninterrupted provided by CSP; the 140MW Kuraymat in Egypt from which power. “The only challenge would be the possibility of 40MW is generated through CSP; and the US's first hybrid solar future scarcity and higher costs of coal”, Chandwani notes. thermal facility the Martin Next Generation Solar Energy

Centre in Florida that has a 75MW CSP capacity.

Hybrid program takes offChina, Mexico and Iran are also constructing ISCC plants, while Turkey is constructing the world's first Integrated The reality of falling PV prices in the international market Renewables Combined-Cycle plant in Karaman. The 530MW cannot be ignored; having reversed the interest of some Dervish project will feature a General Electric combined-cycle developers for investing in CSP, while the cost-gas turbine fed with 50MW of solar-generated steam and competitive bidding route followed by the Indian 22MW of wind turbines, scheduled for completion by 2015.government for awarding solar projects has also limited the

capacity allocation for CSP systems in Phase Two of the Until recently, ISCC technology was not formally recognised National Solar Mission (NSM).under the NSM, and thus related projects could not technically be taken up under the framework. But with the introduction of However, the MNRE recently announced a separate CSP the new solar-thermal hybrid program that comes under the hybrid program through which it will support the MNRE's energy strategy for 2011-2017 and will involve development of four hybrid pilot projects: the first, interaction with the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, the planned for Rajasthan, will be a CSP plant integrating picture is about to change.hybrid cooling, with the objective of reducing water

consumption; the second involves a CSP plant with steam

Heba Hashem is a freelance journalist based in Dubai, reporting regularly on the solar and nuclear energy industries to CSP Today, PV Insider Today, and Nuclear Energy Insider. Her articles have also appeared in the in-flight magazines of Qatar Airways and Emirates Airlines, covering regional business and environmental issues. Holding a B.A. in Communications and Media Studies from Middlesex University, London, and a B.A. in English-Arabic translation from Cairo University, she is a member of the Chartered Institute of Journalists since 2009. Her contact email: enquiry@hebahashem.com website: www.hebahashem.com

Image of the solar furnace at Odeillo in the French Pyrenees

assures a continued market for parabolic reflectors. There are locations around the world where water, including seawater will still be available and where sunshine is plentiful.

“Several energy sector commentators, writers and journalists have recently questioned the viability of Low-Grade Solar Heat: There are many forms of low-grade concentrated solar thermal power conversion, even going solar thermal power conversion that allow for the use of organic so far to proclaim its impending demise. Solar thermal rankine cycle engines. The list of naturally occurring low-grade power conversion in the USA occurs to the north of 30°N, heat sources includes ocean thermal energy conversion the latitude of New Orleans and also Cairo, Egypt and (OTEC) and solar thermal salt ponds at coastal locations. Delhi, India. Except that most of the planned solar thermal Energy researchers in India are still testing the potential to power conversion in the Middle East and India will occur generate electric power using the difference in temperature to the south of 30°N while in Australia it will occur to the between the warm ocean surface (35°C) at tropical locations north of 30°S. Concentrated solar thermal power and cooler water (15°C) found at much greater depths at the conversion outside of the band between 30°N and 30°S is same location.Salt ponds capture rather the infrared spectrum seasonal and less cost competitive than power generated of light while potable and low-salinity water would reflect the inside that band of latitude” infrared spectrum. The temperature at the bottom of salt ponds

can reach temperatures of 65°C to 95°C. Cold ocean currents Recent advances in photovoltaic and concentrated (25°C) flow along several coastal locations around the world photovoltaic technologies have raised efficiency and where salt ponds may be developed and include: West Coast of lowered the price of a very versatile technology. Low- Australia; West Coast of South Africa and Namibia; West coast maintenance PV technology can easily be installed on the of Morocco; West coast of Northern Chile and Southern Peru roofs, sides and incorporated into the window glass of and Northwestern coast of the USA.buildings in mainly small-scale installations in dry and arid locations. While decentralized PV conversion incurs Compared to OTEC operation, an organic Rankine cycle higher cost than buying power from the grid, the PV engine will operate at higher efficiency over the difference in technology along with flow-battery technology serves a temperature between a coastal salt pond and a nearby cold very useful purpose by providing a measure of energy ocean current. A spiral coil of pipe made of corrosion-resistant security at locations where power outages occur material would be installed on the bed of the pond to collect frequently. heat. The salt pond would preheat water flowing through the

spiral pipe at 80-psia after which it would be heated by The competition facing concentrated solar thermal power parabolic reflector technology to 148°C (300°F). The organic conversion places greater emphasis on evaluating the Rankine-cycle engines would then operate at their maximum possible future of the technology while using past allowable temperature and at the efficiency of most development in the field as being part of a learning curve. commercially available PV technology. The solar thermal There is merit to using a parabolic reflector to concentrate technology would incur lower initial and log-term costs.solar thermal energy on the metal water pipe to heat water for some application. The ongoing need for hot water Steam-based Solar Thermal Conversion: It was a natural

The Competitive Challenge Facing Concentrated Solar Thermal PowerBy Harry Valentine

16

19

progression to develop parabolic reflectors from heating proposed to use a tower of lower height in which to use water to generating steam and involves unraveling water available heat to produce a vortex that could pull an air stream tube boilers to achieve such a purpose. The sheer size and through ground-level turbines. The higher towers would extent of a water tube boiler that is heated by concentrated produce powerful updrafts that would pull air through ground solar thermal energy presents numerous challenges that level air turbines and propose to generate some 200MW to include leakage and heat loss across the installation. There 300Mw of power.may be an advantage to taking the extensive water tube system out of the parabolic reflectors and replacing them While it would be possible to combine solar salt pond with the combination of heliostats and compact boilers. technology with thermal tower or thermal chimney technology

at some locations, most researchers propose to use arrays of In some concentrated solar thermal power installations, it solar reflectors to concentrate heat on to the towers. A proof of would be possible to convert a coil mono-tube boiler into a concept of solar heated tower technology has been tightly wound, pancake shaped, flat spiral mono-tube demonstrated at Manzanares in Spain and produces up to 50kW boiler. In other installations, it may be possible to enlarge of output. The low-cost option would combine the solar salt the coil boiler to include multiple parallel tubes wound on a pond with a vortex engine, however such a combination may be large diameter and perhaps including a series of inner possible only at a few locations around the world despite the (preheat) coils and outer (super-heat) coils. There are small size of the tornado the vortex engine would produce.tropical locations where it would be possible to use the combination of reflector and heliostat technology to focus Solar Heated Brayton-cycle Engines: The introduction of concentrated solar thermal energy on to both sides either engine components made from silicon carbide has raised the design of boiler. efficiency and performance capability of small turbine engines.

Silicon carbide can maintain constant mechanical properties up The boiler may be housed between panes of transparent to 1400°C with extraordinarily high thermal conductivity. sapphire-aluminum-oxide to minimize heat loss. While the Ongoing developments related to silicon carbide technology heliostat technology collect an equal area of sunlight as suggest the potential to develop high-temperature heaters for parabolic reflectors, the more compact boilers could externally heated air turbine engines.operate at higher pressure and higher temperature while incurring less heat loss and lower potential for leakage than The air heater system downstream of the engine compressor an extensive water tube system. The installation could would include a recuperative heat exchanger to recover a large generate hotter steam at higher pressure to operate steam percentage of exhaust heat, a spiral-coil primary air heater engines at higher thermal efficiency. made from high-temperature stainless steel and an air super-

heater made from reinforced silicon carbide. While a trio of a The most recent developments in steam power conversion recuperative heat exchanger, primary heater and super-heater involve generating ultra-critical steam at pressure levels in may sustain the operation a micro-turbine engine, groups of excess of 3000-psia at temperatures exceeding 540°C such trio's could sustain the operation of a much large engine of (1000°F). Water-tube boilers made from special martensite much higher output.steel can operate at the elevated temperatures and pressures. The range of expanders includes specially built The same heliostat heated solar thermal technology can be steam turbines and even specially built uniflow piston adapted to turbines that operate on compressed air stored in engines developed by Cyclone Power in the USA that can subterranean caverns instead of on compressed air from engine-achieve the thermal efficiency of a diesel engine. Prototype driven compressors. In the former case, the solar heated concentrated solar thermal installations heated by heliostat turbines would deliver 50% to 60% greater output due to the technology have recently appeared. absence of the power required by the turbine-driven air

compressor. There is potential to combine seasonal compressed Alternative Concentrated Solar Thermal Power: There air energy storage (CAES) with high-temperature concentrated alternative non-phase change forms of concentrated solar solar thermal power and the concept may be cost competitive thermal power conversion include several types of air- against PV technology in large-scale applications.based and gas-based engines that include Stirling-cycle engines and thermo-acoustic conversion technology. The Hybrid Solar Thermal Technology: There are a variety of latter concept involves using heat to generate low- methods by which to combine concentrated solar thermal frequency sound waves that drive linear alternators to power technology with other technologies. The possibilities generate some 50kW of electric power at equivalent include: efficiency levels of over 40%. Solar-heated Stirling-cycle ? Super-heat saturated direct/indirect steam from geothermal engines can generate up to equivalent output at marginally wells; Super-heat steam from a light water nuclear power lower efficiency and involve a high capital cost. installation

? Convert water to saturated steam that will be super-heated by The thermal power research of several groups located in combustionSpain, Australia, the USA, Canada, Greece, Singapore and ? Preheat air that will be superheated by combustion in a South Africa revolve around solar-heated chimney turbine enginetechnology. One version of the technology proposed to use ? Use natural gas combustion after sunset and before sunrisechimneys built to a height of 1000m to 1500m while a similar floating tower would be made of fabric and be held Hybrid technology has the potential to provide a niche for aloft by balloon technology. A competing concept concentrated solar thermal technology in a variety of engine

applications that use steam, air of a gas as the working Concentrated solar thermal power using parabolic reflector fluid. technology also has its own unique market niche such as

heating water at numerous locations around the world. Most Solid-State Thermoelectric Technology: Present large buildings around the world have need for heated water, as examples of solid-state thermoelectric conversion do many thermal-desalination plants. The same technology can technology operate at a conversion efficiency of 5%. There be adapted to low-grade thermal power conversion involving is much research underway in the USA and in Western organic Rankin-cycle engines.Europe to raise the conversion efficiency to within range of PV power and steam-based technology. Solid-state The cost of heliostat technology as compared to PV technology thermoelectric technology has several applications outside will determine as to which technology gains favor in large-scale of concentrated solar thermal technology, including being power generation. There is potential to combine heliostats with placed on top of a fireplace where it can generate power to a different design to boiler to raise thermal efficiency and recharge batteries or provide interior lighting to a residence possibly reduce capital cost. In some nations, it may be possible or building. to desalinate seawater using the exhaust steam from steam-

based solar thermal power installations.Thermal Energy Storage: The solar heated salt pond is both a solar collector and thermal energy storage system The ability to combine concentrated solar thermal power that stores heat using the latent heat of fusion. Building a conversion with a related technology in a hybrid system offers transparent cover over a salt pond will minimize heat loss to create a unique niche for such technology. Combining during the over night hours while allowing daytime seasonal compressed air energy storage technology (CAES) transmission of the infrared spectrum. There is potential to with concentrated solar thermal power technology can allow convert small salt caverns to low-grade heat storage the hybrid technology to generate greater output from the same systems (150°C) where heat is pumped in during the day number of reflectors during the summer months, when demand and extracted at night to operate either organic Rankin- for power soars in many nations. cycle engines or air-based thermal chimney engines.

The CAES hybrid concept can include a combined-cycle The solar thermal power industry has pioneered the thermal technology that involves both Brayton and Rankine-development of heat-of-fusion thermal energy storage cycle engines to raise power output and overall thermal systems capable of generating steam and that are based on efficiency while operating on concentrated solar thermal mixtures of naturally occurring sodium and/or potassium power. Exhaust heat from the Rankine-cycle engine may be salts. Such materials involve low costs and provide greatly used to operate a thermal desalination plant.extended useful life expectancies. Research is underway to The option to apply hybrid technology and combined-cycle develop eutectic mixtures of lithium-aluminates capable of technology to concentrated solar thermal power conversion generating high-grade superheated steam. offers to create a viable niche for an expanded version

technology. Such technology may best operate in locations that Whereas the very large-scale air-based chimney engines have the following characteristics:can operate on low-grade heat, small-scale air-based engines operate on very high-grade heat at some 1000°C. ? Excess power generation during winterContainers made of silicon carbide can certainly store heat- ? Excessive demand for power during summerof-fusion materials that melt at that temperature. The list ? Potential to introduce (seasonal) CAES technologywould include eutectic mixtures of the hydrated and non- ? Location is near an oceanic coast (thermal hydrated hydroxides and oxides as well as the oxides and desalination)fluorides of the same metals. A mixture of the oxide and ? Optimal latitude between 35°N and 35°Shydroxide of thorium would combine high density with a ? Application is of large-scalehigh level of thermal storage in a relatively compact package. Despite the increasingly competitive nature of PV technology,

there may be scope to enhance the versatility and Conclusions: Solar PV technology has already established competitiveness of concentrated solar thermal technology. several unique niches in the world of small-scale and While the 2-solar technologies have their respective unique decentralized power generation. Many forms of solar PV niches, the evolving competition between them will create technology already operate free from state subsidy and that unique market applications for each technology. Both trend would likely continue into the future and expand. The technologies are likely to evolve and develop further over the dropping cost of PV technology relative to its output make years ahead as their respective market niches evolve and it an attractive option for small-scale applications, with develop.potential for large-scale applications.

Harry Valentine holds a degree in engineering and has a background in free-market economics. He has undertaken extensive research into the field of transportation energy over a period of 20-years and has published numerous technical articles on the subject. His economics commentaries have included several articles on issues that pertain to electric power generation. He lives in Canada.

18

19

progression to develop parabolic reflectors from heating proposed to use a tower of lower height in which to use water to generating steam and involves unraveling water available heat to produce a vortex that could pull an air stream tube boilers to achieve such a purpose. The sheer size and through ground-level turbines. The higher towers would extent of a water tube boiler that is heated by concentrated produce powerful updrafts that would pull air through ground solar thermal energy presents numerous challenges that level air turbines and propose to generate some 200MW to include leakage and heat loss across the installation. There 300Mw of power.may be an advantage to taking the extensive water tube system out of the parabolic reflectors and replacing them While it would be possible to combine solar salt pond with the combination of heliostats and compact boilers. technology with thermal tower or thermal chimney technology

at some locations, most researchers propose to use arrays of In some concentrated solar thermal power installations, it solar reflectors to concentrate heat on to the towers. A proof of would be possible to convert a coil mono-tube boiler into a concept of solar heated tower technology has been tightly wound, pancake shaped, flat spiral mono-tube demonstrated at Manzanares in Spain and produces up to 50kW boiler. In other installations, it may be possible to enlarge of output. The low-cost option would combine the solar salt the coil boiler to include multiple parallel tubes wound on a pond with a vortex engine, however such a combination may be large diameter and perhaps including a series of inner possible only at a few locations around the world despite the (preheat) coils and outer (super-heat) coils. There are small size of the tornado the vortex engine would produce.tropical locations where it would be possible to use the combination of reflector and heliostat technology to focus Solar Heated Brayton-cycle Engines: The introduction of concentrated solar thermal energy on to both sides either engine components made from silicon carbide has raised the design of boiler. efficiency and performance capability of small turbine engines.

Silicon carbide can maintain constant mechanical properties up The boiler may be housed between panes of transparent to 1400°C with extraordinarily high thermal conductivity. sapphire-aluminum-oxide to minimize heat loss. While the Ongoing developments related to silicon carbide technology heliostat technology collect an equal area of sunlight as suggest the potential to develop high-temperature heaters for parabolic reflectors, the more compact boilers could externally heated air turbine engines.operate at higher pressure and higher temperature while incurring less heat loss and lower potential for leakage than The air heater system downstream of the engine compressor an extensive water tube system. The installation could would include a recuperative heat exchanger to recover a large generate hotter steam at higher pressure to operate steam percentage of exhaust heat, a spiral-coil primary air heater engines at higher thermal efficiency. made from high-temperature stainless steel and an air super-

heater made from reinforced silicon carbide. While a trio of a The most recent developments in steam power conversion recuperative heat exchanger, primary heater and super-heater involve generating ultra-critical steam at pressure levels in may sustain the operation a micro-turbine engine, groups of excess of 3000-psia at temperatures exceeding 540°C such trio's could sustain the operation of a much large engine of (1000°F). Water-tube boilers made from special martensite much higher output.steel can operate at the elevated temperatures and pressures. The range of expanders includes specially built The same heliostat heated solar thermal technology can be steam turbines and even specially built uniflow piston adapted to turbines that operate on compressed air stored in engines developed by Cyclone Power in the USA that can subterranean caverns instead of on compressed air from engine-achieve the thermal efficiency of a diesel engine. Prototype driven compressors. In the former case, the solar heated concentrated solar thermal installations heated by heliostat turbines would deliver 50% to 60% greater output due to the technology have recently appeared. absence of the power required by the turbine-driven air

compressor. There is potential to combine seasonal compressed Alternative Concentrated Solar Thermal Power: There air energy storage (CAES) with high-temperature concentrated alternative non-phase change forms of concentrated solar solar thermal power and the concept may be cost competitive thermal power conversion include several types of air- against PV technology in large-scale applications.based and gas-based engines that include Stirling-cycle engines and thermo-acoustic conversion technology. The Hybrid Solar Thermal Technology: There are a variety of latter concept involves using heat to generate low- methods by which to combine concentrated solar thermal frequency sound waves that drive linear alternators to power technology with other technologies. The possibilities generate some 50kW of electric power at equivalent include: efficiency levels of over 40%. Solar-heated Stirling-cycle ? Super-heat saturated direct/indirect steam from geothermal engines can generate up to equivalent output at marginally wells; Super-heat steam from a light water nuclear power lower efficiency and involve a high capital cost. installation

? Convert water to saturated steam that will be super-heated by The thermal power research of several groups located in combustionSpain, Australia, the USA, Canada, Greece, Singapore and ? Preheat air that will be superheated by combustion in a South Africa revolve around solar-heated chimney turbine enginetechnology. One version of the technology proposed to use ? Use natural gas combustion after sunset and before sunrisechimneys built to a height of 1000m to 1500m while a similar floating tower would be made of fabric and be held Hybrid technology has the potential to provide a niche for aloft by balloon technology. A competing concept concentrated solar thermal technology in a variety of engine

applications that use steam, air of a gas as the working Concentrated solar thermal power using parabolic reflector fluid. technology also has its own unique market niche such as

heating water at numerous locations around the world. Most Solid-State Thermoelectric Technology: Present large buildings around the world have need for heated water, as examples of solid-state thermoelectric conversion do many thermal-desalination plants. The same technology can technology operate at a conversion efficiency of 5%. There be adapted to low-grade thermal power conversion involving is much research underway in the USA and in Western organic Rankin-cycle engines.Europe to raise the conversion efficiency to within range of PV power and steam-based technology. Solid-state The cost of heliostat technology as compared to PV technology thermoelectric technology has several applications outside will determine as to which technology gains favor in large-scale of concentrated solar thermal technology, including being power generation. There is potential to combine heliostats with placed on top of a fireplace where it can generate power to a different design to boiler to raise thermal efficiency and recharge batteries or provide interior lighting to a residence possibly reduce capital cost. In some nations, it may be possible or building. to desalinate seawater using the exhaust steam from steam-

based solar thermal power installations.Thermal Energy Storage: The solar heated salt pond is both a solar collector and thermal energy storage system The ability to combine concentrated solar thermal power that stores heat using the latent heat of fusion. Building a conversion with a related technology in a hybrid system offers transparent cover over a salt pond will minimize heat loss to create a unique niche for such technology. Combining during the over night hours while allowing daytime seasonal compressed air energy storage technology (CAES) transmission of the infrared spectrum. There is potential to with concentrated solar thermal power technology can allow convert small salt caverns to low-grade heat storage the hybrid technology to generate greater output from the same systems (150°C) where heat is pumped in during the day number of reflectors during the summer months, when demand and extracted at night to operate either organic Rankin- for power soars in many nations. cycle engines or air-based thermal chimney engines.

The CAES hybrid concept can include a combined-cycle The solar thermal power industry has pioneered the thermal technology that involves both Brayton and Rankine-development of heat-of-fusion thermal energy storage cycle engines to raise power output and overall thermal systems capable of generating steam and that are based on efficiency while operating on concentrated solar thermal mixtures of naturally occurring sodium and/or potassium power. Exhaust heat from the Rankine-cycle engine may be salts. Such materials involve low costs and provide greatly used to operate a thermal desalination plant.extended useful life expectancies. Research is underway to The option to apply hybrid technology and combined-cycle develop eutectic mixtures of lithium-aluminates capable of technology to concentrated solar thermal power conversion generating high-grade superheated steam. offers to create a viable niche for an expanded version

technology. Such technology may best operate in locations that Whereas the very large-scale air-based chimney engines have the following characteristics:can operate on low-grade heat, small-scale air-based engines operate on very high-grade heat at some 1000°C. ? Excess power generation during winterContainers made of silicon carbide can certainly store heat- ? Excessive demand for power during summerof-fusion materials that melt at that temperature. The list ? Potential to introduce (seasonal) CAES technologywould include eutectic mixtures of the hydrated and non- ? Location is near an oceanic coast (thermal hydrated hydroxides and oxides as well as the oxides and desalination)fluorides of the same metals. A mixture of the oxide and ? Optimal latitude between 35°N and 35°Shydroxide of thorium would combine high density with a ? Application is of large-scalehigh level of thermal storage in a relatively compact package. Despite the increasingly competitive nature of PV technology,

there may be scope to enhance the versatility and Conclusions: Solar PV technology has already established competitiveness of concentrated solar thermal technology. several unique niches in the world of small-scale and While the 2-solar technologies have their respective unique decentralized power generation. Many forms of solar PV niches, the evolving competition between them will create technology already operate free from state subsidy and that unique market applications for each technology. Both trend would likely continue into the future and expand. The technologies are likely to evolve and develop further over the dropping cost of PV technology relative to its output make years ahead as their respective market niches evolve and it an attractive option for small-scale applications, with develop.potential for large-scale applications.

Harry Valentine holds a degree in engineering and has a background in free-market economics. He has undertaken extensive research into the field of transportation energy over a period of 20-years and has published numerous technical articles on the subject. His economics commentaries have included several articles on issues that pertain to electric power generation. He lives in Canada.

18

21

“The basic concept of concentrating solar power (CSP) is relatively simple. CSP devices concentrate energy from the sun's rays to heat a receiver to high temperatures. This heat is transformed first into mechanical energy (by turbines or other engines) and then into electricity. CSP also holds potential for producing other energy carriers (solar fuels)”

“The first commercial plants began operating in California in the period 1984 to 1991, spurred by federal and state tax incentives and mandatory long-term power purchase contracts. A drop in fossil fuel prices then led the federal and state governments to dismantle the policy framework that had supported the advancement of CSP. In 2006, the market reemerged in Spain and the United States, again in response to government measures such as feed-in tariffs (Spain) and policies obliging utilities to obtain some share of power from renewables and from large solar in particular”

potential for supplying specialized demands such as process heat for industry, co-generation of heating, cooling and power, and water desalination. CSP also holds potential for applications such as household cooking and small-scale manufacturing that are important for the developing world.

The possibility of using CSP technologies to produce concentrating solar fuels (CSF), such as, hydrogen and other

CSP uses renewable solar resource to generate electricity energy carriers, is an important area for further research and while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas development. Solar-generated hydrogen can help de-carbonize emissions. Thus, it has strong potential to be a key the transport and other end-use sectors by mixing hydrogen technology for mitigating climate change. In addition, the with natural gas in pipelines and distribution grids, and by flexibility of CSP plants enhances energy security. Unlike producing cleaner liquid fuels.solar photovoltaic (SPV) technologies, CSP has an inherent capacity to store heat energy for short periods of time for later conversion to electricity. When combined with thermal storage capacity, CSP plants can continue to produce electricity even when clouds block the sun or after sundown. CSP plants can also be equipped with backup power from combustible fuels.

These factors give CSP the ability to provide reliable electricity that can be despatched to the grid when needed, including after sunset to match late evening peak demand or even around the clock to meet base-load demand. Collectively, these characteristics make CSP a promising As of early 2010, the global stock of CSP plants neared 1 GW technology for all regions with a need for clean, flexible, capacity. Projects now in development or under construction in reliable power. Further, due to these characteristics, CSP more than a dozen countries (including India, China, Morocco, can also be seen as an enabling technology to help Spain and the United States) are expected to total 15 GW. integrate on grids larger amounts of variable renewable Parabolic troughs account for the largest share of the current resources such as solar PV or wind power. CSP market, but competing technologies are emerging. Some While the bulk of CSP electricity will come from large, on- plants now incorporate thermal storage. By contrast, grid power plants, these technologies also show significant photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating photovoltaics (CPV)

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) emerging as aproven technologyBy Ramanathan Menon

produce electricity from the sun's rays using direct East and North Africa would cover about 100 times the current conversion with semi-conductor materials. consumption of the Middle East, North Africa and the European

Union combined. In short, CSP would be largely capable of The sunlight hits the Earth's surface both directly and producing enough no-carbon or low-carbon electricity and indirectly, through numerous reflections and deviations in fuels to satisfy global demand. A key challenge, however, is that the atmosphere. On clear days, direct irradiance represents electricity demand is not always situated close to the best CSP 80% to 90% of the solar energy reaching the Earth's resources. surface. On a cloudy or foggy day, the direct component is essentially zero. The direct component of solar irradiance As demonstrated over decades by hydropower dams in remote is of the greatest interest to designers of high temperature regions, electricity can be transported over long distances to solar energy systems because it can be concentrated on demand centres. When distance is greater than a few hundred small areas using mirrors or lenses, whereas the diffuse kilometres, economics favour high voltage direct-current component cannot. Concentrating the sun's rays thus (HVDC) technology over alternative-current technology. requires reliably clear skies, which are usually found in HVDC lines of gigawatt capacity can exceed 1000 km and can semi-arid, hot regions. be installed across the seabed; they also have a smaller

environmental footprint. Electricity losses are 3% per 1000 km, The solar energy that CSP plants use is measured as direct plus 0.6% for each conversion station (as HVDC lines usually normal irradiance (DNI), which is the energy received on a link two alternative-current areas).This creates opportunities surface tracked perpendicular to the sun's rays. It can be for CSP plant operators to supply a larger range of consumers. measured with a pyrheliometer. DNI measures provide However, the cost of constructing major transmission and only a first approximation of a CSP plant's electrical output distribution lines must be taken into account. potential that take advantage of both direct and diffuse irradiance, such as photovoltaics (PV), are assumed to At present, there are four main CSP technology families, which have a competitive advantage. can be categorised by the way they focus the sun's rays and the

technology used to receive the sun's energy. The main differences in the direct sunlight available from place to place arise from the composition of the Parabolic troughs (line focus, mobile receiver): Parabolic atmosphere and the weather. Good DNI is usually found in trough systems consist of parallel rows of mirrors (reflectors) arid and semi-arid areas with reliably clear skies, which curved in one dimension to focus the sun's rays. The mirror typically lay at latitudes from 15° to 40° North or South. arrays can be more than 100 m long with the curved surface 5 m Closer to the equator the atmosphere is usually too cloudy to 6 m across. Stainless steel pipes (absorber tubes) with a and wet in summer, and at higher latitudes the weather is selective coating serve as the heat collectors. The coating is usually too cloudy. DNI is also significantly better at designed to allow pipes to absorb high levels of solar radiation higher altitudes, where absorption and scattering of while emitting very little infra-red radiation. The pipes are sunlight are much lower. Thus, the most favourable areas insulated in an evacuated glass envelope. The reflectors and the for CSP resource are in North Africa, southern Africa, the absorber tubes move in tandem with the sun as it crosses the sky. Middle East, northwestern India, the southwestern United All parabolic trough plants currently in commercial operation States, Mexico, Peru, Chile, the western part of China and rely on synthetic oil as the fluid that transfers heat (the heat Australia. Other areas that may be suitable include the transfer fluid) from collector pipes to heat exchangers, where extreme south of Europe and Turkey, other southern US water is preheated, evaporated and then superheated. The locations, central Asian countries, places in Brazil and superheated steam runs a turbine, which drives a generator to Argentina, and other parts of China. produce electricity. After being cooled and condensed, the

water returns to the heat exchangers. While existing solar resource maps agree on the most favourable DNI values, their level of agreement vanishes Parabolic troughs are the most mature of the CSP technologies when it comes to less favourable ones. Important and form the bulk of current commercial plants. Most existing differences exist, notably with respect to the suitability of plants, however, have little or no thermal storage and rely on northeastern China, where the most important combustible fuel as a backup to firm capacity. For example, all consumption centres are found. However, precise CSP plants in Spain derive 12% to 15% of their annual measurements can only be achieved through ground-based electricity generation from burning natural gas. Some newer monitoring; satellite results must thus be scaled with plants have significant thermal storage capacities.ground measurements for sufficient accuracy.

Linear Fresnel reflectors (line focus, fixed receiver): Linear Several studies have assessed in detail the potential of key Fresnel reflectors (LFRs) approximate the parabolic shape of regions (notably the United States and North Africa), trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly curved giving special consideration to land availability: without mirrors to reflect the sun's rays onto a downward-facing linear, storage, CSP plants require around 2 hectares per MWe, fixed receiver. A more recent design, known as compact linear depending on the DNI and the technology. Even though Fresnel reflectors (CLFRs), uses two parallel receivers for each the Earth's “sunbelts” are relatively narrow, the technical row of mirrors and thus needs less land than parabolic troughs potential for CSP is huge. If fully developed for CSP to produce a given output. The main advantage of LFR systems applications, the potential in the southwestern US states is that their simple design of flexibly bent mirrors and fixed would meet the electricity requirements of the entire receivers requires lower investment costs and facilitates direct United States several times over. Potential in the Middle steam generation (DSG), thereby eliminating the need for and 20

21

“The basic concept of concentrating solar power (CSP) is relatively simple. CSP devices concentrate energy from the sun's rays to heat a receiver to high temperatures. This heat is transformed first into mechanical energy (by turbines or other engines) and then into electricity. CSP also holds potential for producing other energy carriers (solar fuels)”

“The first commercial plants began operating in California in the period 1984 to 1991, spurred by federal and state tax incentives and mandatory long-term power purchase contracts. A drop in fossil fuel prices then led the federal and state governments to dismantle the policy framework that had supported the advancement of CSP. In 2006, the market reemerged in Spain and the United States, again in response to government measures such as feed-in tariffs (Spain) and policies obliging utilities to obtain some share of power from renewables and from large solar in particular”

potential for supplying specialized demands such as process heat for industry, co-generation of heating, cooling and power, and water desalination. CSP also holds potential for applications such as household cooking and small-scale manufacturing that are important for the developing world.

The possibility of using CSP technologies to produce concentrating solar fuels (CSF), such as, hydrogen and other

CSP uses renewable solar resource to generate electricity energy carriers, is an important area for further research and while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas development. Solar-generated hydrogen can help de-carbonize emissions. Thus, it has strong potential to be a key the transport and other end-use sectors by mixing hydrogen technology for mitigating climate change. In addition, the with natural gas in pipelines and distribution grids, and by flexibility of CSP plants enhances energy security. Unlike producing cleaner liquid fuels.solar photovoltaic (SPV) technologies, CSP has an inherent capacity to store heat energy for short periods of time for later conversion to electricity. When combined with thermal storage capacity, CSP plants can continue to produce electricity even when clouds block the sun or after sundown. CSP plants can also be equipped with backup power from combustible fuels.

These factors give CSP the ability to provide reliable electricity that can be despatched to the grid when needed, including after sunset to match late evening peak demand or even around the clock to meet base-load demand. Collectively, these characteristics make CSP a promising As of early 2010, the global stock of CSP plants neared 1 GW technology for all regions with a need for clean, flexible, capacity. Projects now in development or under construction in reliable power. Further, due to these characteristics, CSP more than a dozen countries (including India, China, Morocco, can also be seen as an enabling technology to help Spain and the United States) are expected to total 15 GW. integrate on grids larger amounts of variable renewable Parabolic troughs account for the largest share of the current resources such as solar PV or wind power. CSP market, but competing technologies are emerging. Some While the bulk of CSP electricity will come from large, on- plants now incorporate thermal storage. By contrast, grid power plants, these technologies also show significant photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating photovoltaics (CPV)

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) emerging as aproven technologyBy Ramanathan Menon

produce electricity from the sun's rays using direct East and North Africa would cover about 100 times the current conversion with semi-conductor materials. consumption of the Middle East, North Africa and the European

Union combined. In short, CSP would be largely capable of The sunlight hits the Earth's surface both directly and producing enough no-carbon or low-carbon electricity and indirectly, through numerous reflections and deviations in fuels to satisfy global demand. A key challenge, however, is that the atmosphere. On clear days, direct irradiance represents electricity demand is not always situated close to the best CSP 80% to 90% of the solar energy reaching the Earth's resources. surface. On a cloudy or foggy day, the direct component is essentially zero. The direct component of solar irradiance As demonstrated over decades by hydropower dams in remote is of the greatest interest to designers of high temperature regions, electricity can be transported over long distances to solar energy systems because it can be concentrated on demand centres. When distance is greater than a few hundred small areas using mirrors or lenses, whereas the diffuse kilometres, economics favour high voltage direct-current component cannot. Concentrating the sun's rays thus (HVDC) technology over alternative-current technology. requires reliably clear skies, which are usually found in HVDC lines of gigawatt capacity can exceed 1000 km and can semi-arid, hot regions. be installed across the seabed; they also have a smaller

environmental footprint. Electricity losses are 3% per 1000 km, The solar energy that CSP plants use is measured as direct plus 0.6% for each conversion station (as HVDC lines usually normal irradiance (DNI), which is the energy received on a link two alternative-current areas).This creates opportunities surface tracked perpendicular to the sun's rays. It can be for CSP plant operators to supply a larger range of consumers. measured with a pyrheliometer. DNI measures provide However, the cost of constructing major transmission and only a first approximation of a CSP plant's electrical output distribution lines must be taken into account. potential that take advantage of both direct and diffuse irradiance, such as photovoltaics (PV), are assumed to At present, there are four main CSP technology families, which have a competitive advantage. can be categorised by the way they focus the sun's rays and the

technology used to receive the sun's energy. The main differences in the direct sunlight available from place to place arise from the composition of the Parabolic troughs (line focus, mobile receiver): Parabolic atmosphere and the weather. Good DNI is usually found in trough systems consist of parallel rows of mirrors (reflectors) arid and semi-arid areas with reliably clear skies, which curved in one dimension to focus the sun's rays. The mirror typically lay at latitudes from 15° to 40° North or South. arrays can be more than 100 m long with the curved surface 5 m Closer to the equator the atmosphere is usually too cloudy to 6 m across. Stainless steel pipes (absorber tubes) with a and wet in summer, and at higher latitudes the weather is selective coating serve as the heat collectors. The coating is usually too cloudy. DNI is also significantly better at designed to allow pipes to absorb high levels of solar radiation higher altitudes, where absorption and scattering of while emitting very little infra-red radiation. The pipes are sunlight are much lower. Thus, the most favourable areas insulated in an evacuated glass envelope. The reflectors and the for CSP resource are in North Africa, southern Africa, the absorber tubes move in tandem with the sun as it crosses the sky. Middle East, northwestern India, the southwestern United All parabolic trough plants currently in commercial operation States, Mexico, Peru, Chile, the western part of China and rely on synthetic oil as the fluid that transfers heat (the heat Australia. Other areas that may be suitable include the transfer fluid) from collector pipes to heat exchangers, where extreme south of Europe and Turkey, other southern US water is preheated, evaporated and then superheated. The locations, central Asian countries, places in Brazil and superheated steam runs a turbine, which drives a generator to Argentina, and other parts of China. produce electricity. After being cooled and condensed, the

water returns to the heat exchangers. While existing solar resource maps agree on the most favourable DNI values, their level of agreement vanishes Parabolic troughs are the most mature of the CSP technologies when it comes to less favourable ones. Important and form the bulk of current commercial plants. Most existing differences exist, notably with respect to the suitability of plants, however, have little or no thermal storage and rely on northeastern China, where the most important combustible fuel as a backup to firm capacity. For example, all consumption centres are found. However, precise CSP plants in Spain derive 12% to 15% of their annual measurements can only be achieved through ground-based electricity generation from burning natural gas. Some newer monitoring; satellite results must thus be scaled with plants have significant thermal storage capacities.ground measurements for sufficient accuracy.

Linear Fresnel reflectors (line focus, fixed receiver): Linear Several studies have assessed in detail the potential of key Fresnel reflectors (LFRs) approximate the parabolic shape of regions (notably the United States and North Africa), trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly curved giving special consideration to land availability: without mirrors to reflect the sun's rays onto a downward-facing linear, storage, CSP plants require around 2 hectares per MWe, fixed receiver. A more recent design, known as compact linear depending on the DNI and the technology. Even though Fresnel reflectors (CLFRs), uses two parallel receivers for each the Earth's “sunbelts” are relatively narrow, the technical row of mirrors and thus needs less land than parabolic troughs potential for CSP is huge. If fully developed for CSP to produce a given output. The main advantage of LFR systems applications, the potential in the southwestern US states is that their simple design of flexibly bent mirrors and fixed would meet the electricity requirements of the entire receivers requires lower investment costs and facilitates direct United States several times over. Potential in the Middle steam generation (DSG), thereby eliminating the need for and 20

23

cost of heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. LFR technologies discussed above, but non-concentrating solar plants are, however, less efficient than troughs in power could capture both direct and diffuse sunlight (like PV converting solar energy to electricity and it is more modules) and thus expand the geographic areas suitable for difficult to incorporate storage capacity into their design. solar thermal electricity. Low-cost thermal storage and fuel

backup could give this technology interesting features when Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver): Solar towers, and if it becomes commercial. Enhancing the value of CSP also known as central receiver systems (CRS), use capacities In arid and semi-arid areas suitable for CSP hundreds or thousands of small reflectors (called production, sunlight usually exhibits a good match with heliostats) to concentrate the sun's rays on a central electricity demand and its peaks, driven by air-conditioning receiver placed atop a fixed tower. Some commercial loads. However, the available sunlight varies somewhat even in tower plants now in operation use DSG in the receiver; the sunniest places. others use molten salts as both the heat transfer fluid and storage medium. The concentrating power of the tower Furthermore, human activity and thermal inertia of buildings concept achieves very high temperatures, thereby often maintain high demand for electricity several hours after increasing the efficiency at which heat is converted into sunset. To provide a larger share of clean electricity and electricity and reducing the cost of thermal storage. In maximise CO2 emission reductions, CSP plants will need to addition, the concept is highly flexible; designers can provide base load power. Thermal storage and backup or choose from a wide variety of heliostats, receivers, transfer hybridisation with fuels help address these issues. Thermal fluids and power blocks. Some plants have several towers storage All CSP plants have some ability to store heat energy for that feed one power block. short periods of time and thus have a “buffering” capacity that

allows them to smooth electricity production considerably and Parabolic dishes (point focus, mobile receiver): Parabolic eliminate the short-term variations other solar technologies dishes concentrate the sun's rays at a focal point propped exhibit during cloudy days. Recently, operators have begun to above the centre of the dish. The entire apparatus tracks the build thermal storage systems into CSP plants. The concept of sun, with the dish and receiver moving in tandem. Most thermal storage is simple: throughout the day, excess heat is dishes have an independent engine/generator (such as a diverted to a storage material (e.g. molten salts). When Stirling machine or a micro-turbine) at the focal point. This production is required after sunset, the stored heat is released design eliminates the need for a heat transfer fluid and for into the steam cycle and the plant continues to produce cooling water. Dishes offer the highest solar-to-electric electricity. conversion performance of any CSP system. Several features the compact size, absence of cooling water, Studies show that, in locations with good sunlight (high DNI), and low compatibility with thermal storage and extending electricity production to match this demand requires hybridisation put parabolic dishes in competition with PV a storage capacity of two to four hours. In slightly less sunny modules, especially concentrating photovoltaics (CPV), areas, storage could be larger, as it also helps compensate for the as much as with other CSP technologies. somewhat less predictable resource. The solar field is

somewhat larger relative to the rated electrical capacity (i.e. the Very large dishes, which have been proven compatible to plant has a greater solar multiple 3), to ensure sufficient thermal storage and fuel backup, are the exception. electricity production. As a result, at maximum sunlight power, Promoters claim that mass production will allow dishes to solar fields produce more heat than their turbines can absorb. In compete with larger solar thermal systems. Parabolic the absence of storage, on the sunniest hours, plant operators dishes are limited in size (typically tens of kW or smaller) would need to “defocus” some unneeded solar collectors. and each produces electricity independently, which means that hundreds or thousands of them would need to be co- Storage avoids losing this energy while also allowing for located to create a large-scale plant. By contrast, other CSP extending production after sunset. For example, some trough designs can have capacities covering a very wide range, plants in Spain store enough heat in molten salts to produce starting as low as 1 MW. The optimal size of troughs, LFR power at the rated capacity of the turbine (50 MWe) for more and towers, typically from 100 MW to 250 MW, depends than 7 additional hours CSP plants with large storage capacities on the efficiency of the power block. may be able to produce base-load solar electricity day and night,

making it possible for low-carbon CSP plants to compete with Some smaller CSP devices combine fixed receivers with coal-fired power plants that emit high levels of CO2. For parabolic troughs or, more often, dishes (called “Scheffler example, one 17 MW solar tower plant under construction in dishes”). They are notably used in India for steam cooking Spain will use molten salts as both heat transfer fluid and devices in facilities that serve thousands meals per day. storage medium and store enough heat energy to run the plant at Dishes have also been used for process heat by gathering full load for 16 hours. Storage has a cost, however, and cannot the heat collected by each dish; feeding a single power be expanded indefinitely to prevent rare events of solar energy Central receiver Solar Tower Heliostats RCSP status today shortages. block to produce electricity this way is possible, but this option does not seem to be pursued at present. A current industry focus is to significantly increase the

temperature to improve overall efficiency of CSP plants and Solar thermal electricity without concentration is also reduce storage costs. Enhanced thermal storage would help to possible. Highly efficient non-concentrating solar guarantee capacity and expand production. Storage potentially collectors could evaporate enough steam to run specific makes base-load solar-only power plants possible, although power blocks (e.g. based on organic Rankine cycles). The fuel-powered backup and hybridisation have their own efficiency would be relatively low in comparison to CSP advantages and are likely to remain, as described below.

Backup and hybridization: Virtually all CSP plants, with and condensing processes. CSP water requirements are or without storage, are equipped with fuel-powered relatively high: about 3000 L/MWh for parabolic trough and backup systems that help to regulate production and LFR plants (similar to a nuclear reactor) compared to about guarantee capacity especially in peak and mid-peak 2000 L/MWh for a coal plant and only 800 L/MWh for periods. The fuel burners (which can use fossil fuel, biogas combined-cycle natural gas plants. Tower CSP plants need less or, eventually, solar fuels) can provide energy to the heat water per MWh than trough plants, depending on the efficiency transfer fluid or the storage medium, or directly to the of the technology. Dishes are cooled by the surrounding air, and power block. In areas where DNI is less than ideal, fuel- need no cooling water. Accessing large quantities of water is an powered backup makes it possible to almost completely important challenge to the use of CSP in arid regions, as guarantee the plant's production capacity at a lower cost available water resources are highly valued by many than if the plant depended only on the solar field and stakeholders. thermal storage. Providing 100% firm capacity with only thermal storage would require significantly more Dry cooling (with air) is one effective alternative used on the investment in reserve solar field and storage capacity, ISCC plants under construction in North Africa. However, it is which would produce little energy over the year. more costly and reduces efficiencies. Dry cooling installed on

trough plants in hot deserts reduces annual electricity Fuel burners also boost the conversion efficiency of solar production by 7% and increases the cost of the produced heat to electricity by raising the working temperature electricity by about 10%. The “performance penalty” of dry level; in some plants, they may be used continuously in cooling is lower for solar towers than for parabolic troughs. hybrid mode. CSP can also be used in hybrid by adding a Installation of hybrid wet/dry cooling systems is a more small solar field to fossil fuel plants such as coal plants or attractive option as such systems reduce water consumption combined-cycle natural gas plants in so-called integrated while minimising the performance penalty. solar combined-cycle plants (ISCC). As the solar share is limited, such hybridisation really serves to conserve fuel. As water cooling is more effective but more costly, operators of

hybrid systems tend to use only dry cooling in the winter when A positive aspect of solar fuel savers is their relatively low cooling needs are lower, then switch to combined wet and dry cost: with the steam cycle and turbine already in place, cooling during the summer. For a parabolic trough CSP plant, only components specific to CSP require additional this approach could reduce water consumption by 50% with investment. Such fuel savings, with capacities ranging only a 1% drop in annual electrical energy production. from a few megawatts to 75 MW, are being built adjacent to existing or new fossil fuel power plants in Algeria, CSP for niche markets: CSP technologies can be highly Australia, Egypt, Iran, Italy and the United States (in the effective in various niche markets. Mid-sized CSP plant can state of Florida). fuel remote facilities such as mines and cement factories. Even

small CSP devices (typically using organic Rankine cycles or Grid integration of CSP plants: The storage and backup micro-turbines) can be useful on buildings to provide capabilities of CSP plants offer significant benefits for electricity, heat and cooling. CSP plants can produce significant electricity grids. Losses in thermal storage cycles are much quantities of industrial process heat. For example, a solar tower smaller than in other existing electricity storage will soon produce steam for enhanced oil recovery in the United technologies (including pumped hydro and batteries), States. At a smaller scale, concentrating sunlight can be used for making the thermal storage available in CSP plants more cooking and artisanal production such as pottery. The effective and less costly CSP plants can enhance the advantages could be considerable in developing countries, capacity of electricity grids to accommodate a larger share ranging from independence from fossil resources, protection of of variable energy sources, thereby increasing overall grid ecosystems from deforestation and land degradation, more flexibility. As demonstrated in Spain, connecting reliable pottery firing and, in the case of cooking, reduction of CSP plants to some grid sub-stations facilitate a greater indoor air pollution and its resulting health impacts. share of wind energy.

Large CSP plants may also prove effective for cogeneration to CSP plant backup may also eliminate the need to build support water desalination. CSP plants are often located in arid fossil-fired “peaking” plants purely to meet the highest or semi-arid areas where water is becoming scarcer while water loads during a few hours of the day. Although the optimal demand is increasing rapidly as populations and economies size of CSP plant is probably 200 MW or more, many grow. CSP plants could be designed so that low-pressure steam existing grids use small power lines at the ends of the grid is extracted from the turbine to run multi-effect distillation in less-populated areas, which cannot support the addition (MED) stages. Such plants would produce fresh water along of large amounts of electricity from solar plants. Thus, in with electricity, but at some expense of efficiency loss in power some cases, the size of a CSP plant could be limited by the production. Economic studies suggest that it might be available power lines or require additional investment in preferable, however, to separate the two processes, using CSP larger transport lines. Furthermore, it is often easier to for electricity production and reverse osmosis for desalination, obtain sites, permits, grid connections and financing for when the working temperature is relatively low, as with trough smaller, scalable CSP plant designs, which can also enter plants. Cogeneration of electricity and fresh water would production more quickly. probably work best with higher temperature levels, such as with

towers. Plant cooling and water requirements as in other thermal power generation plants, CSP requires water for cooling With respect to concentrating solar fuels, current R&D efforts 22

23

cost of heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. LFR technologies discussed above, but non-concentrating solar plants are, however, less efficient than troughs in power could capture both direct and diffuse sunlight (like PV converting solar energy to electricity and it is more modules) and thus expand the geographic areas suitable for difficult to incorporate storage capacity into their design. solar thermal electricity. Low-cost thermal storage and fuel

backup could give this technology interesting features when Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver): Solar towers, and if it becomes commercial. Enhancing the value of CSP also known as central receiver systems (CRS), use capacities In arid and semi-arid areas suitable for CSP hundreds or thousands of small reflectors (called production, sunlight usually exhibits a good match with heliostats) to concentrate the sun's rays on a central electricity demand and its peaks, driven by air-conditioning receiver placed atop a fixed tower. Some commercial loads. However, the available sunlight varies somewhat even in tower plants now in operation use DSG in the receiver; the sunniest places. others use molten salts as both the heat transfer fluid and storage medium. The concentrating power of the tower Furthermore, human activity and thermal inertia of buildings concept achieves very high temperatures, thereby often maintain high demand for electricity several hours after increasing the efficiency at which heat is converted into sunset. To provide a larger share of clean electricity and electricity and reducing the cost of thermal storage. In maximise CO2 emission reductions, CSP plants will need to addition, the concept is highly flexible; designers can provide base load power. Thermal storage and backup or choose from a wide variety of heliostats, receivers, transfer hybridisation with fuels help address these issues. Thermal fluids and power blocks. Some plants have several towers storage All CSP plants have some ability to store heat energy for that feed one power block. short periods of time and thus have a “buffering” capacity that

allows them to smooth electricity production considerably and Parabolic dishes (point focus, mobile receiver): Parabolic eliminate the short-term variations other solar technologies dishes concentrate the sun's rays at a focal point propped exhibit during cloudy days. Recently, operators have begun to above the centre of the dish. The entire apparatus tracks the build thermal storage systems into CSP plants. The concept of sun, with the dish and receiver moving in tandem. Most thermal storage is simple: throughout the day, excess heat is dishes have an independent engine/generator (such as a diverted to a storage material (e.g. molten salts). When Stirling machine or a micro-turbine) at the focal point. This production is required after sunset, the stored heat is released design eliminates the need for a heat transfer fluid and for into the steam cycle and the plant continues to produce cooling water. Dishes offer the highest solar-to-electric electricity. conversion performance of any CSP system. Several features the compact size, absence of cooling water, Studies show that, in locations with good sunlight (high DNI), and low compatibility with thermal storage and extending electricity production to match this demand requires hybridisation put parabolic dishes in competition with PV a storage capacity of two to four hours. In slightly less sunny modules, especially concentrating photovoltaics (CPV), areas, storage could be larger, as it also helps compensate for the as much as with other CSP technologies. somewhat less predictable resource. The solar field is

somewhat larger relative to the rated electrical capacity (i.e. the Very large dishes, which have been proven compatible to plant has a greater solar multiple 3), to ensure sufficient thermal storage and fuel backup, are the exception. electricity production. As a result, at maximum sunlight power, Promoters claim that mass production will allow dishes to solar fields produce more heat than their turbines can absorb. In compete with larger solar thermal systems. Parabolic the absence of storage, on the sunniest hours, plant operators dishes are limited in size (typically tens of kW or smaller) would need to “defocus” some unneeded solar collectors. and each produces electricity independently, which means that hundreds or thousands of them would need to be co- Storage avoids losing this energy while also allowing for located to create a large-scale plant. By contrast, other CSP extending production after sunset. For example, some trough designs can have capacities covering a very wide range, plants in Spain store enough heat in molten salts to produce starting as low as 1 MW. The optimal size of troughs, LFR power at the rated capacity of the turbine (50 MWe) for more and towers, typically from 100 MW to 250 MW, depends than 7 additional hours CSP plants with large storage capacities on the efficiency of the power block. may be able to produce base-load solar electricity day and night,

making it possible for low-carbon CSP plants to compete with Some smaller CSP devices combine fixed receivers with coal-fired power plants that emit high levels of CO2. For parabolic troughs or, more often, dishes (called “Scheffler example, one 17 MW solar tower plant under construction in dishes”). They are notably used in India for steam cooking Spain will use molten salts as both heat transfer fluid and devices in facilities that serve thousands meals per day. storage medium and store enough heat energy to run the plant at Dishes have also been used for process heat by gathering full load for 16 hours. Storage has a cost, however, and cannot the heat collected by each dish; feeding a single power be expanded indefinitely to prevent rare events of solar energy Central receiver Solar Tower Heliostats RCSP status today shortages. block to produce electricity this way is possible, but this option does not seem to be pursued at present. A current industry focus is to significantly increase the

temperature to improve overall efficiency of CSP plants and Solar thermal electricity without concentration is also reduce storage costs. Enhanced thermal storage would help to possible. Highly efficient non-concentrating solar guarantee capacity and expand production. Storage potentially collectors could evaporate enough steam to run specific makes base-load solar-only power plants possible, although power blocks (e.g. based on organic Rankine cycles). The fuel-powered backup and hybridisation have their own efficiency would be relatively low in comparison to CSP advantages and are likely to remain, as described below.

Backup and hybridization: Virtually all CSP plants, with and condensing processes. CSP water requirements are or without storage, are equipped with fuel-powered relatively high: about 3000 L/MWh for parabolic trough and backup systems that help to regulate production and LFR plants (similar to a nuclear reactor) compared to about guarantee capacity especially in peak and mid-peak 2000 L/MWh for a coal plant and only 800 L/MWh for periods. The fuel burners (which can use fossil fuel, biogas combined-cycle natural gas plants. Tower CSP plants need less or, eventually, solar fuels) can provide energy to the heat water per MWh than trough plants, depending on the efficiency transfer fluid or the storage medium, or directly to the of the technology. Dishes are cooled by the surrounding air, and power block. In areas where DNI is less than ideal, fuel- need no cooling water. Accessing large quantities of water is an powered backup makes it possible to almost completely important challenge to the use of CSP in arid regions, as guarantee the plant's production capacity at a lower cost available water resources are highly valued by many than if the plant depended only on the solar field and stakeholders. thermal storage. Providing 100% firm capacity with only thermal storage would require significantly more Dry cooling (with air) is one effective alternative used on the investment in reserve solar field and storage capacity, ISCC plants under construction in North Africa. However, it is which would produce little energy over the year. more costly and reduces efficiencies. Dry cooling installed on

trough plants in hot deserts reduces annual electricity Fuel burners also boost the conversion efficiency of solar production by 7% and increases the cost of the produced heat to electricity by raising the working temperature electricity by about 10%. The “performance penalty” of dry level; in some plants, they may be used continuously in cooling is lower for solar towers than for parabolic troughs. hybrid mode. CSP can also be used in hybrid by adding a Installation of hybrid wet/dry cooling systems is a more small solar field to fossil fuel plants such as coal plants or attractive option as such systems reduce water consumption combined-cycle natural gas plants in so-called integrated while minimising the performance penalty. solar combined-cycle plants (ISCC). As the solar share is limited, such hybridisation really serves to conserve fuel. As water cooling is more effective but more costly, operators of

hybrid systems tend to use only dry cooling in the winter when A positive aspect of solar fuel savers is their relatively low cooling needs are lower, then switch to combined wet and dry cost: with the steam cycle and turbine already in place, cooling during the summer. For a parabolic trough CSP plant, only components specific to CSP require additional this approach could reduce water consumption by 50% with investment. Such fuel savings, with capacities ranging only a 1% drop in annual electrical energy production. from a few megawatts to 75 MW, are being built adjacent to existing or new fossil fuel power plants in Algeria, CSP for niche markets: CSP technologies can be highly Australia, Egypt, Iran, Italy and the United States (in the effective in various niche markets. Mid-sized CSP plant can state of Florida). fuel remote facilities such as mines and cement factories. Even

small CSP devices (typically using organic Rankine cycles or Grid integration of CSP plants: The storage and backup micro-turbines) can be useful on buildings to provide capabilities of CSP plants offer significant benefits for electricity, heat and cooling. CSP plants can produce significant electricity grids. Losses in thermal storage cycles are much quantities of industrial process heat. For example, a solar tower smaller than in other existing electricity storage will soon produce steam for enhanced oil recovery in the United technologies (including pumped hydro and batteries), States. At a smaller scale, concentrating sunlight can be used for making the thermal storage available in CSP plants more cooking and artisanal production such as pottery. The effective and less costly CSP plants can enhance the advantages could be considerable in developing countries, capacity of electricity grids to accommodate a larger share ranging from independence from fossil resources, protection of of variable energy sources, thereby increasing overall grid ecosystems from deforestation and land degradation, more flexibility. As demonstrated in Spain, connecting reliable pottery firing and, in the case of cooking, reduction of CSP plants to some grid sub-stations facilitate a greater indoor air pollution and its resulting health impacts. share of wind energy.

Large CSP plants may also prove effective for cogeneration to CSP plant backup may also eliminate the need to build support water desalination. CSP plants are often located in arid fossil-fired “peaking” plants purely to meet the highest or semi-arid areas where water is becoming scarcer while water loads during a few hours of the day. Although the optimal demand is increasing rapidly as populations and economies size of CSP plant is probably 200 MW or more, many grow. CSP plants could be designed so that low-pressure steam existing grids use small power lines at the ends of the grid is extracted from the turbine to run multi-effect distillation in less-populated areas, which cannot support the addition (MED) stages. Such plants would produce fresh water along of large amounts of electricity from solar plants. Thus, in with electricity, but at some expense of efficiency loss in power some cases, the size of a CSP plant could be limited by the production. Economic studies suggest that it might be available power lines or require additional investment in preferable, however, to separate the two processes, using CSP larger transport lines. Furthermore, it is often easier to for electricity production and reverse osmosis for desalination, obtain sites, permits, grid connections and financing for when the working temperature is relatively low, as with trough smaller, scalable CSP plant designs, which can also enter plants. Cogeneration of electricity and fresh water would production more quickly. probably work best with higher temperature levels, such as with

towers. Plant cooling and water requirements as in other thermal power generation plants, CSP requires water for cooling With respect to concentrating solar fuels, current R&D efforts 22

25

have shown promise in a number of necessary steps, scale experiments to support the further development of CSF as including water splitting, fossil fuel decarbonisation and part of the global energy mix.conversion of biomass and organic wastes into gaseous fuels. Success in these areas affirms the need for larger- (Courtesy: International Energy Agency)

He has more than two decades of experience as a journalist and a writer on Energy and Environment subjects, interacting with energy sectorsboth conventional as well as non-conventionalin India and the Kingdom of Bahrain. In the Eighties, he was the Bahrain Correspondent for 'Middle East Electricity' magazine published by Reeds, U.K. He also worked as the Media Manager (India) for Washington, DC-based publication 'Business Times' which promotes India's commercial interests in North America. He was also the editor and publisher of 'Sun Power', a quarterly renewable energy magazine during 1995-2002. His contact email address: moothedathramanathan@gmail.com

“Hybrid technology systems combine two or more technologies with the aim to achieve efficient systems. Possible combinations are: wind-solar photovoltaic (PV) hybrid systems, wind-diesel hybrid systems, fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid systems, wind-fuel cell hybrid systems, etc. (see the short descriptions below). Hybrid systems combine numerous electricity production and storage units to meet the energy demands of a given facility or community. They are ideal for remote and isolated applications such as communications stations, military installations, islands and rural villages”

transistors. The PV modules can be wired together to form a PV array, which increases the available voltage and increases the available current. However, the power produced is the same in both combinations. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 m2 and produces about 75 Watts of DC electricity in full sunlight.

Overcharging of a battery by the PV array and wind turbine is prevented through a charge controller regulator. Most modern controllers maintain system voltage regulation electronically by varying the width of DC pulses sent to the batteries through a

phenomenon called pulse width modulation (PWM). Backup Wind-PV hybrid systempower resource can be maintained either from a generator or from the utility grid when too much energy is consumed or In this combination, the wind/engine generator acts a when there is not enough electricity generated from the wind-backup supply for the AC (alternating current) loads which PV hybrid system.can be supplied directly to the load without the use of

inverter units; the electricity generated from PV is DC (direct current) by nature. A wind-PV hybrid system is Wind-Diesel Hybrid Systemscomposed of the core part constituting of PV modules and

This combination enables the use of a renewable energy source a wind turbine, a DC-AC inverter, batteries, a charge in remote and isolated areas, where the grid structure is weak, controller regulator, and a backup power resource for insufficient or even not existing, and the cost of energy often battery storage systems. PV modules convert sunlight into constitutes a considerable part of the local economy. By direct current electricity and they operate using the connecting a wind turbine to a diesel generator back-up system, semiconductor principles that govern diodes and

A look at the history of hybrid technology systems worldwideBy Staff Writer

24

25

have shown promise in a number of necessary steps, scale experiments to support the further development of CSF as including water splitting, fossil fuel decarbonisation and part of the global energy mix.conversion of biomass and organic wastes into gaseous fuels. Success in these areas affirms the need for larger- (Courtesy: International Energy Agency)

He has more than two decades of experience as a journalist and a writer on Energy and Environment subjects, interacting with energy sectorsboth conventional as well as non-conventionalin India and the Kingdom of Bahrain. In the Eighties, he was the Bahrain Correspondent for 'Middle East Electricity' magazine published by Reeds, U.K. He also worked as the Media Manager (India) for Washington, DC-based publication 'Business Times' which promotes India's commercial interests in North America. He was also the editor and publisher of 'Sun Power', a quarterly renewable energy magazine during 1995-2002. His contact email address: moothedathramanathan@gmail.com

“Hybrid technology systems combine two or more technologies with the aim to achieve efficient systems. Possible combinations are: wind-solar photovoltaic (PV) hybrid systems, wind-diesel hybrid systems, fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid systems, wind-fuel cell hybrid systems, etc. (see the short descriptions below). Hybrid systems combine numerous electricity production and storage units to meet the energy demands of a given facility or community. They are ideal for remote and isolated applications such as communications stations, military installations, islands and rural villages”

transistors. The PV modules can be wired together to form a PV array, which increases the available voltage and increases the available current. However, the power produced is the same in both combinations. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 m2 and produces about 75 Watts of DC electricity in full sunlight.

Overcharging of a battery by the PV array and wind turbine is prevented through a charge controller regulator. Most modern controllers maintain system voltage regulation electronically by varying the width of DC pulses sent to the batteries through a

phenomenon called pulse width modulation (PWM). Backup Wind-PV hybrid systempower resource can be maintained either from a generator or from the utility grid when too much energy is consumed or In this combination, the wind/engine generator acts a when there is not enough electricity generated from the wind-backup supply for the AC (alternating current) loads which PV hybrid system.can be supplied directly to the load without the use of

inverter units; the electricity generated from PV is DC (direct current) by nature. A wind-PV hybrid system is Wind-Diesel Hybrid Systemscomposed of the core part constituting of PV modules and

This combination enables the use of a renewable energy source a wind turbine, a DC-AC inverter, batteries, a charge in remote and isolated areas, where the grid structure is weak, controller regulator, and a backup power resource for insufficient or even not existing, and the cost of energy often battery storage systems. PV modules convert sunlight into constitutes a considerable part of the local economy. By direct current electricity and they operate using the connecting a wind turbine to a diesel generator back-up system, semiconductor principles that govern diodes and

A look at the history of hybrid technology systems worldwideBy Staff Writer

24

27

an uninterrupted power supply can be acquired, thus and a large battery bank.securing 100% supply. The diesel generator will take over production when the power generation from the wind A second example is found on Curaçao, the Netherlands' turbines is temporarily insufficient to cover the grid Antilles. Since March 1984 the local radio station 'Radio Hoyer' demand. uses a PV powered transmitter, with a battery and a diesel

backup. The system is installed on the top of the mountain The wind turbines are virtually always connectable to the Tafelberg, and is remotely monitored from the capital existing diesel generator sets. The new Wind-Diesel Willemstad.concept allows the size of the wind turbine generators to exceed the size of the diesel generators. The maximum fuel The Tortoise Head Guest House on French Island, Victoria, saving is achieved by declutching and stopping the diesel Australia, generates its power from a remote power wind and engine when the supply from the wind turbine generator PV hybrid system that has been operating since 1995 with exceeds the grid demand. support from UNEP (UNEP, 2003). The Guest House is located

150 m from the seashore, which makes it an ideal site for a wind The Wind-Diesel hybrid technology has the advantage of turbine. The system includes: 10 kW wind turbine; 840 W PV using standard control systems, implemented with modern array; 2 diesel generators of 15 kW and 25 kW; battery storage diesel generators that control the voltage and frequency, (wired to produce a system voltage of 120 Volts DC); and a 10 even when the diesel engine is not in operation. If the kW inverter to convert the DC into the Australian standard of energy production from the wind turbines is higher than 240 Volts AC and 50 cycles per second. the grid demand, the frequency is controlled by the use of a dump-load, which can utilise the excessive wind energy The energy uses of the Guest House include: electricity for for a numerous other purposes. lighting, water pumping, cold room, freezer, dish washer,

domestic appliances, communication equipment and some Fuel Cell-Turbine (FCT) Hybrid Systems heating, LPG for water heating and cooking, wood from fallen

trees for space heating; solar water heaters to pre-heat water; A fuel cell uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and and diesel for back up electric generator. The Guest House oxygen from air to create electricity by an electrochemical consists of six large bedrooms (for 2-6 people each), 5 double-process without combustion. The absence of a combustion bed cabins and meeting/conference facilities. About 68% of the process eliminates the formation of pollutants such as energy comes from wind, 11% from PV and 21% from diesel. NOx, SOx, hydrocarbons and particulates and The Guest House continues to reduce diesel and LPG significantly improves electrical power generation consumption through the use of additional solar water heaters efficiency. Further efficiency gains can be realised by and energy efficiency measures.integration of a turbine with the fuel cell.

A wind-PV hybrid system is being used at the Samunsan Forest In this direct operating mode, the fuel cell serves as the and Wildlife Sanctuary, 60 KM North of Kuching, in Sarawak, combustor for the gas turbine. Residual fuel in the high Malaysia. The population of the community fluctuates between temperature fuel cell exhaust mixes with the residual 20-70 people, including children who return to the community oxygen in an exothermic oxidation reaction to further raise on weekends, tourists, and scientists. The facilities of the the temperature. Both the fuel cell and the gas turbine Sanctuary include a dormitory, bungalow, guestrooms, office, generate electricity, and the gas turbine provides some amenities block, store rooms, boat shed and power shed. The balance-of plant functions for the fuel cell, such as objectives of installing the system were to: provide reliable 'grid supplying air under pressure and preheating the fuel and air quality' power supply 24 hours a day; power refrigerators and in a heat exchanger called a recuperator. freezers for tourist services, health, and preserving scientific

specimens; reduce environmental impacts; reduce costs; reduce In an indirect mode, the recuperator transfers fuel cell dependence on fossil fuels; minimise potential supply exhaust energy to the compressed air supply, which in turn disruptions; enable the community, tourists, and researchers to drives the turbine. The expanded air is supplied to the fuel work and study in the evenings; and reduce the risk of fire cell. The indirect mode uncouples the turbine compressor associated with the use of candles or kerosene lamps. pressure and the fuel cell operating pressure, which increases flexibility in turbine selection. Critical issues are The system includes: 2.5 kW wind turbines mounted on a 26 m the integration of pressure ratios and mass flows and the tower; a 900 W PV array; 2 lead acid batteries storing 2 kWhs; 5 dynamic control through start-up, shutdown, emergency, kW inverter; 30 kW diesel generator; and remote monitoring and load-following operating scenarios. equipment. The community has been trained to perform all

maintenance activities, which has also increased the Several successful examples of the implementation of community's appreciation of the system. The wind turbine different types of hybrid technologies can be observed generates the largest proportion of electricity over the year throughout the world: while in the summer the PV output is at its maximum. The diesel

generator is mostly used in the summer, due to periods of low One of the oldest PV hybrid systems and at the same time wind speed and an increase in electricity demand arising from the first 'large scale' PV system in Europe was installed in tourism, research and community activities. 1983 at island of Terschelling in the Netherlands (Lysen, 2000). At the Higher Maritime School 'Willem Barentsz' a The system was installed in 1997 at the cost of US$ 60,000. In 43 kWp PV system was coupled to a 75 kW wind turbine 1998, a wind/PV hybrid system was installed in Point Hick

lighthouse which was converted to a tourist resort in Another successful example of hybrid technology is a PV-Southeast Victoria, Australia. The resort consists of several wind-diesel hybrid system in Kythnos Island of Greece. It has accommodation cottages and a low-cost bunkhouse for been in operation since 1983. This plant utilises a 100-kW PV low budget tourists. The resort is situated in the Cann River array, a 100-kW wind turbine, and a 600-kWh battery. The national park. The objectives of this hybrid system were: to entire system is connected to the existing distribution grid, meet all the electricity demands of the managers and which is fed by a 200-kVA diesel generator. Three 50-kVA tourist cottages; to reduce the use of diesel operation; to inverters operate simultaneously to deliver power to the grid. reduce the costs of diesel fuel; and to reduce the The plant is monitored in order to optimise the amount of environmental impacts from using fossil fuels. The renewable energy available to the grid.systems consisted of a 10-kW wind turbine on an 18 m tower with 550 W PV array and a 20-kW diesel generator. The Wilpena Pound power station of South Australia combines The inverter used had a capacity of 10 kW. The storage a 100-kWp PV system, a battery storage of 400 kWh, an system consisted of a 120-kWh lead acid battery storage. inverter and a 440-kWp diesel generator. At night, a The wind turbine provided an average of 42 kWh/day at a computerised smart controller automatically switches between wind speed of 5-6 m/s while the PV array generated a daily the battery storage and the most-efficient diesel generator average of 2.8 kWh under 5 hours of direct sun. The total combination to match the load. A modem-link provides remote system cost amounted to US$ 65,000. monitoring and control facilities.

Holwell Farm within the Dartmoor National Park, in In Thailand, PV hybrid systems have been installed as pilot Devon, UK, is using a 20-kW Remote Area Power Supply projects since 1990. Most of them were adapted for national (RAPS) system incorporating a wind turbine system, 20- parks and wildlife preservation areas or rural villages that do kWh battery storage and a backup 25-kW diesel generator not have access to electricity. Nine off-grid PV hybrid systems (UNEP, 2003). The system provides electricity for ranging from 5 to 82.5 kW, with a total installed capacity of agricultural activities, bed and breakfast tourist about 285 kW, are in operation and constitute about 10% of the accommodation and other domestic uses. The farm is total PV power installed in Thailand. The first hybrid power located 2.5 km from the nearest electricity grid. The three- system in a wildlife sanctuary, Huai Kha Khaeng, was set up by blade wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 8.8 m, a hub King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi in 1998 height of 24.4 m and is mounted on a lattice tower. An with the aim to assess technological, economic and operating automated control system ensures that AC power is always aspects and to study the penetration of PV in remote and available and switches to the diesel generator when preserved areas. During 19982003, the system supplied 44,504 batteries are 80% discharged or when electrical demands kWh (PV supplying about 88.5% of the total demand) or an are high. average of 24 kWh/day. The PV/diesel hybrid system installed

at Huai Kha Khaeng wildlife sanctuary in 1998 was optimised Costa de Cocos is a small scuba diving and fishing resort in in order to meet an increasing demand for a clean and reliable Southern Quintana Roo, Mexico, with 12 houses, a power source. The system can supply electricity to load because restaurant/bar, dive shop, and a workshop. The resort was the diesel generator works to compensate any inconvenience previously powered by a succession of small (5-20 kW) caused by photovoltaic. PV-wind-diesel hybrid systems were diesel generators operating just four hours each evening. installed in 1999 at Phu Kradung, a high-elevation national park However, in 1996, a RAPS system consisting of a 7.5-kW in Loei Province, and at Tarutao, an island in a marine national wind turbine, battery storage, and two 5.5-kW inverters park in Satun Province, Thailand.were installed to provide the resort with electricity throughout the day. The wind turbine is placed on a 24-m There could be several barriers to the implementation of hybrid tower with protection against salt corrosion. The batteries technologies and these need to be overcome for a successful are located in a specially designed integrated rack establishment of projects. Hybrid systems generally have a assembly. The system cost is approximately US$ 35,000 relatively high investment cost, which makes smaller projects and has a payback period of 8-10 years. unattractive to the investors, lenders, project developers, and

manufacturers. Similarly, these technologies have several Another successful example of the hybrid project technical barriers which include: requirement of redundant installation is the Mexican Hybrid Solar Thermal Power generation systems, a time limitation for the generation of Project. A solar thermal/natural gas-fired hybrid power electricity, need for sophisticated control systems, need for plant in Baja California Norte with a total net installed storage systems, and transmission line losses.capacity of about 300 MW, including about 30 MW for the solar component has been constructed through this project. Other aspects in the implementation chain of these hybrid The plant is a part of the Comisión Federal de Electicidad technology systems in developing countries could be the system expansion plan. limited credit worthiness for potential investors; absence of a

power purchase agreement with energy users (e.g. through the The largest European PV wind hybrid system is located on grid operator); absence of energy or power systems in the the Pellworm Island in Germany. The PV array has the villages; lack of information on market, employment, rural capacity of 600 kW and will be enlarged with an additional development and other economic information; lack of 300 kW array. The first 300 kW array was build in 1983 vocational education, communication availability or other and the second part was connected in 1992. This hybrid social development activities; lack of human capital to properly system is grid-connected. The eventual 900-kW capacity operate the power plants; and lack of financing partners.will enable the production of nearly 800 MWh/year.26

27

an uninterrupted power supply can be acquired, thus and a large battery bank.securing 100% supply. The diesel generator will take over production when the power generation from the wind A second example is found on Curaçao, the Netherlands' turbines is temporarily insufficient to cover the grid Antilles. Since March 1984 the local radio station 'Radio Hoyer' demand. uses a PV powered transmitter, with a battery and a diesel

backup. The system is installed on the top of the mountain The wind turbines are virtually always connectable to the Tafelberg, and is remotely monitored from the capital existing diesel generator sets. The new Wind-Diesel Willemstad.concept allows the size of the wind turbine generators to exceed the size of the diesel generators. The maximum fuel The Tortoise Head Guest House on French Island, Victoria, saving is achieved by declutching and stopping the diesel Australia, generates its power from a remote power wind and engine when the supply from the wind turbine generator PV hybrid system that has been operating since 1995 with exceeds the grid demand. support from UNEP (UNEP, 2003). The Guest House is located

150 m from the seashore, which makes it an ideal site for a wind The Wind-Diesel hybrid technology has the advantage of turbine. The system includes: 10 kW wind turbine; 840 W PV using standard control systems, implemented with modern array; 2 diesel generators of 15 kW and 25 kW; battery storage diesel generators that control the voltage and frequency, (wired to produce a system voltage of 120 Volts DC); and a 10 even when the diesel engine is not in operation. If the kW inverter to convert the DC into the Australian standard of energy production from the wind turbines is higher than 240 Volts AC and 50 cycles per second. the grid demand, the frequency is controlled by the use of a dump-load, which can utilise the excessive wind energy The energy uses of the Guest House include: electricity for for a numerous other purposes. lighting, water pumping, cold room, freezer, dish washer,

domestic appliances, communication equipment and some Fuel Cell-Turbine (FCT) Hybrid Systems heating, LPG for water heating and cooking, wood from fallen

trees for space heating; solar water heaters to pre-heat water; A fuel cell uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and and diesel for back up electric generator. The Guest House oxygen from air to create electricity by an electrochemical consists of six large bedrooms (for 2-6 people each), 5 double-process without combustion. The absence of a combustion bed cabins and meeting/conference facilities. About 68% of the process eliminates the formation of pollutants such as energy comes from wind, 11% from PV and 21% from diesel. NOx, SOx, hydrocarbons and particulates and The Guest House continues to reduce diesel and LPG significantly improves electrical power generation consumption through the use of additional solar water heaters efficiency. Further efficiency gains can be realised by and energy efficiency measures.integration of a turbine with the fuel cell.

A wind-PV hybrid system is being used at the Samunsan Forest In this direct operating mode, the fuel cell serves as the and Wildlife Sanctuary, 60 KM North of Kuching, in Sarawak, combustor for the gas turbine. Residual fuel in the high Malaysia. The population of the community fluctuates between temperature fuel cell exhaust mixes with the residual 20-70 people, including children who return to the community oxygen in an exothermic oxidation reaction to further raise on weekends, tourists, and scientists. The facilities of the the temperature. Both the fuel cell and the gas turbine Sanctuary include a dormitory, bungalow, guestrooms, office, generate electricity, and the gas turbine provides some amenities block, store rooms, boat shed and power shed. The balance-of plant functions for the fuel cell, such as objectives of installing the system were to: provide reliable 'grid supplying air under pressure and preheating the fuel and air quality' power supply 24 hours a day; power refrigerators and in a heat exchanger called a recuperator. freezers for tourist services, health, and preserving scientific

specimens; reduce environmental impacts; reduce costs; reduce In an indirect mode, the recuperator transfers fuel cell dependence on fossil fuels; minimise potential supply exhaust energy to the compressed air supply, which in turn disruptions; enable the community, tourists, and researchers to drives the turbine. The expanded air is supplied to the fuel work and study in the evenings; and reduce the risk of fire cell. The indirect mode uncouples the turbine compressor associated with the use of candles or kerosene lamps. pressure and the fuel cell operating pressure, which increases flexibility in turbine selection. Critical issues are The system includes: 2.5 kW wind turbines mounted on a 26 m the integration of pressure ratios and mass flows and the tower; a 900 W PV array; 2 lead acid batteries storing 2 kWhs; 5 dynamic control through start-up, shutdown, emergency, kW inverter; 30 kW diesel generator; and remote monitoring and load-following operating scenarios. equipment. The community has been trained to perform all

maintenance activities, which has also increased the Several successful examples of the implementation of community's appreciation of the system. The wind turbine different types of hybrid technologies can be observed generates the largest proportion of electricity over the year throughout the world: while in the summer the PV output is at its maximum. The diesel

generator is mostly used in the summer, due to periods of low One of the oldest PV hybrid systems and at the same time wind speed and an increase in electricity demand arising from the first 'large scale' PV system in Europe was installed in tourism, research and community activities. 1983 at island of Terschelling in the Netherlands (Lysen, 2000). At the Higher Maritime School 'Willem Barentsz' a The system was installed in 1997 at the cost of US$ 60,000. In 43 kWp PV system was coupled to a 75 kW wind turbine 1998, a wind/PV hybrid system was installed in Point Hick

lighthouse which was converted to a tourist resort in Another successful example of hybrid technology is a PV-Southeast Victoria, Australia. The resort consists of several wind-diesel hybrid system in Kythnos Island of Greece. It has accommodation cottages and a low-cost bunkhouse for been in operation since 1983. This plant utilises a 100-kW PV low budget tourists. The resort is situated in the Cann River array, a 100-kW wind turbine, and a 600-kWh battery. The national park. The objectives of this hybrid system were: to entire system is connected to the existing distribution grid, meet all the electricity demands of the managers and which is fed by a 200-kVA diesel generator. Three 50-kVA tourist cottages; to reduce the use of diesel operation; to inverters operate simultaneously to deliver power to the grid. reduce the costs of diesel fuel; and to reduce the The plant is monitored in order to optimise the amount of environmental impacts from using fossil fuels. The renewable energy available to the grid.systems consisted of a 10-kW wind turbine on an 18 m tower with 550 W PV array and a 20-kW diesel generator. The Wilpena Pound power station of South Australia combines The inverter used had a capacity of 10 kW. The storage a 100-kWp PV system, a battery storage of 400 kWh, an system consisted of a 120-kWh lead acid battery storage. inverter and a 440-kWp diesel generator. At night, a The wind turbine provided an average of 42 kWh/day at a computerised smart controller automatically switches between wind speed of 5-6 m/s while the PV array generated a daily the battery storage and the most-efficient diesel generator average of 2.8 kWh under 5 hours of direct sun. The total combination to match the load. A modem-link provides remote system cost amounted to US$ 65,000. monitoring and control facilities.

Holwell Farm within the Dartmoor National Park, in In Thailand, PV hybrid systems have been installed as pilot Devon, UK, is using a 20-kW Remote Area Power Supply projects since 1990. Most of them were adapted for national (RAPS) system incorporating a wind turbine system, 20- parks and wildlife preservation areas or rural villages that do kWh battery storage and a backup 25-kW diesel generator not have access to electricity. Nine off-grid PV hybrid systems (UNEP, 2003). The system provides electricity for ranging from 5 to 82.5 kW, with a total installed capacity of agricultural activities, bed and breakfast tourist about 285 kW, are in operation and constitute about 10% of the accommodation and other domestic uses. The farm is total PV power installed in Thailand. The first hybrid power located 2.5 km from the nearest electricity grid. The three- system in a wildlife sanctuary, Huai Kha Khaeng, was set up by blade wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 8.8 m, a hub King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi in 1998 height of 24.4 m and is mounted on a lattice tower. An with the aim to assess technological, economic and operating automated control system ensures that AC power is always aspects and to study the penetration of PV in remote and available and switches to the diesel generator when preserved areas. During 19982003, the system supplied 44,504 batteries are 80% discharged or when electrical demands kWh (PV supplying about 88.5% of the total demand) or an are high. average of 24 kWh/day. The PV/diesel hybrid system installed

at Huai Kha Khaeng wildlife sanctuary in 1998 was optimised Costa de Cocos is a small scuba diving and fishing resort in in order to meet an increasing demand for a clean and reliable Southern Quintana Roo, Mexico, with 12 houses, a power source. The system can supply electricity to load because restaurant/bar, dive shop, and a workshop. The resort was the diesel generator works to compensate any inconvenience previously powered by a succession of small (5-20 kW) caused by photovoltaic. PV-wind-diesel hybrid systems were diesel generators operating just four hours each evening. installed in 1999 at Phu Kradung, a high-elevation national park However, in 1996, a RAPS system consisting of a 7.5-kW in Loei Province, and at Tarutao, an island in a marine national wind turbine, battery storage, and two 5.5-kW inverters park in Satun Province, Thailand.were installed to provide the resort with electricity throughout the day. The wind turbine is placed on a 24-m There could be several barriers to the implementation of hybrid tower with protection against salt corrosion. The batteries technologies and these need to be overcome for a successful are located in a specially designed integrated rack establishment of projects. Hybrid systems generally have a assembly. The system cost is approximately US$ 35,000 relatively high investment cost, which makes smaller projects and has a payback period of 8-10 years. unattractive to the investors, lenders, project developers, and

manufacturers. Similarly, these technologies have several Another successful example of the hybrid project technical barriers which include: requirement of redundant installation is the Mexican Hybrid Solar Thermal Power generation systems, a time limitation for the generation of Project. A solar thermal/natural gas-fired hybrid power electricity, need for sophisticated control systems, need for plant in Baja California Norte with a total net installed storage systems, and transmission line losses.capacity of about 300 MW, including about 30 MW for the solar component has been constructed through this project. Other aspects in the implementation chain of these hybrid The plant is a part of the Comisión Federal de Electicidad technology systems in developing countries could be the system expansion plan. limited credit worthiness for potential investors; absence of a

power purchase agreement with energy users (e.g. through the The largest European PV wind hybrid system is located on grid operator); absence of energy or power systems in the the Pellworm Island in Germany. The PV array has the villages; lack of information on market, employment, rural capacity of 600 kW and will be enlarged with an additional development and other economic information; lack of 300 kW array. The first 300 kW array was build in 1983 vocational education, communication availability or other and the second part was connected in 1992. This hybrid social development activities; lack of human capital to properly system is grid-connected. The eventual 900-kW capacity operate the power plants; and lack of financing partners.will enable the production of nearly 800 MWh/year.26

28

There are several research programmes on hybrid batteries and diesel back-up systems). The required funding technologies all over the world, mainly in developed amounts to RMB 2 billion (USD 240 million), which covers countries. For instance, Princeton Energy Resources 50% of the capital costs of village power systems (in Tibet: International (PERI) has undertaken various research 100%).programmes on wind power and other wind-based hybrid In 2001, 70 village-scale hybrid power systems (wind and/or technologies. PERI has developed several databases and PV combined with battery storage and many using backup analysis tools to track and analyse wind system and diesel generators, ranging in size from 5-200 kW) were subsystem cost, performance, and other characteristics installed in China (Martinot and Wallace, 2003). A 100-kW (Princeton Energy Resources International, no date). wind-diesel hybrid village power plant was under construction Recent use of these has involved projections of expected in 2002 in Zhejiang (Bei Long Dao). A second hybrid system technology development paths over time and evaluation of consisting of 80 kW of wind and 20 kW of PV power became financing/ownership on both a corporate balance sheet operational in Xinjiang in December of 2002.basis by investor-owned utilities and tax-free public utilities, and a project finance basis through independent Market studies indicate that by 2010 at least 1000 MWp of power producers. stand-alone PV hybrid systems will be installed worldwide,

both for remote buildings and on islands. In order to realise this To help facilitate adoption of wind/diesel hybrid systems, potential and reduce the costs of these hybrid systems, still a lot PERI has analysed the potential market for replacing of work remains to be done, for example, through existing diesel plants with wind turbines in rural Alaska standardisations and modularity and by developing proper (USA) for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory monitoring systems to reduce maintenance costs.(Princeton Energy Resources International, no date). The objective of this assessment was to characterise the size of Technology transfers from industrialised countries could help the wind-diesel hybrid market so that the State of Alaska improve these implementation chains and demonstrate the and Alaskan rural electricity authorities can determine the working of the hybrid systems. The aforementioned EU level of effort required to develop wind projects. An initial research group study in this respect recommends to improve the list of about 90 Alaskan villages was identified as having reliability of systems, reduce their costs, and reduce outstanding wind resource potential. The result of this maintenance need or make maintenance easier. In order to meet analysis was a ranking that identifies the villages where these targets, the research has focused on different aspects such wind/diesel hybrids will have the most favourable as improvement of the methods and techniques to reduce cost economic characteristics. for the wind assessment and optimisation of rotor controls

along with optimisation of the overall system layouts and During 2001, the Photovoltaic fuel cell hybrid systems controls. In addition, co-operative R&D projects, co-ordinated (PVFC-SYS) project was carried out as a European to use the best technology from each member of the EU are Commission research project on the hybrid technology. required to improve the technology for all. Directing current The main aim of the project was to study and develop a testing facilities to develop norms and standards in their low-power energy generation system, which would utilise demonstration projects will help in the continued development the synergies between a photovoltaic generator and a of this market for Europe.Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell. Such a system in the range of 5 to 10 kW is intended to be a future competitor to For the future development of the international market of the hybrid PV-Diesel systems, especially from an hybrid technologies in developed countries, various environmental point of view as emissions of both exhaust stakeholders must be brought together and appropriate gases and noise will be drastically reduced. The overall financing modalities used to facilitate sustainable, target of the project was the development of a hybrid decentralised markets for those technologies that have the system based on an innovative package using hydrogen as attributes of fuel flexibility and hybridisation, particularly with a fuel. This can be considered a zero emission system. The renewable technologies. The primary challenges for organising use of the so-called innovative components will open new and delivering hybrid project financing will stem from the large possibilities of future cost decrease, both in the number of small projects, which characterise most of these investment, operational and replacement point of view. rural, peri-urban and urban markets.Since there are no moving parts, less maintenance is required and the lifetime of the components is expected to In developing countries like India, there is a necessity of be higher. creating and utilising near-term capital and targeted subsidies,

reflecting the fact that hybrid systems are currently pre-In 1998, China launched an ambitious 'Brightness commercial and not yet financially viable. The countries should Programme' that targeted household and village-scale develop concessional co-financing which uses commercial applications of solar PV and wind energy in off-grid methods tied to commercial capacity building and conducting regions, particularly in western China. In 2002, the strategic programmes of hybrid systems.Chinese Government started a major new rural electrification initiative called the Song Dian Dao Xiang Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar used in wind-programme (National Township Electrification solar hybrid systems are sustainable energy sources as they are Programme). This programme is directed at electrifying easily and abundantly available in nature. Similarly, hydrogen, approximately 1000 townships in seven provinces in which is used in fuel cells, could be by far the most abundant western China with about 17 MW of village-scale hybrid fuel resource since it is part of the water molecule. Hydrogen systems (mainly PV, with some wind, combined with used in fuel cells is converted to electricity, but it can also be

combusted as with the space shuttle rocket boosters using operation and maintenance of the systems. The costs of the liquid hydrogen. The hybrid systems with combustion systems depend on size, location, customer type and technical turbines and fuel cells can create systems with specification. The cost of grid-connected systems amounts to exceptionally high efficiency with low emissions. The about US$ 2/Watt whereas for standalone systems the costs hybrid systems, in general, combine generation and amount to about US$ 34/Watt.storage technologies so that excess of electricity can be generated during optimal times while electricity is used The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) has been from the storage at other times. This will help in achieving working in the past decade to provide stand-alone renewable sustainability in energy for future. power systems to rural area households: more than 120,000

households have started generating electricity with 100-300 In contrast to conventional power generation systems watt wind generators (American Wind Energy Association, (diesel generators, coal power, natural gas combustion), 2001). In the first phase of this project, the University of renewable energy technologies can generate heat and Delaware, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and electricity without producing GHG emissions. Utilisation the Inner Mongolia team completed a levelised cost analysis of of renewable energy could play an important role in rural electrification options for several counties. It was found reducing GHG emissions. Considering the total life cycle that for the output range of 200-640 kWh/yr, levelised cost of of the energy generation process, it has been demonstrated energy produced is US$ 0.50-0.63/kWh. In the case of a PV that wind turbines are the cleanest and green energy system only, for the output range of 120-240 kWh/yr, the systems and that hydrogen based fuel cells are levelised cost of electricity produced would be US$ 0.77-environmentally friendly. However, in remote 0.83/kWh. For small hybrid systems in the range of 400-750 communities wind or fuel cells as stand-alone systems lack kWh/yr, the cost amounts to US$ 0.57-0.72/kWh, and for the reliability, but when combined they could become more large hybrid systems, with an output range of 560-870 kWh/yr, reliable. the costs are US$ 0.43-0.57/kWh. For the types of systems PV and fuel cells represent two very promising industries currently being deployed for stand-alone electrical generation in term of employment, in particular with respect to the in rural areas of IMAR, wind generators are the least-cost identificaiton and development of new applications. option for household electricity (American Wind Energy

Association, 2001).A general assessment of the cost of fuel cell hybrid technology carried out by Rastler and Lemar (2002) shows National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) and Fuel Cell that costs of any type of hybrid technology are expected to Energy (FCE) are working collaboratively to do large-scale fall to US$ 600 - 1100 per kW for the period beyond 2010. expedient testing of an atmospheric Direct FuelCell/Turbine The US Department of Energy has made a target of (DFC/T) hybrid system. The R&D efforts have thus far resulted reducing the cost of fuel cell turbine hybrids to US$ 400/ in significant progress in validating the DFC/T cycle concept. kW by 2010. The life-cycle cost for a wind energy hybrid FCE has completed successful proof-of-concept testing of a system requires the estimation of the following quantities: DFC/T power plant based on a 250-kW DFC integrated initially system life, component and total capital costs per unit of with a Capstone 30 kW and then a 60 kW modified outputs (e.g., wind turbine, engine generator, controls, mictroturbine. The results of the system tests have accumulated inverter, AC/DC converter), as well as the battery storage over 6,800 hours of successful operation with an efficiency of cost per kWh, total hardware cost plus installation and 52%.indirect costs occurring (capital cost), annual operation and maintenance and fuel costs, and equipment In 1995, in China, the State Development and Planning replacement costs occurring during the system lifetime. If Commission (SDPC), the State Economic and Trade the system is a wind PV hybrid system, then the total cost Commission (SETC) and the Ministry of Science and will include the investment and installation cost of solar Technology (MOST) formulated a “Programme on New and panels. Renewable Energy from 1996-2010” and launched the

“Sunlight Programme”, which will run until 2010 and which Wind energy systems are one of the most cost-effective covers PV systems. It is designed to upgrade the country's home-based renewable energy systems. A small turbine manufacturing capability of solar technologies, to establish can cost anywhere between US$ 3,000 and 35,000, large-scale PV and PV-hybrid village demonstration schemes, depending on size, application, and service agreements home PV projects for remote areas and to initiate grid-with the manufacturer. According to the American Wind connected PV projects. The “Brightness Project”, which was Energy Association, typical home wind system costs first launched in 1996 is aimed at providing electricity from approximately US$ 32,000 (10 kW). As a general rule of solar and wind energy in a number of remote regions (WEC, no thumb, the cost of a residential turbine is estimated at US$ date).1,000 to US$ 3,000/kW. Hence, the cost of hybrid systems with wind energy systems could decrease in the near The Canadian CANMET Energy Diversification Research future. Laboratory (CEDRL) addresses the challenges associated to

the technical needs via its PV hybrid Programme. This five-year In Thailand, most PV hybrid systems were installed initiative, which started in 2001, consists of R&D and through the co-operation of King Mongkut's University technology transfer activities aimed at improving the Technology Thonburi, the Provincial Electricity Authority performance and cost effectiveness of these systems, and at and the Electricity Generation Authority of Thailand. The increasing the capacity of the solar industry to supply efficient systems were funded by the Energy Policy and Planning systems.Office, though the communities have been responsible for 29

28

There are several research programmes on hybrid batteries and diesel back-up systems). The required funding technologies all over the world, mainly in developed amounts to RMB 2 billion (USD 240 million), which covers countries. For instance, Princeton Energy Resources 50% of the capital costs of village power systems (in Tibet: International (PERI) has undertaken various research 100%).programmes on wind power and other wind-based hybrid In 2001, 70 village-scale hybrid power systems (wind and/or technologies. PERI has developed several databases and PV combined with battery storage and many using backup analysis tools to track and analyse wind system and diesel generators, ranging in size from 5-200 kW) were subsystem cost, performance, and other characteristics installed in China (Martinot and Wallace, 2003). A 100-kW (Princeton Energy Resources International, no date). wind-diesel hybrid village power plant was under construction Recent use of these has involved projections of expected in 2002 in Zhejiang (Bei Long Dao). A second hybrid system technology development paths over time and evaluation of consisting of 80 kW of wind and 20 kW of PV power became financing/ownership on both a corporate balance sheet operational in Xinjiang in December of 2002.basis by investor-owned utilities and tax-free public utilities, and a project finance basis through independent Market studies indicate that by 2010 at least 1000 MWp of power producers. stand-alone PV hybrid systems will be installed worldwide,

both for remote buildings and on islands. In order to realise this To help facilitate adoption of wind/diesel hybrid systems, potential and reduce the costs of these hybrid systems, still a lot PERI has analysed the potential market for replacing of work remains to be done, for example, through existing diesel plants with wind turbines in rural Alaska standardisations and modularity and by developing proper (USA) for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory monitoring systems to reduce maintenance costs.(Princeton Energy Resources International, no date). The objective of this assessment was to characterise the size of Technology transfers from industrialised countries could help the wind-diesel hybrid market so that the State of Alaska improve these implementation chains and demonstrate the and Alaskan rural electricity authorities can determine the working of the hybrid systems. The aforementioned EU level of effort required to develop wind projects. An initial research group study in this respect recommends to improve the list of about 90 Alaskan villages was identified as having reliability of systems, reduce their costs, and reduce outstanding wind resource potential. The result of this maintenance need or make maintenance easier. In order to meet analysis was a ranking that identifies the villages where these targets, the research has focused on different aspects such wind/diesel hybrids will have the most favourable as improvement of the methods and techniques to reduce cost economic characteristics. for the wind assessment and optimisation of rotor controls

along with optimisation of the overall system layouts and During 2001, the Photovoltaic fuel cell hybrid systems controls. In addition, co-operative R&D projects, co-ordinated (PVFC-SYS) project was carried out as a European to use the best technology from each member of the EU are Commission research project on the hybrid technology. required to improve the technology for all. Directing current The main aim of the project was to study and develop a testing facilities to develop norms and standards in their low-power energy generation system, which would utilise demonstration projects will help in the continued development the synergies between a photovoltaic generator and a of this market for Europe.Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell. Such a system in the range of 5 to 10 kW is intended to be a future competitor to For the future development of the international market of the hybrid PV-Diesel systems, especially from an hybrid technologies in developed countries, various environmental point of view as emissions of both exhaust stakeholders must be brought together and appropriate gases and noise will be drastically reduced. The overall financing modalities used to facilitate sustainable, target of the project was the development of a hybrid decentralised markets for those technologies that have the system based on an innovative package using hydrogen as attributes of fuel flexibility and hybridisation, particularly with a fuel. This can be considered a zero emission system. The renewable technologies. The primary challenges for organising use of the so-called innovative components will open new and delivering hybrid project financing will stem from the large possibilities of future cost decrease, both in the number of small projects, which characterise most of these investment, operational and replacement point of view. rural, peri-urban and urban markets.Since there are no moving parts, less maintenance is required and the lifetime of the components is expected to In developing countries like India, there is a necessity of be higher. creating and utilising near-term capital and targeted subsidies,

reflecting the fact that hybrid systems are currently pre-In 1998, China launched an ambitious 'Brightness commercial and not yet financially viable. The countries should Programme' that targeted household and village-scale develop concessional co-financing which uses commercial applications of solar PV and wind energy in off-grid methods tied to commercial capacity building and conducting regions, particularly in western China. In 2002, the strategic programmes of hybrid systems.Chinese Government started a major new rural electrification initiative called the Song Dian Dao Xiang Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar used in wind-programme (National Township Electrification solar hybrid systems are sustainable energy sources as they are Programme). This programme is directed at electrifying easily and abundantly available in nature. Similarly, hydrogen, approximately 1000 townships in seven provinces in which is used in fuel cells, could be by far the most abundant western China with about 17 MW of village-scale hybrid fuel resource since it is part of the water molecule. Hydrogen systems (mainly PV, with some wind, combined with used in fuel cells is converted to electricity, but it can also be

combusted as with the space shuttle rocket boosters using operation and maintenance of the systems. The costs of the liquid hydrogen. The hybrid systems with combustion systems depend on size, location, customer type and technical turbines and fuel cells can create systems with specification. The cost of grid-connected systems amounts to exceptionally high efficiency with low emissions. The about US$ 2/Watt whereas for standalone systems the costs hybrid systems, in general, combine generation and amount to about US$ 34/Watt.storage technologies so that excess of electricity can be generated during optimal times while electricity is used The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) has been from the storage at other times. This will help in achieving working in the past decade to provide stand-alone renewable sustainability in energy for future. power systems to rural area households: more than 120,000

households have started generating electricity with 100-300 In contrast to conventional power generation systems watt wind generators (American Wind Energy Association, (diesel generators, coal power, natural gas combustion), 2001). In the first phase of this project, the University of renewable energy technologies can generate heat and Delaware, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and electricity without producing GHG emissions. Utilisation the Inner Mongolia team completed a levelised cost analysis of of renewable energy could play an important role in rural electrification options for several counties. It was found reducing GHG emissions. Considering the total life cycle that for the output range of 200-640 kWh/yr, levelised cost of of the energy generation process, it has been demonstrated energy produced is US$ 0.50-0.63/kWh. In the case of a PV that wind turbines are the cleanest and green energy system only, for the output range of 120-240 kWh/yr, the systems and that hydrogen based fuel cells are levelised cost of electricity produced would be US$ 0.77-environmentally friendly. However, in remote 0.83/kWh. For small hybrid systems in the range of 400-750 communities wind or fuel cells as stand-alone systems lack kWh/yr, the cost amounts to US$ 0.57-0.72/kWh, and for the reliability, but when combined they could become more large hybrid systems, with an output range of 560-870 kWh/yr, reliable. the costs are US$ 0.43-0.57/kWh. For the types of systems PV and fuel cells represent two very promising industries currently being deployed for stand-alone electrical generation in term of employment, in particular with respect to the in rural areas of IMAR, wind generators are the least-cost identificaiton and development of new applications. option for household electricity (American Wind Energy

Association, 2001).A general assessment of the cost of fuel cell hybrid technology carried out by Rastler and Lemar (2002) shows National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) and Fuel Cell that costs of any type of hybrid technology are expected to Energy (FCE) are working collaboratively to do large-scale fall to US$ 600 - 1100 per kW for the period beyond 2010. expedient testing of an atmospheric Direct FuelCell/Turbine The US Department of Energy has made a target of (DFC/T) hybrid system. The R&D efforts have thus far resulted reducing the cost of fuel cell turbine hybrids to US$ 400/ in significant progress in validating the DFC/T cycle concept. kW by 2010. The life-cycle cost for a wind energy hybrid FCE has completed successful proof-of-concept testing of a system requires the estimation of the following quantities: DFC/T power plant based on a 250-kW DFC integrated initially system life, component and total capital costs per unit of with a Capstone 30 kW and then a 60 kW modified outputs (e.g., wind turbine, engine generator, controls, mictroturbine. The results of the system tests have accumulated inverter, AC/DC converter), as well as the battery storage over 6,800 hours of successful operation with an efficiency of cost per kWh, total hardware cost plus installation and 52%.indirect costs occurring (capital cost), annual operation and maintenance and fuel costs, and equipment In 1995, in China, the State Development and Planning replacement costs occurring during the system lifetime. If Commission (SDPC), the State Economic and Trade the system is a wind PV hybrid system, then the total cost Commission (SETC) and the Ministry of Science and will include the investment and installation cost of solar Technology (MOST) formulated a “Programme on New and panels. Renewable Energy from 1996-2010” and launched the

“Sunlight Programme”, which will run until 2010 and which Wind energy systems are one of the most cost-effective covers PV systems. It is designed to upgrade the country's home-based renewable energy systems. A small turbine manufacturing capability of solar technologies, to establish can cost anywhere between US$ 3,000 and 35,000, large-scale PV and PV-hybrid village demonstration schemes, depending on size, application, and service agreements home PV projects for remote areas and to initiate grid-with the manufacturer. According to the American Wind connected PV projects. The “Brightness Project”, which was Energy Association, typical home wind system costs first launched in 1996 is aimed at providing electricity from approximately US$ 32,000 (10 kW). As a general rule of solar and wind energy in a number of remote regions (WEC, no thumb, the cost of a residential turbine is estimated at US$ date).1,000 to US$ 3,000/kW. Hence, the cost of hybrid systems with wind energy systems could decrease in the near The Canadian CANMET Energy Diversification Research future. Laboratory (CEDRL) addresses the challenges associated to

the technical needs via its PV hybrid Programme. This five-year In Thailand, most PV hybrid systems were installed initiative, which started in 2001, consists of R&D and through the co-operation of King Mongkut's University technology transfer activities aimed at improving the Technology Thonburi, the Provincial Electricity Authority performance and cost effectiveness of these systems, and at and the Electricity Generation Authority of Thailand. The increasing the capacity of the solar industry to supply efficient systems were funded by the Energy Policy and Planning systems.Office, though the communities have been responsible for 29

31

engineering to get from sunshine to electricity, and I was astonished by just how big and complex that makes a plant of this kind.

We were there at around midday, so it was seriously hot you couldn't stand next to the mirrors for very long! But it was also dusty it is, after all, in the middle of a desert. And that poses a huge challenge in terms of keeping the mirrors dust-free so that their performance is not affected. That means they've had to develop special vehicles that are constantly tracking up and down the 120 km length of parabolic troughs to keep them sparkling.

I am seriously delighted at this photo. That's me and Dr. In short, it's not easy. And it's expensive. But as one of our Nawal Al-Hosany standing by one of the 258,048 mirrors fellow visitors said, “what do you expect with a nuclear that make up the Shams1 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) reactor?” I've often described the sun as “the only fusion reactor plant in Abu Dhabi. It will be the biggest CSP plant in the we're ever going to need to power the world”, and that doing it world, stretching out over 2.5 square kilometres, and this way is a whole lot simpler than trying to build our own puny generating 100 MW of electricity when it goes on line at little fusion reactors. It's still an engineering triumph.the end of the year. Dr. Nawal is Director of the Zayed

Future Energy Prize, and Masdar is the driving force And all done courtesy of Abu Dhabi's massive oil revenues behind the many different initiatives going on in Abu which have inevitably prompted people to level charges of Dhabi to promote sustainable energy. hypocrisy against the whole Masdar initiative. What is the value of 100 MW of solar set against the emissions of millions of Which makes it all just a little bit weird. Abu Dhabi is one tonnes of CO2 and other greenhouse gases from all that oil? of the biggest oil producing countries in the world. As I

was standing there, I kept thinking that in all likelihood Fair point. But what conclusions should we draw from it? That there was a vast puddle of oil below my feet, just waiting to Abu Dhabi should stop producing oil? Let's not be too naïve be extracted, refined, shipped and burned in some of the here. That Abu Dhabi shouldn't do anything to promote world's ever-growing number of cars.renewables either from an R&D point of view or through schemes like Shams? Or through the Zayed Future Energy I'll return to that in a minute. But first let's just celebrate Prize, which celebrates the achievements of the best initiatives this beautiful, forceful power plant springing up out of the and organisations involved in renewable and sustainable energy Abu Dhabi desert. At one level, it's all quite simple. The all around the world? That would seem to be a bit self-258,048 mirrors are assembled in parabolic troughs that defeating. track the passage of the sun from dawn to dusk. They

'concentrate' the sunlight onto tubes running down the For me, near-zero carbon electrons from Abu Dhabi is just one middle of the troughs. These tubes are full of oil which is of those sustainability paradoxes that you have to live with. heated by the sun to nearly 400° C. Heat exchangers then Which is why I am looking forward to Shams 1 being the first of convert that heat into steam, which drives the turbine, a whole generation of CSP plants around the world.which drives the generator which produces the electricity.

It's not quite as simple as that! There's a lot of fancy

World's largest concentrated solar power plantBy Jonathon Porritt, Environmentalist and Writer

Jonathon Porritt, Co-Founder of Forum for the Future, is an eminent writer, broadcaster and commentator on sustainable development. Established in 1996, Forum for the Future is now the UK's leading sustainable development charity, with 70 staff and over 100 partner organisations including some of the world's leading companies.

Pic: Jonathon Porrit

“Sustainable Solar PV project development is a challenge and can be easily solved the following way if implemented in true spirit of Democracy with transparency”

nominated Banks or Institutions of INDIA or Abroad) and get the differential interest subsidy payable (from State of Centre Government with Escrow amount) per year against performance of the plant of having delivered the number of units as assumed! This will make the project developer to

We propose : PERFORM else PERISH. If lesser energy generation, then, the interest payable shall be reduced. Thus, we do not subsidize the

A 25 to 50 MW of solar PV power project + Dry grain CAPEX and invite good quality players in Solar PV Power storage godown to store the dry food grains as per FCI Generation. Let the developers hire competent EPC with good guidelines + 1 MW Biomass power plant (in the 2nd phase products within the Project Cost of Rs.8 Crore/MW. This can depending upon biomass availability) at every taluka. + vary every year and CERC can furnish such guidelines on 5000 MT Cold Storage unit (in the 2nd Phase). The second CAPEX from time to time and open the market and one need not phase items are intentionally kept out of scope of this waste time in reverse bidding, running around the ministers or article at present. However, there shall be land provision Centre or State Government officers or such DISCOMs etc.for the same to attract the people with such expertise for further sustainability with intrinsic value chain. Let the Village Panchayat or Zilla Parishad (District), who want

to have power generation in their district or village, come Select the villages / Taluka where there is no forward with land bank and attract the investors, thus, land

electrification or no power in the existing grid for more acquisition problems can be reduced.than 4 hours/day from the grid line.

DISCOMS must buy at Rs.5/kwh with a PPA with 3% annual Chain of substations for evacuation with new grid lines to increment with a tripartite agreement and Assured Letter of

be established along these 8 to 10 talukas by the State Credit from the respective state government. This kind of PPA Government with ADB funding. can be fixed for a year and let any developer come forward with

a capacity capping per developer per year, otherwise, deep pocket people will only get richer. Government can promote Proposed Business Model with an in principle policy local entrepreneurs through “Entrepreneur Funding” policy support to attract Many Entrepreneurs in rural area with which is in the making for the further sustainability and for the reduced overheads for a reduced tariff:local job creation at RURAL LEVEL. This will also ensure the common people to access low cost Solar PV power as early as Assumptions for a 25 MW Solar PV power project as per possible. With the further drop of PV equipment price, the CERC guide line on ROE, but, the rate of Interest for term situation will improve further with good players and with more loan (interest subsidy proposed) is assumed as 4% on rupee jobs, wealth creation and distribution for many Entrepreneurs, term and the loan term as 15 years. The results are tabulated which is more democratic with transparency. Energy Access for to know the Cost of Generation (COG) and the IRR of 12% ALL in true spirit.(mini) with a low tariff of Rs.5/kwh with a tariff escalation

of 3% per year. Let the interested developers who can offer Since the development of evacuation facility is with State such business number can come forward so that the Nation Government, it must comply on time. Failure to do so, shall gets benefitted. No further REC benefits etc shall be attract dismissal of the local officers or their team, thus, we provided. This shall be a total cost to the government to buy make the local administration responsible. As the Village the power as the interest subsidy is being proposed by us.Panchayat and ZP are involved, the cable running in many farms will not be a problem and grid shall be ensured with Instead of Viable Gap Funding or Capital Subsidy (due to redundancies to ensure power in the grid with a provision for failure of such capital subsidy for Biomass plants and to Hybrid mix and future growth. use the national wealth in a more effective way), we

strongly propose an Interest subsidy to get the project Local government involvement will make the people aware interest at ONLY 4% (Fixed rupee term Interest rate). Let (expose) to elect their local representative in a better democratic the Government form / raise the Clean tech fund and pay environment. Land acquisition shall be through VP or ZP local the Debt fund at this rate of Interest or let the promoters administration as the developer need not run from pillar to post.arrange the loan (from the Government designated or

-

-

-

VIEW POINT:

Niche 25 MW to 50 MW multipurpose solar pv (low tariff) power project developments at every taluka of good solar irradiation states of India for energy security and food securityBy Praveen Kumar Kulkarni

30

31

engineering to get from sunshine to electricity, and I was astonished by just how big and complex that makes a plant of this kind.

We were there at around midday, so it was seriously hot you couldn't stand next to the mirrors for very long! But it was also dusty it is, after all, in the middle of a desert. And that poses a huge challenge in terms of keeping the mirrors dust-free so that their performance is not affected. That means they've had to develop special vehicles that are constantly tracking up and down the 120 km length of parabolic troughs to keep them sparkling.

I am seriously delighted at this photo. That's me and Dr. In short, it's not easy. And it's expensive. But as one of our Nawal Al-Hosany standing by one of the 258,048 mirrors fellow visitors said, “what do you expect with a nuclear that make up the Shams1 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) reactor?” I've often described the sun as “the only fusion reactor plant in Abu Dhabi. It will be the biggest CSP plant in the we're ever going to need to power the world”, and that doing it world, stretching out over 2.5 square kilometres, and this way is a whole lot simpler than trying to build our own puny generating 100 MW of electricity when it goes on line at little fusion reactors. It's still an engineering triumph.the end of the year. Dr. Nawal is Director of the Zayed

Future Energy Prize, and Masdar is the driving force And all done courtesy of Abu Dhabi's massive oil revenues behind the many different initiatives going on in Abu which have inevitably prompted people to level charges of Dhabi to promote sustainable energy. hypocrisy against the whole Masdar initiative. What is the value of 100 MW of solar set against the emissions of millions of Which makes it all just a little bit weird. Abu Dhabi is one tonnes of CO2 and other greenhouse gases from all that oil? of the biggest oil producing countries in the world. As I

was standing there, I kept thinking that in all likelihood Fair point. But what conclusions should we draw from it? That there was a vast puddle of oil below my feet, just waiting to Abu Dhabi should stop producing oil? Let's not be too naïve be extracted, refined, shipped and burned in some of the here. That Abu Dhabi shouldn't do anything to promote world's ever-growing number of cars.renewables either from an R&D point of view or through schemes like Shams? Or through the Zayed Future Energy I'll return to that in a minute. But first let's just celebrate Prize, which celebrates the achievements of the best initiatives this beautiful, forceful power plant springing up out of the and organisations involved in renewable and sustainable energy Abu Dhabi desert. At one level, it's all quite simple. The all around the world? That would seem to be a bit self-258,048 mirrors are assembled in parabolic troughs that defeating. track the passage of the sun from dawn to dusk. They

'concentrate' the sunlight onto tubes running down the For me, near-zero carbon electrons from Abu Dhabi is just one middle of the troughs. These tubes are full of oil which is of those sustainability paradoxes that you have to live with. heated by the sun to nearly 400° C. Heat exchangers then Which is why I am looking forward to Shams 1 being the first of convert that heat into steam, which drives the turbine, a whole generation of CSP plants around the world.which drives the generator which produces the electricity.

It's not quite as simple as that! There's a lot of fancy

World's largest concentrated solar power plantBy Jonathon Porritt, Environmentalist and Writer

Jonathon Porritt, Co-Founder of Forum for the Future, is an eminent writer, broadcaster and commentator on sustainable development. Established in 1996, Forum for the Future is now the UK's leading sustainable development charity, with 70 staff and over 100 partner organisations including some of the world's leading companies.

Pic: Jonathon Porrit

“Sustainable Solar PV project development is a challenge and can be easily solved the following way if implemented in true spirit of Democracy with transparency”

nominated Banks or Institutions of INDIA or Abroad) and get the differential interest subsidy payable (from State of Centre Government with Escrow amount) per year against performance of the plant of having delivered the number of units as assumed! This will make the project developer to

We propose : PERFORM else PERISH. If lesser energy generation, then, the interest payable shall be reduced. Thus, we do not subsidize the

A 25 to 50 MW of solar PV power project + Dry grain CAPEX and invite good quality players in Solar PV Power storage godown to store the dry food grains as per FCI Generation. Let the developers hire competent EPC with good guidelines + 1 MW Biomass power plant (in the 2nd phase products within the Project Cost of Rs.8 Crore/MW. This can depending upon biomass availability) at every taluka. + vary every year and CERC can furnish such guidelines on 5000 MT Cold Storage unit (in the 2nd Phase). The second CAPEX from time to time and open the market and one need not phase items are intentionally kept out of scope of this waste time in reverse bidding, running around the ministers or article at present. However, there shall be land provision Centre or State Government officers or such DISCOMs etc.for the same to attract the people with such expertise for further sustainability with intrinsic value chain. Let the Village Panchayat or Zilla Parishad (District), who want

to have power generation in their district or village, come Select the villages / Taluka where there is no forward with land bank and attract the investors, thus, land

electrification or no power in the existing grid for more acquisition problems can be reduced.than 4 hours/day from the grid line.

DISCOMS must buy at Rs.5/kwh with a PPA with 3% annual Chain of substations for evacuation with new grid lines to increment with a tripartite agreement and Assured Letter of

be established along these 8 to 10 talukas by the State Credit from the respective state government. This kind of PPA Government with ADB funding. can be fixed for a year and let any developer come forward with

a capacity capping per developer per year, otherwise, deep pocket people will only get richer. Government can promote Proposed Business Model with an in principle policy local entrepreneurs through “Entrepreneur Funding” policy support to attract Many Entrepreneurs in rural area with which is in the making for the further sustainability and for the reduced overheads for a reduced tariff:local job creation at RURAL LEVEL. This will also ensure the common people to access low cost Solar PV power as early as Assumptions for a 25 MW Solar PV power project as per possible. With the further drop of PV equipment price, the CERC guide line on ROE, but, the rate of Interest for term situation will improve further with good players and with more loan (interest subsidy proposed) is assumed as 4% on rupee jobs, wealth creation and distribution for many Entrepreneurs, term and the loan term as 15 years. The results are tabulated which is more democratic with transparency. Energy Access for to know the Cost of Generation (COG) and the IRR of 12% ALL in true spirit.(mini) with a low tariff of Rs.5/kwh with a tariff escalation

of 3% per year. Let the interested developers who can offer Since the development of evacuation facility is with State such business number can come forward so that the Nation Government, it must comply on time. Failure to do so, shall gets benefitted. No further REC benefits etc shall be attract dismissal of the local officers or their team, thus, we provided. This shall be a total cost to the government to buy make the local administration responsible. As the Village the power as the interest subsidy is being proposed by us.Panchayat and ZP are involved, the cable running in many farms will not be a problem and grid shall be ensured with Instead of Viable Gap Funding or Capital Subsidy (due to redundancies to ensure power in the grid with a provision for failure of such capital subsidy for Biomass plants and to Hybrid mix and future growth. use the national wealth in a more effective way), we

strongly propose an Interest subsidy to get the project Local government involvement will make the people aware interest at ONLY 4% (Fixed rupee term Interest rate). Let (expose) to elect their local representative in a better democratic the Government form / raise the Clean tech fund and pay environment. Land acquisition shall be through VP or ZP local the Debt fund at this rate of Interest or let the promoters administration as the developer need not run from pillar to post.arrange the loan (from the Government designated or

-

-

-

VIEW POINT:

Niche 25 MW to 50 MW multipurpose solar pv (low tariff) power project developments at every taluka of good solar irradiation states of India for energy security and food securityBy Praveen Kumar Kulkarni

30

33

reduce the tariff. If the Income tax can be waived for Developers The expenses related to Taxes, duties, transmission costs of Solar PV power project, the accelerated depreciation benefit etc shall not be loaded to the Developer and one can further

IMPORTANT NOTE: THE PROJECT DEVELOPERS WITH LESS EXPECTATIONS ON RETURN ON EQUITY WILL STAND BETTER

CHANCE !

game (which played havoc in Wind mill without facilitate for quick redressal of the project development, sustainability) can be eliminated and the village level irrespective of which party in the ruling. Let the system work entrepreneurs with funding through national policy on and not the politics, once, the policy with principles are entrepreneur funding can make way for many entrepreneurs decided with no payouts as the project allotment is open for for the local area sustainability with responsibility, thus, the the Project developers who can show the required credentials project promoters will take pride in local area development. with good EPC company, Equity money in the bank with land Thus, with detailed calculations shared, we can create good arrangement with VP or ZP and then approach the State or business case to develop local entrepreneurs with necessary Central government with good quality money with necessary support from large EPC companies to create good quality RBI clearances. Thus, there won't be mad rush of national assets. Thus, there will be a very good eco system by applications, waiting for clearances from allotment eliminating the project award to known coterie and then department etc. There shall not be delay in sanctioning the selling the equity to make money without executing the debt fund as it shall be through FIs or Cleantech Fund with project or such corrupt practices during the award or credit line secured well in advance as the CAPEX is fixed. sanctioning the project etc…. Thus, money is made available Whatever savings on CAPEX, it is for the benefit of the with necessary security, low cost debt fund (from donor or Project Developer for their efficient project development and Kfw, IREDA etc) to reduce the tariff of Solar PV power. hence reduced interest burden. The company which comes up

with lesser CAPEX or lesser loan amount, it shall be given Government can give a thought on this kind of business plan first preference as there is no CAPEX subsidy. There will preparation with clarity on numbers for sustainability (for all only be Interest subsidy and that too payable at the end of year RE resources) to attract SMALL entrepreneurs with after showing the generation performance and MUST be mentoring, monitoring to create good quality national assets reimbursed to the developer within 15 days of such valid with real PPP model. document submission or a LC can be ensured or an Escrow

amount be kept.The numbers illustrated can be debated, discussed, improved and then made as a policy for a Financial year for quick development while the project allotment agencies must

32

33

reduce the tariff. If the Income tax can be waived for Developers The expenses related to Taxes, duties, transmission costs of Solar PV power project, the accelerated depreciation benefit etc shall not be loaded to the Developer and one can further

IMPORTANT NOTE: THE PROJECT DEVELOPERS WITH LESS EXPECTATIONS ON RETURN ON EQUITY WILL STAND BETTER

CHANCE !

game (which played havoc in Wind mill without facilitate for quick redressal of the project development, sustainability) can be eliminated and the village level irrespective of which party in the ruling. Let the system work entrepreneurs with funding through national policy on and not the politics, once, the policy with principles are entrepreneur funding can make way for many entrepreneurs decided with no payouts as the project allotment is open for for the local area sustainability with responsibility, thus, the the Project developers who can show the required credentials project promoters will take pride in local area development. with good EPC company, Equity money in the bank with land Thus, with detailed calculations shared, we can create good arrangement with VP or ZP and then approach the State or business case to develop local entrepreneurs with necessary Central government with good quality money with necessary support from large EPC companies to create good quality RBI clearances. Thus, there won't be mad rush of national assets. Thus, there will be a very good eco system by applications, waiting for clearances from allotment eliminating the project award to known coterie and then department etc. There shall not be delay in sanctioning the selling the equity to make money without executing the debt fund as it shall be through FIs or Cleantech Fund with project or such corrupt practices during the award or credit line secured well in advance as the CAPEX is fixed. sanctioning the project etc…. Thus, money is made available Whatever savings on CAPEX, it is for the benefit of the with necessary security, low cost debt fund (from donor or Project Developer for their efficient project development and Kfw, IREDA etc) to reduce the tariff of Solar PV power. hence reduced interest burden. The company which comes up

with lesser CAPEX or lesser loan amount, it shall be given Government can give a thought on this kind of business plan first preference as there is no CAPEX subsidy. There will preparation with clarity on numbers for sustainability (for all only be Interest subsidy and that too payable at the end of year RE resources) to attract SMALL entrepreneurs with after showing the generation performance and MUST be mentoring, monitoring to create good quality national assets reimbursed to the developer within 15 days of such valid with real PPP model. document submission or a LC can be ensured or an Escrow

amount be kept.The numbers illustrated can be debated, discussed, improved and then made as a policy for a Financial year for quick development while the project allotment agencies must

32

34

Important Note : International Donor Organisation, Improve Project Irr And Help In Inclusive Growth With Cleantech Promotion Organisations, Csr Believer Good Good Job Creation At Rural Area. (Tariff Cost Escalation Corporate Companies Can Manage With Irr Of 12% With Of 3% Per Year Is Illustrated For Irr Of 12%)A Good Business Case. The Dry Grain Storage, Biomass And Cold Storage Units With Their Separate P & L, Will

The author is a Gold Medalist from SLN College of Engineering, Gulbarga University. Industrial work experience over 23 years with PSU, MNCs. He had worked for: Tungabharda Steel Products Ltd, Hospet from 1988 to 1995. Executed engineering of 21 Hydro Mechanical Equipment projects. Deputed to Japan for 5 months as part of UNIDO program to become JICA participant-1994. He introduced CAD in TSPL with software programs for design of Gates, Hoists and Cranes. He was deputed to TSPL Hyderabad branch to assist business development of Steel Plant Equipments. With SMS Demag India Ltd, German MNC), he engineered Steel Melt Shop equipments of Jindal Vijay Nagar Steel Plant. Apart from being the Head of Secondary refining equipments viz. VD, VOD, RH, RHOB, SMS equipments, he supported the

pre-bid and business development activities thru ICB of SMS Demag Secondary refining equipments. Visited SMS Demag, Duisburg on company assignments

ALSTOM Portugal / India (French MNC) hired him as a Consultant and Part of Management team to launch Hydro Mechanical Equipment in India in their Baroda factory. Prepared Business plans, Export support (1ME,Owenfalls ,Uganda), tendering support to realize and launch Omkareshwar Project. Visited ALSTOM Lisbon, France, Grenoble on assignments and important missions. He was a Project Manager of Omkareshwar HME (24 ME) and as Implementation Manager to rebuild (15ME) Alstom Baroda factory to manufacture Hydro turbines, Generators and HME to cater to their Indian and Export Markets. He visited USA, Russia for special equipment evaluations, purchase and installations. He was the Project Director of Nam Ngum, Laos HME project (10ME). Established KK NESAR PROJECT PRIVATE LIMITED to execute renewable energy projects on EPC basis with a collaborative business approach with Indian specific needs. His contact email: praveenkulkarni@kknesar.com

rate for the power used.While the technology behind solar power may seem complex, when broken down, grid connect is easy to As all of the components in a grid connect system have no understand as it only requires a few components installed moving parts, you can expect a long and hassle free life from in your home or business.your solar power system! Generous government renewable energy rebates mean you can also save thousands on a grid connect system for a limited time! The sun shines on the solar panels generating

DC electricityThe DC electricity is fed into a solar inverter that converts it to AC electricity.The AC electricity is used to power appliances in your home.Surplus electricity is fed back into the main grid.

Whenever the sun shines, the solar cells generate electricity. The grid connect inverter converts the DC electricity produced by the solar panels into AC electricity, which can then be used by the property/household. If a grid connect system is producing more power than is being consumed, the surplus is fed into the mains power grid. Some electricity companies will meter the electricity fed into the grid by your system and provide a credit on your bill. Other companies will install a bi-directional meter which will run backwards as your system feeds electricity into the grid. Most customers choose a roof mounted solar system. For most of India, the modules should be south facing in order to When the solar cells are not producing power, for take full advantage of the sun. example at night, your power is supplied by the mains power grid as usual. The energy retailer charges the usual

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How a grid connected solar power system works?

35

34

Important Note : International Donor Organisation, Improve Project Irr And Help In Inclusive Growth With Cleantech Promotion Organisations, Csr Believer Good Good Job Creation At Rural Area. (Tariff Cost Escalation Corporate Companies Can Manage With Irr Of 12% With Of 3% Per Year Is Illustrated For Irr Of 12%)A Good Business Case. The Dry Grain Storage, Biomass And Cold Storage Units With Their Separate P & L, Will

The author is a Gold Medalist from SLN College of Engineering, Gulbarga University. Industrial work experience over 23 years with PSU, MNCs. He had worked for: Tungabharda Steel Products Ltd, Hospet from 1988 to 1995. Executed engineering of 21 Hydro Mechanical Equipment projects. Deputed to Japan for 5 months as part of UNIDO program to become JICA participant-1994. He introduced CAD in TSPL with software programs for design of Gates, Hoists and Cranes. He was deputed to TSPL Hyderabad branch to assist business development of Steel Plant Equipments. With SMS Demag India Ltd, German MNC), he engineered Steel Melt Shop equipments of Jindal Vijay Nagar Steel Plant. Apart from being the Head of Secondary refining equipments viz. VD, VOD, RH, RHOB, SMS equipments, he supported the

pre-bid and business development activities thru ICB of SMS Demag Secondary refining equipments. Visited SMS Demag, Duisburg on company assignments

ALSTOM Portugal / India (French MNC) hired him as a Consultant and Part of Management team to launch Hydro Mechanical Equipment in India in their Baroda factory. Prepared Business plans, Export support (1ME,Owenfalls ,Uganda), tendering support to realize and launch Omkareshwar Project. Visited ALSTOM Lisbon, France, Grenoble on assignments and important missions. He was a Project Manager of Omkareshwar HME (24 ME) and as Implementation Manager to rebuild (15ME) Alstom Baroda factory to manufacture Hydro turbines, Generators and HME to cater to their Indian and Export Markets. He visited USA, Russia for special equipment evaluations, purchase and installations. He was the Project Director of Nam Ngum, Laos HME project (10ME). Established KK NESAR PROJECT PRIVATE LIMITED to execute renewable energy projects on EPC basis with a collaborative business approach with Indian specific needs. His contact email: praveenkulkarni@kknesar.com

rate for the power used.While the technology behind solar power may seem complex, when broken down, grid connect is easy to As all of the components in a grid connect system have no understand as it only requires a few components installed moving parts, you can expect a long and hassle free life from in your home or business.your solar power system! Generous government renewable energy rebates mean you can also save thousands on a grid connect system for a limited time! The sun shines on the solar panels generating

DC electricityThe DC electricity is fed into a solar inverter that converts it to AC electricity.The AC electricity is used to power appliances in your home.Surplus electricity is fed back into the main grid.

Whenever the sun shines, the solar cells generate electricity. The grid connect inverter converts the DC electricity produced by the solar panels into AC electricity, which can then be used by the property/household. If a grid connect system is producing more power than is being consumed, the surplus is fed into the mains power grid. Some electricity companies will meter the electricity fed into the grid by your system and provide a credit on your bill. Other companies will install a bi-directional meter which will run backwards as your system feeds electricity into the grid. Most customers choose a roof mounted solar system. For most of India, the modules should be south facing in order to When the solar cells are not producing power, for take full advantage of the sun. example at night, your power is supplied by the mains power grid as usual. The energy retailer charges the usual

?

?

?

?

How a grid connected solar power system works?

35

37

collected during daytime can be stored in concrete, molten salt, ceramics or phase-change media. At night, it can be extracted from the storage to run the power block.

Combined generation of heat and power by CSP is particularly interesting, as the high value solar input energy is used with the best possible efficiency, exceeding 85 %. Process heat from combined generation can be used for industrial applications, district cooling or sea water desalination. CSP is one of the best suited technologies to help, in an affordable way, mitigate climate change as well as to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. Therefore, CSP has a large potential to contribute to the sustainable generation of power. Parabolic Trough Power Plants as well as Solar Power Towers and Parabolic Dish Engines are the current CSP technologies.

Concentrated Solar Power PlantIn many regions of the world, every square kilometre of land can produce as much as 200 to 300 GWh/year of solar electricity Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) is based on using CSP technology. This is equivalent to the annual concentrating sunlight onto a small surface which is then production of a conventional coal or gas fired 50 MW power heated. The heat is converted to energy through either a plant or over the total life cycle of a CSP system to the energy sterling engine or a fluid that is heated and used for power contained in 16 million barrels of oil. The exploitation of less generation. Precise movement is essential for this than 1 % of the total CSP potential would suffice to meet the installation to work effectively. CSP can be obtained recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate through different solar power systems such as a solar tower Change (IPCC) for a long-term stabilization of the climate. At with heliostats, a parabolic through and a Fresnel collector.the same time, concentrating solar power will become Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) power generation uses economically competitive with fossil fuels. This large solar the same photovoltaic material as PV. On CPV panels the power potential will only be used to a small extent, if it is solar radiation is however concentrated onto the material restricted by the regional demand and by the local technological using lenses. This creates a much higher electricity output and financial resources. But if solar electricity is exported to pr. m2 photovoltaic material. For the installation to work it regions with a higher demand and less solar energy resources, a is essential that the CPV panels follow the sun during the much greater part of the potential of the sunbelt countries could day.be harvested for the protection of the global climate.

Photovoltaic (PV) power generation is done by employing Combined Solar Powerpanels composed of a number of cells containing

photovoltaic material (often silicon). This photovoltaic Combined Solar Power (CSP) or Hybrid renewable energy material then converts solar radiation into electric current. source is becoming popular because it is composed of two or While solar tracking is essential for both CPV and CSP to more energy sources. This combination of two energy sources is deliver power it is not the case for PV. The reason for an efficient way of generating energy. CSP or Hybrid energy choosing tracking on a PV installation instead of just systems are used in remote areas for power generation. The use having a fixed installation is an increased energy output of hybrid power generations came forward due to the high prices during the day. Whether it is feasible to install a tracker is of oil. The use of hybrid energy systems can optimize the power thus dependable on whether the increased energy output supply especially in rural areas. However, it is still considered (kWh) weights up the additional cost of the tracking expensive and difficult to combine two or three energy sources system. Return on investment of the tracking part in a solar together, but it is a one time expense. This one time expense can tracking system is approximately 4-5 years.be of many uses to people living in remote areas

In a simple way, the solar radiation can be collected by There are many sources of combining renewable energy sources different Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies to produce power but two of them are biomass wind fuel cell and to provide high temperature heat. The solar heat is then photovoltaic wind. The first hybrid energy sources biomass used to operate a conventional power cycle, such as a wind fuel cell is a combination of 60% biomass and 20% wind steam or gas turbine, or a Stirling engine. Solar heat

Concentrated Solar Power and Combined Solar Power to claim their respective share in the ensuing energy revolutionBy Staff Writer

power along with the derivation of energy from fuel cells. Hybrid energy systems often consist of a combination between The hybrid energy sources can help farmers to run their fossil fuels and renewable energy sources, and are used in tube wells to provide water to their irrigation land. conjunction with energy storage equipment (batteries). This is

often done either to reduce the cost of generating electricity Combining two or three energy sources to form one source from fossil fuels or to provide back up for a renewable energy is capable of generating efficient energy to power a house system, ensuring continuity of power supply when the or a small industrial unit. The photovoltaic wind power is renewable energy source fluctuates.the combination of solar cells and wind turbines to generate electricity. The energy by wind turbines and solar One of the biggest downfalls of renewable energy is that energy panels is combined in a battery bank. It is then transformed supply is not constant; sources like solar and wind power to the inverter and then it helps in generating alternate fluctuate in intensity due to the weather and seasonal changes. current. The hybrid energy sources are much more cost Therefore, a reliable backup system is necessary for renewable effective and environment friendly. energy generating stations that are not connected to a national

power grid. These systems consist of a variety of power control Hybrid energy sources can be used to generate electricity methods and storage equipment which include battery banks which can power many applications like TV, water pumps, and diesel generators among others. The power systems that are grinders, irons and other machinery. It can help the users to connected to the national grid don't have this problem because, run electrical appliances as well as outdoor and indoor in most cases, there are many different sources of power lights. These power systems can supply direct current and contributing to the national electricity supply.alternate current accordingly.

There are several types of hybrid energy systems such as wind-The hybrid energy is useful only if we do not overlook the solar hybrid, solar-diesel, wind-hydro and wind-diesel. The important considerations before deploying this energy. design of a system or the choice of energy sources depends on The input and output parameters should be compatible to several considerations.each other. Also analyze the variations in the two very different energy sources like wind energy and solar power. The factors affecting the choice of hybrid power technology can

also tell us why people use hybrids and some of the advantages. The reduced range of power supply and the variation in the The main factors are cost and resources available. The cost energy capabilities of both power plants should be hybrid power technology greatly affects the choices people monitored using charge controller. It is imperative to use make, particularly in developing countries. This also depends power inverters to transform electric current into usable on the aim of the project. People who are planning to set up a form like alternate current. hybrid energy project for their own use often focus on lowering

the total investment and operational costs while those planning There are few basic hybrid systems without which the to generate electricity for sale focus on the long-term project working of the hybrid systems is not possible. For example revenue. As such, systems that incorporate hydrogen storage if we want to generate electricity by combining and fuel cells are not very common with small scale projects. photovoltaic and wind power we must possess an array of The viability of one hybrid energy system over another is solar panels, wind generators, a backup storage and battery usually pegged on the cost of generating each kilowatt.system and a power converter. The photovoltaic panels or PV generators is a combination of series of solar panels. The availability of the natural resources plays an enormous part These solar panels are in turn made up of solar cells. An when selecting the components of a hybrid energy system the array of solar panels alone is considered an important and right power generation location and method must be chosen. powerful energy sources. The wind generator converts the Often, a hybrid system is opted for because the existing power energy of the wind (kinetic energy) into mechanical resource is not enough to generate the amount of power needed energy. The energy generated from both sources is which is often the case when using micro-hydro plants. In some combined into one battery inverter or storage unit. This developing countries, such as parts of Ethiopia, a wind-solar storage unit conserves the energy generated form the solar hybrid power system, consisting of wind turbines and solar panels and wind turbines. This energy is then converted to photovoltaics was found to be most viable. This was because the usable energy by using inverter. Just like solar and wind wind resource alone was not sufficient to meet the electric load. power plants the hybrid power plants can also be off grid Solar P.V. cells were very expensive, so it wasn't feasible for the and on grid therefore increasing the diversity of this energy project developers to use solar power alone.technology.

Hybrid systems are most suitable for small grids and isolated or The word 'hybrid' is used to refer to something made by stand-alone systems as hybrid power generation is, by combining different elements. Modern science has seen definition, a solution for getting around problems where one dramatic advances in hybrid technology, giving birth to energy source isn't sufficient.hybrid cars such as the Toyota Prius and incorporating The popularity of hybrid energy systems has grown so much information and communications technology (ICT) that it is now a niche-industry in itself with custom systems systems that automate smart-houses and eco homes. being engineered for specific functions. Similarly, hybrid energy systems have been designed to generate electricity from different sources, such solar For CSPs to claim their share in the ensuing energy revolution, panels and wind turbines. concerted action is required over the next ten years by scientists,

industry, governments, financing institutions and the public. 36

37

collected during daytime can be stored in concrete, molten salt, ceramics or phase-change media. At night, it can be extracted from the storage to run the power block.

Combined generation of heat and power by CSP is particularly interesting, as the high value solar input energy is used with the best possible efficiency, exceeding 85 %. Process heat from combined generation can be used for industrial applications, district cooling or sea water desalination. CSP is one of the best suited technologies to help, in an affordable way, mitigate climate change as well as to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. Therefore, CSP has a large potential to contribute to the sustainable generation of power. Parabolic Trough Power Plants as well as Solar Power Towers and Parabolic Dish Engines are the current CSP technologies.

Concentrated Solar Power PlantIn many regions of the world, every square kilometre of land can produce as much as 200 to 300 GWh/year of solar electricity Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) is based on using CSP technology. This is equivalent to the annual concentrating sunlight onto a small surface which is then production of a conventional coal or gas fired 50 MW power heated. The heat is converted to energy through either a plant or over the total life cycle of a CSP system to the energy sterling engine or a fluid that is heated and used for power contained in 16 million barrels of oil. The exploitation of less generation. Precise movement is essential for this than 1 % of the total CSP potential would suffice to meet the installation to work effectively. CSP can be obtained recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate through different solar power systems such as a solar tower Change (IPCC) for a long-term stabilization of the climate. At with heliostats, a parabolic through and a Fresnel collector.the same time, concentrating solar power will become Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) power generation uses economically competitive with fossil fuels. This large solar the same photovoltaic material as PV. On CPV panels the power potential will only be used to a small extent, if it is solar radiation is however concentrated onto the material restricted by the regional demand and by the local technological using lenses. This creates a much higher electricity output and financial resources. But if solar electricity is exported to pr. m2 photovoltaic material. For the installation to work it regions with a higher demand and less solar energy resources, a is essential that the CPV panels follow the sun during the much greater part of the potential of the sunbelt countries could day.be harvested for the protection of the global climate.

Photovoltaic (PV) power generation is done by employing Combined Solar Powerpanels composed of a number of cells containing

photovoltaic material (often silicon). This photovoltaic Combined Solar Power (CSP) or Hybrid renewable energy material then converts solar radiation into electric current. source is becoming popular because it is composed of two or While solar tracking is essential for both CPV and CSP to more energy sources. This combination of two energy sources is deliver power it is not the case for PV. The reason for an efficient way of generating energy. CSP or Hybrid energy choosing tracking on a PV installation instead of just systems are used in remote areas for power generation. The use having a fixed installation is an increased energy output of hybrid power generations came forward due to the high prices during the day. Whether it is feasible to install a tracker is of oil. The use of hybrid energy systems can optimize the power thus dependable on whether the increased energy output supply especially in rural areas. However, it is still considered (kWh) weights up the additional cost of the tracking expensive and difficult to combine two or three energy sources system. Return on investment of the tracking part in a solar together, but it is a one time expense. This one time expense can tracking system is approximately 4-5 years.be of many uses to people living in remote areas

In a simple way, the solar radiation can be collected by There are many sources of combining renewable energy sources different Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies to produce power but two of them are biomass wind fuel cell and to provide high temperature heat. The solar heat is then photovoltaic wind. The first hybrid energy sources biomass used to operate a conventional power cycle, such as a wind fuel cell is a combination of 60% biomass and 20% wind steam or gas turbine, or a Stirling engine. Solar heat

Concentrated Solar Power and Combined Solar Power to claim their respective share in the ensuing energy revolutionBy Staff Writer

power along with the derivation of energy from fuel cells. Hybrid energy systems often consist of a combination between The hybrid energy sources can help farmers to run their fossil fuels and renewable energy sources, and are used in tube wells to provide water to their irrigation land. conjunction with energy storage equipment (batteries). This is

often done either to reduce the cost of generating electricity Combining two or three energy sources to form one source from fossil fuels or to provide back up for a renewable energy is capable of generating efficient energy to power a house system, ensuring continuity of power supply when the or a small industrial unit. The photovoltaic wind power is renewable energy source fluctuates.the combination of solar cells and wind turbines to generate electricity. The energy by wind turbines and solar One of the biggest downfalls of renewable energy is that energy panels is combined in a battery bank. It is then transformed supply is not constant; sources like solar and wind power to the inverter and then it helps in generating alternate fluctuate in intensity due to the weather and seasonal changes. current. The hybrid energy sources are much more cost Therefore, a reliable backup system is necessary for renewable effective and environment friendly. energy generating stations that are not connected to a national

power grid. These systems consist of a variety of power control Hybrid energy sources can be used to generate electricity methods and storage equipment which include battery banks which can power many applications like TV, water pumps, and diesel generators among others. The power systems that are grinders, irons and other machinery. It can help the users to connected to the national grid don't have this problem because, run electrical appliances as well as outdoor and indoor in most cases, there are many different sources of power lights. These power systems can supply direct current and contributing to the national electricity supply.alternate current accordingly.

There are several types of hybrid energy systems such as wind-The hybrid energy is useful only if we do not overlook the solar hybrid, solar-diesel, wind-hydro and wind-diesel. The important considerations before deploying this energy. design of a system or the choice of energy sources depends on The input and output parameters should be compatible to several considerations.each other. Also analyze the variations in the two very different energy sources like wind energy and solar power. The factors affecting the choice of hybrid power technology can

also tell us why people use hybrids and some of the advantages. The reduced range of power supply and the variation in the The main factors are cost and resources available. The cost energy capabilities of both power plants should be hybrid power technology greatly affects the choices people monitored using charge controller. It is imperative to use make, particularly in developing countries. This also depends power inverters to transform electric current into usable on the aim of the project. People who are planning to set up a form like alternate current. hybrid energy project for their own use often focus on lowering

the total investment and operational costs while those planning There are few basic hybrid systems without which the to generate electricity for sale focus on the long-term project working of the hybrid systems is not possible. For example revenue. As such, systems that incorporate hydrogen storage if we want to generate electricity by combining and fuel cells are not very common with small scale projects. photovoltaic and wind power we must possess an array of The viability of one hybrid energy system over another is solar panels, wind generators, a backup storage and battery usually pegged on the cost of generating each kilowatt.system and a power converter. The photovoltaic panels or PV generators is a combination of series of solar panels. The availability of the natural resources plays an enormous part These solar panels are in turn made up of solar cells. An when selecting the components of a hybrid energy system the array of solar panels alone is considered an important and right power generation location and method must be chosen. powerful energy sources. The wind generator converts the Often, a hybrid system is opted for because the existing power energy of the wind (kinetic energy) into mechanical resource is not enough to generate the amount of power needed energy. The energy generated from both sources is which is often the case when using micro-hydro plants. In some combined into one battery inverter or storage unit. This developing countries, such as parts of Ethiopia, a wind-solar storage unit conserves the energy generated form the solar hybrid power system, consisting of wind turbines and solar panels and wind turbines. This energy is then converted to photovoltaics was found to be most viable. This was because the usable energy by using inverter. Just like solar and wind wind resource alone was not sufficient to meet the electric load. power plants the hybrid power plants can also be off grid Solar P.V. cells were very expensive, so it wasn't feasible for the and on grid therefore increasing the diversity of this energy project developers to use solar power alone.technology.

Hybrid systems are most suitable for small grids and isolated or The word 'hybrid' is used to refer to something made by stand-alone systems as hybrid power generation is, by combining different elements. Modern science has seen definition, a solution for getting around problems where one dramatic advances in hybrid technology, giving birth to energy source isn't sufficient.hybrid cars such as the Toyota Prius and incorporating The popularity of hybrid energy systems has grown so much information and communications technology (ICT) that it is now a niche-industry in itself with custom systems systems that automate smart-houses and eco homes. being engineered for specific functions. Similarly, hybrid energy systems have been designed to generate electricity from different sources, such solar For CSPs to claim their share in the ensuing energy revolution, panels and wind turbines. concerted action is required over the next ten years by scientists,

industry, governments, financing institutions and the public. 36

39

India, planning $1.4 billion of solar-thermal power Kapoor. “We don't want them to fail,” he said. “We want to see

stations, expects half of the projects to be delayed and some them built.”

to be scrapped as U.S. supplies stall and dust-clouds India has promoted solar energy to boost generation capacity diffuse the radiation required to drive generation.and cut chronic electricity shortages. Insufficient coal and gas

Of the 500 megawatts of projects due to be completed in for conventional thermal-power plants has prompted the central

February and May, only a third of that capacity may be government to hold clean-energy capacity auctions as it pursues

ready on time, said Tarun Kapoor, joint secretary at the a solar output target of 20,000 megawatts by 2022, a 20-fold

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Three of the 10 increase.

ventures are unlikely to be built, he said in an interview in Solar-thermal technology is valued for its ability to store New Delhi.energy, while solar photovoltaic plants convert sunlight directly

The delays are a blow to General Electric Co., Siemens AG into electricity and need batteries for storage. Both technologies

and Areva SA, which have acquired stakes in solar-thermal have benefited from government incentives.

equipment makers since 2009 on the expectation the Areva predicted in 2010 that global use of solar-thermal power technology could compete with coal- and gas-fired power. would grow about 30-fold this decade. Even with state support, Solar-thermal plants, which focus sunlight on liquids to some developers have favored the alternative photovoltaic produce steam and drive turbines, can store energy, technology after the cost of the silicon panels it uses plunged 56 allowing electricity to be delivered around the clock.percent in two years amid a supply glut.

Developers have delayed five plants, or 320 megawatts of “The declining cost of photovoltaic technology puts pressure on capacity, because they've been unable to get heat-transfer governments and developers planning solar-thermal electricity fluid from the only two U.S. suppliers, according to generation,” said BNEF's Chase, who calculates solar-thermal Kapoor, who said those suppliers are backed up with power costs at a minimum $140 a megawatt-hour, compared orders. Companies such as Lanco Infratech Ltd. have also with $100 for photovoltaic. “It's not always easy to justify the reported high dust levels in the desert areas where many extra cost.”plants are built. The dust particles scatter the sun's rays,

reducing the direct solar radiation that can reach a plant's Reliance, Godawari

receptors.

A Reliance Power Ltd. project using an Areva reflector system “Solar-thermal projects are heavy engineering projects,

that doesn't require heat-transfer liquid is proceeding on time, carried out in hostile conditions, and even the most

Kapoor said. Godawari Power & Ispat Ltd. also expects to meet experienced firms have built only a few, and not always

the May deadline after obtaining supplies of the fluid, he said. with perfect success,” said Jenny Chase, head of solar

Aurum Renewable Energy Pvt., which also planned to use a research at Bloomberg New Energy Finance. “It's not

reflector system, hasn't made any progress, he said.surprising delays are common.”

Aurum Renewable, which was considering turbines from GE, Areva has already scrapped a 250-megawatt solar-thermal

Siemens and Sumitomo Heavy Industries Lid's Shin Nippon complex in Australia this month after failing to get

Machinery Co. for its 20-megawatt project, didn't respond to e-government funding. In India, the solar-thermal program

mails and phone calls seeking comment. Lanco didn't respond had generated orders for about $150 million of turbines

to requests for confirmation of a delay to its 100-megawatt from suppliers including GE and Siemens, which could

plant. The company is also the contractor for KVK Energy & now be affected.

Infrastructure Pvt.'s 100-megawatt project.

Torsten Wolf, a spokesman for Munich-based Siemens, Siemens decided to offer its unprofitable solar-energy division

said he couldn't immediately comment. GE's India office for sale in October. The business grew out of the acquisitions of

also declined to comment.solar-thermal companies, including Solel Solar Systems for

$418 million in 2009.The government hasn't decided whether it'll penalize

projects that miss completion deadlines, according to

INDUSTRY NEWS:

Completion of Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India Delayed -At least half of the U.S. $1.4 billion projects won't be built on time

India is emerging as one of the leading solar PV markets in States like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, the world as the country is blessed with immense potential Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra are emerging as for solar energy as most of the states have more than 300 more prominent future PV installation destination for sunny days and the specific average annual solar energy developers and installers. These states have taken positive yield in India is estimated between 1700 1900 kWh per steps and introduced their own solar programmes as well as kWp. Indian Solar power has the potential to generate FITs, or are expected to announce their solar ambitions in 50,000 MW which would be enough to meet over 5% of the course of this year to exploit their solar potential.power requirement by 2022.

Along with grid connected solar PV installation, Indian PV Solar power has emerged as one of the key renewable market represent huge potential for off-grid application sources and presents an exciting opportunity for India. In too. The JNNSM programme targets off-grid past few years, the solar PV industry has experienced electrification about 200 MW expected by 2013, 1 GW by substantial growth primarily driven by favourable policies 2017 and a cumulative installation over 2 GW until 2022. of central and state governments to support its This exhibits huge potential market for off-grid, stand development. The Gujarat State Solar Policy and the along and hybrid systems. This market segment that is Centre's Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission quite specific to emerging markets could kick-off PV (JNNSM) are at the forefront of solar power development installations faster than expected.in India. As a result, power generation capacities from solar

(Source: www.kuickresearch.com)have increased from 20 MW in FY'2011 to nearly 940 MW in FY'2012 and by June 2012 it crossed 1 GW. Most of the installed capacity over 600 MW comes from Gujarat.

India emerging as one of the leading solar PV markets in the world

38

39

India, planning $1.4 billion of solar-thermal power Kapoor. “We don't want them to fail,” he said. “We want to see

stations, expects half of the projects to be delayed and some them built.”

to be scrapped as U.S. supplies stall and dust-clouds India has promoted solar energy to boost generation capacity diffuse the radiation required to drive generation.and cut chronic electricity shortages. Insufficient coal and gas

Of the 500 megawatts of projects due to be completed in for conventional thermal-power plants has prompted the central

February and May, only a third of that capacity may be government to hold clean-energy capacity auctions as it pursues

ready on time, said Tarun Kapoor, joint secretary at the a solar output target of 20,000 megawatts by 2022, a 20-fold

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Three of the 10 increase.

ventures are unlikely to be built, he said in an interview in Solar-thermal technology is valued for its ability to store New Delhi.energy, while solar photovoltaic plants convert sunlight directly

The delays are a blow to General Electric Co., Siemens AG into electricity and need batteries for storage. Both technologies

and Areva SA, which have acquired stakes in solar-thermal have benefited from government incentives.

equipment makers since 2009 on the expectation the Areva predicted in 2010 that global use of solar-thermal power technology could compete with coal- and gas-fired power. would grow about 30-fold this decade. Even with state support, Solar-thermal plants, which focus sunlight on liquids to some developers have favored the alternative photovoltaic produce steam and drive turbines, can store energy, technology after the cost of the silicon panels it uses plunged 56 allowing electricity to be delivered around the clock.percent in two years amid a supply glut.

Developers have delayed five plants, or 320 megawatts of “The declining cost of photovoltaic technology puts pressure on capacity, because they've been unable to get heat-transfer governments and developers planning solar-thermal electricity fluid from the only two U.S. suppliers, according to generation,” said BNEF's Chase, who calculates solar-thermal Kapoor, who said those suppliers are backed up with power costs at a minimum $140 a megawatt-hour, compared orders. Companies such as Lanco Infratech Ltd. have also with $100 for photovoltaic. “It's not always easy to justify the reported high dust levels in the desert areas where many extra cost.”plants are built. The dust particles scatter the sun's rays,

reducing the direct solar radiation that can reach a plant's Reliance, Godawari

receptors.

A Reliance Power Ltd. project using an Areva reflector system “Solar-thermal projects are heavy engineering projects,

that doesn't require heat-transfer liquid is proceeding on time, carried out in hostile conditions, and even the most

Kapoor said. Godawari Power & Ispat Ltd. also expects to meet experienced firms have built only a few, and not always

the May deadline after obtaining supplies of the fluid, he said. with perfect success,” said Jenny Chase, head of solar

Aurum Renewable Energy Pvt., which also planned to use a research at Bloomberg New Energy Finance. “It's not

reflector system, hasn't made any progress, he said.surprising delays are common.”

Aurum Renewable, which was considering turbines from GE, Areva has already scrapped a 250-megawatt solar-thermal

Siemens and Sumitomo Heavy Industries Lid's Shin Nippon complex in Australia this month after failing to get

Machinery Co. for its 20-megawatt project, didn't respond to e-government funding. In India, the solar-thermal program

mails and phone calls seeking comment. Lanco didn't respond had generated orders for about $150 million of turbines

to requests for confirmation of a delay to its 100-megawatt from suppliers including GE and Siemens, which could

plant. The company is also the contractor for KVK Energy & now be affected.

Infrastructure Pvt.'s 100-megawatt project.

Torsten Wolf, a spokesman for Munich-based Siemens, Siemens decided to offer its unprofitable solar-energy division

said he couldn't immediately comment. GE's India office for sale in October. The business grew out of the acquisitions of

also declined to comment.solar-thermal companies, including Solel Solar Systems for

$418 million in 2009.The government hasn't decided whether it'll penalize

projects that miss completion deadlines, according to

INDUSTRY NEWS:

Completion of Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India Delayed -At least half of the U.S. $1.4 billion projects won't be built on time

India is emerging as one of the leading solar PV markets in States like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, the world as the country is blessed with immense potential Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra are emerging as for solar energy as most of the states have more than 300 more prominent future PV installation destination for sunny days and the specific average annual solar energy developers and installers. These states have taken positive yield in India is estimated between 1700 1900 kWh per steps and introduced their own solar programmes as well as kWp. Indian Solar power has the potential to generate FITs, or are expected to announce their solar ambitions in 50,000 MW which would be enough to meet over 5% of the course of this year to exploit their solar potential.power requirement by 2022.

Along with grid connected solar PV installation, Indian PV Solar power has emerged as one of the key renewable market represent huge potential for off-grid application sources and presents an exciting opportunity for India. In too. The JNNSM programme targets off-grid past few years, the solar PV industry has experienced electrification about 200 MW expected by 2013, 1 GW by substantial growth primarily driven by favourable policies 2017 and a cumulative installation over 2 GW until 2022. of central and state governments to support its This exhibits huge potential market for off-grid, stand development. The Gujarat State Solar Policy and the along and hybrid systems. This market segment that is Centre's Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission quite specific to emerging markets could kick-off PV (JNNSM) are at the forefront of solar power development installations faster than expected.in India. As a result, power generation capacities from solar

(Source: www.kuickresearch.com)have increased from 20 MW in FY'2011 to nearly 940 MW in FY'2012 and by June 2012 it crossed 1 GW. Most of the installed capacity over 600 MW comes from Gujarat.

India emerging as one of the leading solar PV markets in the world

38

40

Nisha Singh Joint Secretary, Ministry of Urban Development, The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is emphasized the need for the concerned Ministries to work in implementing a Scheme on 'Development of Solar Cities' coordination with each other. which provides support for 60 cities to develop as Solar

Cities in the country. The Ministry has given sanctions for About 150 persons actively participated in the one day event 41 cities for developing as Solar Cities. Gandhinagar, including the representatives of Municipal Corporations, Nagpur, Chandigarh and Mysore are being developed as Developers, Financial Model Solar Cities. The Ministry has approved the Master I n s t i t u t i o n s , Plants for the 28 Cities and the project installations have International Agencies, already started in few cities. M a n u f a c t u r e s , Investors, Technology In pursuance of the programme, a one day 'National Meet Providers and State on Solar Cities' was inaugurated by Shri. Gireesh B. Nodal Agencies, banks Pradhan, Secretary, Ministry of New and Renewable etc. The aim of this meet Energy on 22nd November 2012, at India International was to discuss the “Ways Forward” after Master Plan for Centre, New Delhi. The Secretary asked the Municipal execution of renewable energy/energy efficiency related Corporations to enhance the use of renewable energy in projects in respective solar cities. The Municipal their area and save the fossil fuel based energy. They can Commissioners of Thane, My sore and Shimla actively amend the building bye-laws suitably to promote the solar participated in the event.water heaters, solar SPV rooftop systems, kitchen waste

based plants in the various establishments of the city. Smt.

MNRE Sanctions Funds to 41 Cities Under “Development Of Solar Cities” Programme

According to World Energy Outlook 2012, a steady 2030, the UN Year of Sustainable Energy for All has generated increase in hydropower and the rapid expansion of wind welcome new commitments towards this goal. But much more and solar power has cemented the position of renewables is required. In the absence of further action, nearly one billion as an indispensable part of the global energy mix; by 2035, people will be without electricity and 2.6 billion people will still renewables account for almost one-third of total electricity be without clean cooking facilities in 2030. Nearly $1 trillion in output. Solar grows more rapidly than any other renewable cumulative investment is needed to achieve universal energy technology. access by 2030.

Renewables become the world's second-largest source of Water needs for energy production are set to grow at twice the power generation by 2015 (roughly half that of coal) and, rate of energy demand. Water is essential to energy production: by 2035, they approach coal as the primary source of global in power generation; in the extraction, transport and processing electricity. Consumption of biomass (for power of oil, gas and coal; and, increasingly, in irrigation for crops generation) and biofuels grows four-fold, with increasing used to produce biofuels. We estimate that water withdrawals volumes being traded internationally. Global bioenergy for energy production in 2010 were 583 billion cubic metres resources are more than sufficient to meet our projected (bcm). Of that, water consumption the volume withdrawn but biofuels and biomass supply without competing with food not returned to its source was 66 bcm. The projected rise in production, although the land use implications have to be water consumption of 85% over the period to 2035 reflects a managed carefully. The rapid increase in renewable energy move towards more water-intensive power generation and is underpinned by falling technology costs, rising fossil- expanding output of biofuels.fuel prices and carbon pricing, but mainly by continued subsidies: from $88 billion globally in 2011, they rise to Water is growing in importance as a criterion for assessing the nearly $240 billion in 2035. Subsidy measures to support viability of energy projects, as population and economic growth new renewable energy projects need to be adjusted over intensify competition for water resources. In some regions, time as capacity increases and as the costs of renewable water constraints are already affecting the reliability of existing technologies fall, to avoid excessive burdens on operations and they will increasingly impose additional costs. governments and consumers. In some cases, they could threaten the viability of projects. The

vulnerability of the energy sector to water constraints is widely Despite progress in the past year, nearly 1.3 billion people spread geographically, affecting, among others, shale gas remain without access to electricity and 2.6 billion do not development and power generation in parts of China and the have access to clean cooking facilities. Ten countries four United States, the operation of India's highly water-intensive in developing Asia and six in sub-Saharan Africa account fleet of power plants, Canadian oil sands production and the for two-thirds of those people without electricity and just maintenance of oil-field pressures in Iraq. Managing the energy three countries India, China and Bangladesh account for sector's water vulnerabilities will require deployment of better more than half of those without clean cooking facilities. technology and greater integration of energy and water policies.While the Rio+20 Summit did not result in a binding commitment towards universal modern energy access by

Renewables take their place in the Sun…

Spanish households.Novatec Solar_30 MW Solar Thermal Power Station_PE 2_Spain

Novatec Solar was the EPC contractor for the project and was responsible for the construction and commissioning of The 30 MW solar thermal power station built by Novatec PE2. The Spanish UTE Errado PE2, a TSK and OHL joint Solar GmbH (Karlsruhe, Germany) using its proprietary venture, built the balance of plant.solar field technology, has been completed and is in The project company Tubo Sol PE2, S.L. is owned by the operation. PE2's solar boiler includes a mirror surface of Swiss utilities Elektra Baselland (51%), Industrielle Werke 302,000qm making it the world's largest operational solar Basel (12%), Elektrizitätswerke der Stadt Zürich (10%), thermal power station based on linear Fresnel collector Elektrizitätswerke des Kantons Zürich (6%), Energie technology, Novatec Solar emphasizes.Wasser Bern (6%) and Novatec Solar (15%). The PE2 solar boiler consists of 28 rows of linear Fresnel

reflectors, each approximately 950 meters long. The PE2 will operate under the Spanish feed-in mirrors, which are installed approximately one meter tariff systemabove ground, reflect the sunlight onto a receiver located eight meters above the ground. Sunlight heats up the water A consortium of Bayerische Landesbank, Commerzbank in the receiver and turns it to steam, which powers two 15 and Rabobank arranged PE2's limited recourse project MW turbine generator units. The plant is connected to the finance debt funding in May 2011 which included export Spanish electricity grid. Air-cooled condensers are used to credit insurance provided by Euler Hermes.re-circulate water back to the solar boiler in order to The plant is registered under the “Special Regime” conserve valuable water in this arid region. Mirror cleaning established by the Spanish Royal Decree RD 661/2007 and is performed by automated cleaning robots that use very will operate under the Spanish feed-in tariff system.little water. “The successful commissioning of PE2 is a major Clean energy for 12,000 Spanish households milestone for Novatec Solar,” says Guido Belgiorno-Nettis

AM, Chairman of the Shareholders Committee of Novatec PE2's 30 MW electrical output is generated exclusively by Solar. “It confirms the reliability, competitiveness and solar power and will produce approximately 50 million kW scalability of our Fresnel technology. In partnership with hours of electricity per year. Annually, this equates to a ABB, we look forward to continuing to introduce our solar reduction of carbon dioxide emissions of over 16,000 boiler technology into our target markets.”metric tonnes and enough clean energy to power 12,000

Concentrating Solar Power: World's largest linear fresnel solar thermal power station commences operation in Spain

41

40

Nisha Singh Joint Secretary, Ministry of Urban Development, The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is emphasized the need for the concerned Ministries to work in implementing a Scheme on 'Development of Solar Cities' coordination with each other. which provides support for 60 cities to develop as Solar

Cities in the country. The Ministry has given sanctions for About 150 persons actively participated in the one day event 41 cities for developing as Solar Cities. Gandhinagar, including the representatives of Municipal Corporations, Nagpur, Chandigarh and Mysore are being developed as Developers, Financial Model Solar Cities. The Ministry has approved the Master I n s t i t u t i o n s , Plants for the 28 Cities and the project installations have International Agencies, already started in few cities. M a n u f a c t u r e s , Investors, Technology In pursuance of the programme, a one day 'National Meet Providers and State on Solar Cities' was inaugurated by Shri. Gireesh B. Nodal Agencies, banks Pradhan, Secretary, Ministry of New and Renewable etc. The aim of this meet Energy on 22nd November 2012, at India International was to discuss the “Ways Forward” after Master Plan for Centre, New Delhi. The Secretary asked the Municipal execution of renewable energy/energy efficiency related Corporations to enhance the use of renewable energy in projects in respective solar cities. The Municipal their area and save the fossil fuel based energy. They can Commissioners of Thane, My sore and Shimla actively amend the building bye-laws suitably to promote the solar participated in the event.water heaters, solar SPV rooftop systems, kitchen waste

based plants in the various establishments of the city. Smt.

MNRE Sanctions Funds to 41 Cities Under “Development Of Solar Cities” Programme

According to World Energy Outlook 2012, a steady 2030, the UN Year of Sustainable Energy for All has generated increase in hydropower and the rapid expansion of wind welcome new commitments towards this goal. But much more and solar power has cemented the position of renewables is required. In the absence of further action, nearly one billion as an indispensable part of the global energy mix; by 2035, people will be without electricity and 2.6 billion people will still renewables account for almost one-third of total electricity be without clean cooking facilities in 2030. Nearly $1 trillion in output. Solar grows more rapidly than any other renewable cumulative investment is needed to achieve universal energy technology. access by 2030.

Renewables become the world's second-largest source of Water needs for energy production are set to grow at twice the power generation by 2015 (roughly half that of coal) and, rate of energy demand. Water is essential to energy production: by 2035, they approach coal as the primary source of global in power generation; in the extraction, transport and processing electricity. Consumption of biomass (for power of oil, gas and coal; and, increasingly, in irrigation for crops generation) and biofuels grows four-fold, with increasing used to produce biofuels. We estimate that water withdrawals volumes being traded internationally. Global bioenergy for energy production in 2010 were 583 billion cubic metres resources are more than sufficient to meet our projected (bcm). Of that, water consumption the volume withdrawn but biofuels and biomass supply without competing with food not returned to its source was 66 bcm. The projected rise in production, although the land use implications have to be water consumption of 85% over the period to 2035 reflects a managed carefully. The rapid increase in renewable energy move towards more water-intensive power generation and is underpinned by falling technology costs, rising fossil- expanding output of biofuels.fuel prices and carbon pricing, but mainly by continued subsidies: from $88 billion globally in 2011, they rise to Water is growing in importance as a criterion for assessing the nearly $240 billion in 2035. Subsidy measures to support viability of energy projects, as population and economic growth new renewable energy projects need to be adjusted over intensify competition for water resources. In some regions, time as capacity increases and as the costs of renewable water constraints are already affecting the reliability of existing technologies fall, to avoid excessive burdens on operations and they will increasingly impose additional costs. governments and consumers. In some cases, they could threaten the viability of projects. The

vulnerability of the energy sector to water constraints is widely Despite progress in the past year, nearly 1.3 billion people spread geographically, affecting, among others, shale gas remain without access to electricity and 2.6 billion do not development and power generation in parts of China and the have access to clean cooking facilities. Ten countries four United States, the operation of India's highly water-intensive in developing Asia and six in sub-Saharan Africa account fleet of power plants, Canadian oil sands production and the for two-thirds of those people without electricity and just maintenance of oil-field pressures in Iraq. Managing the energy three countries India, China and Bangladesh account for sector's water vulnerabilities will require deployment of better more than half of those without clean cooking facilities. technology and greater integration of energy and water policies.While the Rio+20 Summit did not result in a binding commitment towards universal modern energy access by

Renewables take their place in the Sun…

Spanish households.Novatec Solar_30 MW Solar Thermal Power Station_PE 2_Spain

Novatec Solar was the EPC contractor for the project and was responsible for the construction and commissioning of The 30 MW solar thermal power station built by Novatec PE2. The Spanish UTE Errado PE2, a TSK and OHL joint Solar GmbH (Karlsruhe, Germany) using its proprietary venture, built the balance of plant.solar field technology, has been completed and is in The project company Tubo Sol PE2, S.L. is owned by the operation. PE2's solar boiler includes a mirror surface of Swiss utilities Elektra Baselland (51%), Industrielle Werke 302,000qm making it the world's largest operational solar Basel (12%), Elektrizitätswerke der Stadt Zürich (10%), thermal power station based on linear Fresnel collector Elektrizitätswerke des Kantons Zürich (6%), Energie technology, Novatec Solar emphasizes.Wasser Bern (6%) and Novatec Solar (15%). The PE2 solar boiler consists of 28 rows of linear Fresnel

reflectors, each approximately 950 meters long. The PE2 will operate under the Spanish feed-in mirrors, which are installed approximately one meter tariff systemabove ground, reflect the sunlight onto a receiver located eight meters above the ground. Sunlight heats up the water A consortium of Bayerische Landesbank, Commerzbank in the receiver and turns it to steam, which powers two 15 and Rabobank arranged PE2's limited recourse project MW turbine generator units. The plant is connected to the finance debt funding in May 2011 which included export Spanish electricity grid. Air-cooled condensers are used to credit insurance provided by Euler Hermes.re-circulate water back to the solar boiler in order to The plant is registered under the “Special Regime” conserve valuable water in this arid region. Mirror cleaning established by the Spanish Royal Decree RD 661/2007 and is performed by automated cleaning robots that use very will operate under the Spanish feed-in tariff system.little water. “The successful commissioning of PE2 is a major Clean energy for 12,000 Spanish households milestone for Novatec Solar,” says Guido Belgiorno-Nettis

AM, Chairman of the Shareholders Committee of Novatec PE2's 30 MW electrical output is generated exclusively by Solar. “It confirms the reliability, competitiveness and solar power and will produce approximately 50 million kW scalability of our Fresnel technology. In partnership with hours of electricity per year. Annually, this equates to a ABB, we look forward to continuing to introduce our solar reduction of carbon dioxide emissions of over 16,000 boiler technology into our target markets.”metric tonnes and enough clean energy to power 12,000

Concentrating Solar Power: World's largest linear fresnel solar thermal power station commences operation in Spain

41

“It's a new way to make steam without boiling water,” says Naomi Halas, director of the Laboratory for Nanophotonics at Rice University. Halas says that the work “opens up a lot of interesting doors in terms of what you can use steam for.”

The new technique could, for instance, lead to i n e x p e n s i v e s t e a m -generation devices for s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r purification, sterilization of medical instruments, and sewage t r ea tmen t in developing countries with limited resources and infrastructure.

The use of nanoparticles to increase heat transfer in water and other fluids has been well studied, but few researchers have looked at using the particles to absorb light and generate steam.

In the current study, Halas and colleagues used nanoparticles optimized to absorb the widest possible spectrum of sunlight. When light hits the particles, their temperature quickly rises to well above 100 °C, the boiling point of water, causing surrounding water molecules to vaporize.

Precisely how the particles and water molecules interact Steam is a vital part of many different industrial processes, remains somewhat of a mystery. Conventional heat-transfer including solar thermal power generation. Steam is a key models suggest that the absorbed sunlight should dissipate into ingredient in a wide range of industrial and commercial the surrounding fluid before causing any water to boil. “There processesincluding electricity generation, water seems to be some nanoscale thermal barrier, because it's clearly purification, alcohol distillation, and medical equipment making steam like crazy,” Halas says.sterilization.

The system devised by Halas and colleagues exhibited an Generating that steam, however, typically requires vast efficiency of 24% in converting sunlight to steam.amounts of energy to heat and eventually boil water or another fluid. Now researchers at Rice University have Todd Otanicar, a mechanical engineer at the University of Tulsa found a shortcut. Using light-absorbing nanoparticles who was not involved in the current study, says the findings suspended in water, the group was able to turn the water could have significant implications for large-scale solar thermal molecules surrounding the nanoparticles into steam while energy generation. Solar thermal power stations typically use scarcely raising the temperature of the remaining water. concentrated sunlight to heat a fluid such as oil, which is then The trick could dramatically reduce the cost of many used to heat water to generate steam. Otanicar estimates that by steam-reliant processes. generating steam directly with nanoparticles

in water, such a system could see an increased efficiency of 3 to The Rice team used a Fresnel lens to focus sunlight on a 5% and a cost savings of 10% because a less complex design small tube of water containing high concentrations of could be used.nanoparticles suspended in the fluid. The water, which had been cooled to near freezing, began generating steam Otanicar cautions that durabilitythe ability of nanoparticles to within five to 20 seconds, depending on the type of repeatedly absorb sunlight and generate steamstill has to be nanoparticles used. Changes in temperature, pressure, and proved, but adds that the 24% efficiency achieved in the current mass revealed that 82% of the sunlight absorbed by the study is encouraging. “It's just the beginning for optimizing this nanoparticles went directly to generating steam while only approach,” he says.18 % went to heating water.

“A new trick could reduce the energy needed for many industrial processes and make solar thermal energy much cheaper. Why and How It Matters?”

Rice University's Neumann (left) and Halas pose next to a t e s t r i g t h a t d i r e c t s s u n l i g h t o n t oan aqueous nanoparticle suspension (in glass portion of a p p a r a t u s ) a n d r a p i d l y g e n e r a t e s steam without boiling the water. Credit: Jeff Fitlow/Rice University

NEW TECHNOLOGY:Nanoparticles Make Steam without Bringing Water to a Boil

or are hazardous to storage tanks. For an example, the most Panneer Selvam, center, Micah Hale, left, and Matt efficient and least expensive method of packed rock use as Strasser display the thermocline energy storage test system media leads to thermal ratcheting an event where stress during outside the Engineering Research Center in south the thermal cycling where expansion and contraction causes the Fayetteville.

tank walls to break.

Selvam and doctoral student Matt Strasser c a m e u p w i t h a solution by designing a s t r u c t u r e d thermocline system that uses parallel concrete plates instead of packed rock inside a single storage tank. Thermocline systems are units with distinct boundaries separating l a y e r s t h a t h a v e d i f f e r e n t temperatures.

The plates were made from a special mixture of concrete developed b y M i c a h H a l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Arkansas associate professor of civil eng inee r ing . The mixture has survived

temperatures of up to 600°C (1,112°F). The storage process takes heat, collected in solar panels, and then transfers the heat through steel pipes into the concrete, which absorbs the heat and stores it until it can be transferred to a generator.

Engineering researchers at the University of Arkansas Modeling results showed the concrete plates conducted heat came up with a thermal energy storage system that with an efficiency of 93.9%, which is higher than the performs as a viable alternative to other currently available Department of Energy's goal and only slightly less than the methods used to store energy collected from solar panels. efficiency of the packed-bed method. Tests also confirmed that Use of the newly developed design could increase annual the concrete layers conducted heat without causing damage to energy production while significantly decreasing materials used for storage.production costs of concentrated solar power plants, while ensuring longer operation without disastrous breakdowns. In addition, energy storage using the concrete method cost only

$0.78 per kilowatt-hour, far below the Department of Energy's “The most efficient, conventional method of storing goal of achieving thermal energy storage at a cost of $15 per energy from solar collectors satisfies the U.S. Department kilowatt-hour.of Energy's goal for system efficiency”, said Panneer Selvam, professor of civil engineering. “But there are “Our work demonstrates that concrete is comparable to the problems associated with this method. Filler material used packed-bed thermocline system in terms of energy efficiency”, in the conventional method stresses and degrades the walls said Selvam, who also directs the university's Computational of storage tanks. This creates inefficiencies that aren't Mechanics Laboratory. “But the real benefit of the concrete calculated and, more importantly, could lead to layers is that they do not cost a lot to produce compared to other catastrophic rupture of a tank.” media, and they have the unique ability to conduct and store

heat without damaging tanks. This factor alone will increase Current energy storage methods rely on molten salts, oils production and decrease operating expenses for concentrated or beds of packed rock as media to conduct and maintain solar power plants.”heat inside thermal energy storage tanks. Although these methods are found to be efficient, they are either expensive

Panneer Selvam, center, Micah Hale, left, and Matt S t r a s s e r d i s p l a y t h e t h e r m o c l i n eenergy storage test system outside the Engineering R e s e a r c h C e n t e r i n s o u t h F a y e t t e v i l l e .

Improving thermal energy storage tanks with a concrete layer

42 43

“It's a new way to make steam without boiling water,” says Naomi Halas, director of the Laboratory for Nanophotonics at Rice University. Halas says that the work “opens up a lot of interesting doors in terms of what you can use steam for.”

The new technique could, for instance, lead to i n e x p e n s i v e s t e a m -generation devices for s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r purification, sterilization of medical instruments, and sewage t r ea tmen t in developing countries with limited resources and infrastructure.

The use of nanoparticles to increase heat transfer in water and other fluids has been well studied, but few researchers have looked at using the particles to absorb light and generate steam.

In the current study, Halas and colleagues used nanoparticles optimized to absorb the widest possible spectrum of sunlight. When light hits the particles, their temperature quickly rises to well above 100 °C, the boiling point of water, causing surrounding water molecules to vaporize.

Precisely how the particles and water molecules interact Steam is a vital part of many different industrial processes, remains somewhat of a mystery. Conventional heat-transfer including solar thermal power generation. Steam is a key models suggest that the absorbed sunlight should dissipate into ingredient in a wide range of industrial and commercial the surrounding fluid before causing any water to boil. “There processesincluding electricity generation, water seems to be some nanoscale thermal barrier, because it's clearly purification, alcohol distillation, and medical equipment making steam like crazy,” Halas says.sterilization.

The system devised by Halas and colleagues exhibited an Generating that steam, however, typically requires vast efficiency of 24% in converting sunlight to steam.amounts of energy to heat and eventually boil water or another fluid. Now researchers at Rice University have Todd Otanicar, a mechanical engineer at the University of Tulsa found a shortcut. Using light-absorbing nanoparticles who was not involved in the current study, says the findings suspended in water, the group was able to turn the water could have significant implications for large-scale solar thermal molecules surrounding the nanoparticles into steam while energy generation. Solar thermal power stations typically use scarcely raising the temperature of the remaining water. concentrated sunlight to heat a fluid such as oil, which is then The trick could dramatically reduce the cost of many used to heat water to generate steam. Otanicar estimates that by steam-reliant processes. generating steam directly with nanoparticles

in water, such a system could see an increased efficiency of 3 to The Rice team used a Fresnel lens to focus sunlight on a 5% and a cost savings of 10% because a less complex design small tube of water containing high concentrations of could be used.nanoparticles suspended in the fluid. The water, which had been cooled to near freezing, began generating steam Otanicar cautions that durabilitythe ability of nanoparticles to within five to 20 seconds, depending on the type of repeatedly absorb sunlight and generate steamstill has to be nanoparticles used. Changes in temperature, pressure, and proved, but adds that the 24% efficiency achieved in the current mass revealed that 82% of the sunlight absorbed by the study is encouraging. “It's just the beginning for optimizing this nanoparticles went directly to generating steam while only approach,” he says.18 % went to heating water.

“A new trick could reduce the energy needed for many industrial processes and make solar thermal energy much cheaper. Why and How It Matters?”

Rice University's Neumann (left) and Halas pose next to a t e s t r i g t h a t d i r e c t s s u n l i g h t o n t oan aqueous nanoparticle suspension (in glass portion of a p p a r a t u s ) a n d r a p i d l y g e n e r a t e s steam without boiling the water. Credit: Jeff Fitlow/Rice University

NEW TECHNOLOGY:Nanoparticles Make Steam without Bringing Water to a Boil

or are hazardous to storage tanks. For an example, the most Panneer Selvam, center, Micah Hale, left, and Matt efficient and least expensive method of packed rock use as Strasser display the thermocline energy storage test system media leads to thermal ratcheting an event where stress during outside the Engineering Research Center in south the thermal cycling where expansion and contraction causes the Fayetteville.

tank walls to break.

Selvam and doctoral student Matt Strasser c a m e u p w i t h a solution by designing a s t r u c t u r e d thermocline system that uses parallel concrete plates instead of packed rock inside a single storage tank. Thermocline systems are units with distinct boundaries separating l a y e r s t h a t h a v e d i f f e r e n t temperatures.

The plates were made from a special mixture of concrete developed b y M i c a h H a l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Arkansas associate professor of civil eng inee r ing . The mixture has survived

temperatures of up to 600°C (1,112°F). The storage process takes heat, collected in solar panels, and then transfers the heat through steel pipes into the concrete, which absorbs the heat and stores it until it can be transferred to a generator.

Engineering researchers at the University of Arkansas Modeling results showed the concrete plates conducted heat came up with a thermal energy storage system that with an efficiency of 93.9%, which is higher than the performs as a viable alternative to other currently available Department of Energy's goal and only slightly less than the methods used to store energy collected from solar panels. efficiency of the packed-bed method. Tests also confirmed that Use of the newly developed design could increase annual the concrete layers conducted heat without causing damage to energy production while significantly decreasing materials used for storage.production costs of concentrated solar power plants, while ensuring longer operation without disastrous breakdowns. In addition, energy storage using the concrete method cost only

$0.78 per kilowatt-hour, far below the Department of Energy's “The most efficient, conventional method of storing goal of achieving thermal energy storage at a cost of $15 per energy from solar collectors satisfies the U.S. Department kilowatt-hour.of Energy's goal for system efficiency”, said Panneer Selvam, professor of civil engineering. “But there are “Our work demonstrates that concrete is comparable to the problems associated with this method. Filler material used packed-bed thermocline system in terms of energy efficiency”, in the conventional method stresses and degrades the walls said Selvam, who also directs the university's Computational of storage tanks. This creates inefficiencies that aren't Mechanics Laboratory. “But the real benefit of the concrete calculated and, more importantly, could lead to layers is that they do not cost a lot to produce compared to other catastrophic rupture of a tank.” media, and they have the unique ability to conduct and store

heat without damaging tanks. This factor alone will increase Current energy storage methods rely on molten salts, oils production and decrease operating expenses for concentrated or beds of packed rock as media to conduct and maintain solar power plants.”heat inside thermal energy storage tanks. Although these methods are found to be efficient, they are either expensive

Panneer Selvam, center, Micah Hale, left, and Matt S t r a s s e r d i s p l a y t h e t h e r m o c l i n eenergy storage test system outside the Engineering R e s e a r c h C e n t e r i n s o u t h F a y e t t e v i l l e .

Improving thermal energy storage tanks with a concrete layer

42 43

45

constrain their physical structure, the resulting molecules gain The idea of reversibly storing solar energy in chemical new properties that aren't available in the separate materials. bonds is gaining a lot of attention these days. A group of Thermo-chemical storage of solar energy uses a molecule researchers from MIT have developed a novel application whose structure changes when exposed to sunlight, and can of carbon nanotubes which shows potential as an effective remain stable in that form indefinitely. Activated by a stimulus approach to store solar energy for use whenever it's needed. (such as a small temperature change or a flash of light), it can quickly release its stored energy in a burst of heat.

The key of controlling solar thermal storage is an energy barrier separating the two stable states the molecule can adopt. If the barrier was too low, the molecule would easily return to its “uncharged” state, failing to store energy for long periods. On the other hand, if the barrier was too high, the molecule would not be able to easily release its energy when needed.

While their findings show the energy-storage capability of a specific type of molecule, the researchers claim the way the material was designed involves a general concept that can be applied to many new materials. Many of these have already been synthesized by other researchers for different

The method simplifies the process by combining energy applications, and would simply need to have their properties harvesting and storage into a single step. fine-tuned for solar thermal storage.

Previously, the chemicals used to achieve this type of One of the great advantages of this approach in harnessing solar

energy is the fact that the material is capable to both converts conversion and storage either degraded within a few and stores energy. It's robust, it doesn't degrade, and it is cheaper cycles, or included the element ruthenium, which is rare than the ruthenium-containing compound, but it also is more and expensive. Jeffrey Grossman, the Carl Richard 10,000 efficient at storing energy in a given amount of space.Soderberg Associate Professor of Power Engineering at Solar Tunnel' To Power 4,000 Trains Annually.MIT, and postdoc Alexie Kolpak have created a new

material which is a combination of carbon nanotubes and a compound called azobenzene.

Produced by using nanoscale templates to shape and

Storing solar energy indefinitely now possible thanks to carbon nanotubes

The 3.6-kilometer (2.2-mile) tunnel, built to protect trains The trains tap into the solar energy as they pass through the from falling trees as they pass through an ancient forest tunnel at 186 mph. The electricity also provides power for near Antwerp, is covered with solar cells and could lighting, signals and other infrastructure.generate 3.3 MWh of electricity annually. Enfinity, the company behind the project, says that's equivalent to the “By using electricity generated on-site, we eliminate energy average annual consumption of nearly 1,000 homes. It also losses and transport costs,” says Enfinity chief executive claims that the tunnel will decrease CO2 emissions by Steven De Tollenaere. Enfinity has said there had been plans 2,400 tons per year. afoot to introduce similar solar infrastructure in the UK but

recent cuts to financial incentives would make the projects “For train operators, it is the perfect way to cut their carbon “unviable.” “Apparently the UK Government is more footprints because you can use spaces that have no other concerned about the Treasury than the mid and long-term economic value and the projects can be delivered within a carbon reduction objectives that we have,” van Renerghem year because they don't attract the protests that wind power said. “Personally, I think it is short-sighted.”does,” Bart Van Renterghem, the UK head of Enfinity, told the Guardian. Energy minister Greg Barker MP said in response: “We want to

create a long-term platform for growth. Now that does mean The $22.9 million project uses 16,000 solar panels that, in the short term, large-scale schemes aren't going to get covering 50,000 square meters (roughly 538,000 square the sort of funding that we see in Belgium currently. There are a feet), which is about the size of eight football pitches. They lot of exciting things in solar but we have got to think it through will provide enough electricity to power 4,000 trains a so that we get good value for the bill-payers as well as a great year. The first of those trains left Antwerp on Monday, deal for the solar pioneers.”filled with commuters and students.

Europe's first “solar tunnel” is providing power to high-speed trains running between Paris and Amsterdam…

"Our vision is to make India's economic development energy-efficient. Over a period of time, we must pioneer a graduated shift from economic activity based on fossil fuels to one based on non-fossil fuels and from reliance on no-renewable and depleting sources of energy to renewable source of energy. In this strategy, the sun occupies centre-stage, as it should, being literally the original source of all energy. We will pool our scientific, technical and managerial talents, with sufficient financial resources, to develop solar energy as a source of abundant energy to power our economy and to transform the lives of our people. Our Success in this endeavor will change the face of India. It would also enable India to help change the destinies of people around the world."

Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India National Action Plan on Climate Change

44

45

constrain their physical structure, the resulting molecules gain The idea of reversibly storing solar energy in chemical new properties that aren't available in the separate materials. bonds is gaining a lot of attention these days. A group of Thermo-chemical storage of solar energy uses a molecule researchers from MIT have developed a novel application whose structure changes when exposed to sunlight, and can of carbon nanotubes which shows potential as an effective remain stable in that form indefinitely. Activated by a stimulus approach to store solar energy for use whenever it's needed. (such as a small temperature change or a flash of light), it can quickly release its stored energy in a burst of heat.

The key of controlling solar thermal storage is an energy barrier separating the two stable states the molecule can adopt. If the barrier was too low, the molecule would easily return to its “uncharged” state, failing to store energy for long periods. On the other hand, if the barrier was too high, the molecule would not be able to easily release its energy when needed.

While their findings show the energy-storage capability of a specific type of molecule, the researchers claim the way the material was designed involves a general concept that can be applied to many new materials. Many of these have already been synthesized by other researchers for different

The method simplifies the process by combining energy applications, and would simply need to have their properties harvesting and storage into a single step. fine-tuned for solar thermal storage.

Previously, the chemicals used to achieve this type of One of the great advantages of this approach in harnessing solar

energy is the fact that the material is capable to both converts conversion and storage either degraded within a few and stores energy. It's robust, it doesn't degrade, and it is cheaper cycles, or included the element ruthenium, which is rare than the ruthenium-containing compound, but it also is more and expensive. Jeffrey Grossman, the Carl Richard 10,000 efficient at storing energy in a given amount of space.Soderberg Associate Professor of Power Engineering at Solar Tunnel' To Power 4,000 Trains Annually.MIT, and postdoc Alexie Kolpak have created a new

material which is a combination of carbon nanotubes and a compound called azobenzene.

Produced by using nanoscale templates to shape and

Storing solar energy indefinitely now possible thanks to carbon nanotubes

The 3.6-kilometer (2.2-mile) tunnel, built to protect trains The trains tap into the solar energy as they pass through the from falling trees as they pass through an ancient forest tunnel at 186 mph. The electricity also provides power for near Antwerp, is covered with solar cells and could lighting, signals and other infrastructure.generate 3.3 MWh of electricity annually. Enfinity, the company behind the project, says that's equivalent to the “By using electricity generated on-site, we eliminate energy average annual consumption of nearly 1,000 homes. It also losses and transport costs,” says Enfinity chief executive claims that the tunnel will decrease CO2 emissions by Steven De Tollenaere. Enfinity has said there had been plans 2,400 tons per year. afoot to introduce similar solar infrastructure in the UK but

recent cuts to financial incentives would make the projects “For train operators, it is the perfect way to cut their carbon “unviable.” “Apparently the UK Government is more footprints because you can use spaces that have no other concerned about the Treasury than the mid and long-term economic value and the projects can be delivered within a carbon reduction objectives that we have,” van Renerghem year because they don't attract the protests that wind power said. “Personally, I think it is short-sighted.”does,” Bart Van Renterghem, the UK head of Enfinity, told the Guardian. Energy minister Greg Barker MP said in response: “We want to

create a long-term platform for growth. Now that does mean The $22.9 million project uses 16,000 solar panels that, in the short term, large-scale schemes aren't going to get covering 50,000 square meters (roughly 538,000 square the sort of funding that we see in Belgium currently. There are a feet), which is about the size of eight football pitches. They lot of exciting things in solar but we have got to think it through will provide enough electricity to power 4,000 trains a so that we get good value for the bill-payers as well as a great year. The first of those trains left Antwerp on Monday, deal for the solar pioneers.”filled with commuters and students.

Europe's first “solar tunnel” is providing power to high-speed trains running between Paris and Amsterdam…

"Our vision is to make India's economic development energy-efficient. Over a period of time, we must pioneer a graduated shift from economic activity based on fossil fuels to one based on non-fossil fuels and from reliance on no-renewable and depleting sources of energy to renewable source of energy. In this strategy, the sun occupies centre-stage, as it should, being literally the original source of all energy. We will pool our scientific, technical and managerial talents, with sufficient financial resources, to develop solar energy as a source of abundant energy to power our economy and to transform the lives of our people. Our Success in this endeavor will change the face of India. It would also enable India to help change the destinies of people around the world."

Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India National Action Plan on Climate Change

44

including funding, to support the 100,000 homes is being The Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia looked at.(Seda Malaysia) has opened up since September 24, 2012, 8

MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) feed-in tariff (FiT) quota for Get a service providerresidential homeowners under its new 2,000 Solar Home

Rooftop Programme.Applicants are advised to engage a solar PV service provider

Applications for the FiT have started at 8am on for technical and financial details required for their September 24th 2012 submissions, says Badriyah. The directory of service

providers was made available on Seda Malaysia's website from September 18th.Of the 8 MW, 2 MW will be for the fourth quarter of 2012

(estimated to cover 500 homes) and 6 MW is for 2013 (to “It must be individual home applications for private cover 1,500 homes). To encourage participation, applicants residential properties,” Fong says, adding that management under the programme need not show proof of financial committees of condominiums and apartments will not be ability.eligible for this homeowners' programme, and would need to

wait for allocation under different categories.

Seda Malaysia have also conducted briefings in Putrajaya (September 18th), Malacca (September 20th), and Penang (September 27th) to facilitate better unders tanding on the p r o c e d u r e s a n d requirements for e-FiT applications. “This is part of our public engagement to brief them on the procedures and requirements,” Fong says.

New degression rates for solar

The new FiT quotas (for biogas, biomass, mini hydro and solar PV for bigger and commercial installations) for the third quarter of 2012 and degression rates for

Seda Malaysia chairman Tan Sri Fong Chan Onn announced solar have been announced at the International Sustainable

the details of the programme at the authority's Eid Al-Fitri Energy Summit 2012 (ISES 2012) on November 7th and 8th.

open house on September 13th. In late July 2012, Fong Changes in subisidiary legislations affecting new applicants

announced that the government wants 2,000 homes to be were also be announced then.

equipped with solar PV by 2012, and another 10,000 by 2013, but he revised it downwards seven weeks later to 2,000 for

Funding is biggest obstacle to getting more to set up solar PV the next 15 months until end-2013.

on their roofs. The cost of installing a rooftop system is between RM10,000 and RM12,000 (around Indian Rupees

To ensure parity, applicants can only make an application a 2,16,000 or US $3922) per kW. Badriyah says most

day, and each application is allowed a maximum of 12 kW. To homeowners who are already enjoying the solar FiT self-

put this in context, a double-storey house rooftop can usually funded their installations. She says Seda Malaysia is still in

accommodate a 4 kW system (Note: 1 kW of PV installation talks with banks to encourage them to give out loans for PV

requires about 10 sq m of space).installations, and some like CIMB, Maybank, HSBC, Bank of China, Ambank and Bank Pembangunan Malaysia have

Seda chief executive officer Badriyah Abdul Malek says the shown interest.

2,000 homes programme is part of a more ambitious programme for 100,000 homes but the authority will kick off

(Courtesy: Green Prospects Asia.Com)with the 2,000 homes programme while the infrastructure,

Malaysia: 8 MW of solar PV FiT quota up for grabs Staff Writer

46

including funding, to support the 100,000 homes is being The Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia looked at.(Seda Malaysia) has opened up since September 24, 2012, 8

MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) feed-in tariff (FiT) quota for Get a service providerresidential homeowners under its new 2,000 Solar Home

Rooftop Programme.Applicants are advised to engage a solar PV service provider

Applications for the FiT have started at 8am on for technical and financial details required for their September 24th 2012 submissions, says Badriyah. The directory of service

providers was made available on Seda Malaysia's website from September 18th.Of the 8 MW, 2 MW will be for the fourth quarter of 2012

(estimated to cover 500 homes) and 6 MW is for 2013 (to “It must be individual home applications for private cover 1,500 homes). To encourage participation, applicants residential properties,” Fong says, adding that management under the programme need not show proof of financial committees of condominiums and apartments will not be ability.eligible for this homeowners' programme, and would need to

wait for allocation under different categories.

Seda Malaysia have also conducted briefings in Putrajaya (September 18th), Malacca (September 20th), and Penang (September 27th) to facilitate better unders tanding on the p r o c e d u r e s a n d requirements for e-FiT applications. “This is part of our public engagement to brief them on the procedures and requirements,” Fong says.

New degression rates for solar

The new FiT quotas (for biogas, biomass, mini hydro and solar PV for bigger and commercial installations) for the third quarter of 2012 and degression rates for

Seda Malaysia chairman Tan Sri Fong Chan Onn announced solar have been announced at the International Sustainable

the details of the programme at the authority's Eid Al-Fitri Energy Summit 2012 (ISES 2012) on November 7th and 8th.

open house on September 13th. In late July 2012, Fong Changes in subisidiary legislations affecting new applicants

announced that the government wants 2,000 homes to be were also be announced then.

equipped with solar PV by 2012, and another 10,000 by 2013, but he revised it downwards seven weeks later to 2,000 for

Funding is biggest obstacle to getting more to set up solar PV the next 15 months until end-2013.

on their roofs. The cost of installing a rooftop system is between RM10,000 and RM12,000 (around Indian Rupees

To ensure parity, applicants can only make an application a 2,16,000 or US $3922) per kW. Badriyah says most

day, and each application is allowed a maximum of 12 kW. To homeowners who are already enjoying the solar FiT self-

put this in context, a double-storey house rooftop can usually funded their installations. She says Seda Malaysia is still in

accommodate a 4 kW system (Note: 1 kW of PV installation talks with banks to encourage them to give out loans for PV

requires about 10 sq m of space).installations, and some like CIMB, Maybank, HSBC, Bank of China, Ambank and Bank Pembangunan Malaysia have

Seda chief executive officer Badriyah Abdul Malek says the shown interest.

2,000 homes programme is part of a more ambitious programme for 100,000 homes but the authority will kick off

(Courtesy: Green Prospects Asia.Com)with the 2,000 homes programme while the infrastructure,

Malaysia: 8 MW of solar PV FiT quota up for grabs Staff Writer

46