In Julee Christiansons essay Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong: Culture Rather Than Biology Explains the Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics, she uses both refutation and counter-argument in her rebuttal. She begins by summarizing Lawrence Summers speech and presenting her own counter-argument of socialization and discrimination being the reason behind the underrepresentation of woman in Math and Science fields. The author accepts the evidence supporting the role of biology in determining math ability, but believes that while the evidence is accurate it is missing the big picture. The evidence is explained as males and females have similar average scores on math tests but that there are more males than females in the top and bottom percentiles (Pinker, 2005). Christianson refutes this claim stating that This greater variance means that there are disproportionately more male than female math geniuses (and math dunces) and thus more male than female candidates for top math and science positions at major research universities (Pinker, 2005).Author Julee Christianson agrees that biology plays some role in determining math aptitude, but she refutes that the claim is this narrow. She offers a counter argument of socialization and discrimination, and supports her claim with evidence. Some evidence of Lawrence Summers research is backed by Steven Pinker. Pinker claims that innate differences in males and females such as hormones and different brain structures are the reason why there is an underrepresentation of women in math and science. One author claims that the evidence to support [summers] hypothesis turns out to be quite slim (Nature Neuroscience, 2005). She supports this claim with statistical evidence from editorial reports and sources relevant to ethics and gender. Author Deborah L. Rhode supports Julee Christiansons claim and offers some evidence such as the way gender roles are portrayed in childrens books, movies, toys, and music. Rhode argues that once women are socialized to see to see themselves as dependent and not as smart as males, it becomes difficult to break away from these gender stereotypes (Rhode, 1997). The author continues to support her claim of discrimination citing a study from 2006, which provides evidence supporting how parents unconsciously send gendered messages to their infants and toddlers. Further supporting her claim is transgendered neurobiologist Ben A. Barres, which has experienced discrimination as a woman in a male-dominated field. Barres offers personal experience as well as research showing that men and women do equally well in gender blind academic competitions (Barres, 2006).

References:Barres, B.A. (2006), Does Gender Matter? Nature 44(7), 133-136.Pinker, S. 2005, February). The Science of Difference: Sex ed. New Republic. Rhode D.L. (1997). Speaking of Sex: The denial of gender inequality. Cambridge MA: Harvard UP.Summers, L.H. (2005). Remarks at NBER Conference on diversifying the science and engineering workforce. The Office Of The President.