David's Course Notes

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CIVL4801 Senior Project I

COURSE NOTES PACKAGEFORFALL 2010

TABLEOF CONTENTSpg.

LIST OF FIGURES III

LIST OF TABLES IV

1.0 OUTLINE 1

5.0 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR PREPARING ENGINEERING

DOCUMENTS 12

6.0 COMPENDEX TUTORIAL 14

7.0 CITATION OF AUTHORITIES AND PREPARATION OF REFERENCE LISTS 15

DISCUSSIONS OF JOURNAL ARTICLES: 19

ON-LINE JOURNAL ARTICLES: 19

PHD OR MASC THESES: 19

PRIOR CIVL4802 REPORTS: 19

SOFTWARE: 20

COURSE NOTES: 20

8.0 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HISTORY OF DEGREES 22

9.0 MORPHOLOGIES OF DESIGN AND PROBLEM SOLVING 25

10.0 ORGANISATION OF REPORTS 30

11.0 EQUATIONS, TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FIGURES 3712.0WRITING STYLE FOR ENGINEERING DOCUMENTS 53

13.0 DEDUCTIONS FOR COMMON MISTAKES 60

15.0 USEFUL TECHNICAL WORDS FOR THE ENGINEER 73

INSTRUCTOR-OF-RECORD: DR. D. HANSEN, P.ENG. (494-3115),

[email protected] 78

OTHER: Cover pages for Proposal and Final Report, and the drafts thereof.

Form for Evaluating CIVL4802 Senior Projects.

Miscellaneous utility images (dimensioning arrows etc) as a BMP file.

(ii)


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[email protected], 494-3115

(iii)
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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LISTOF FIGURESpg.

FIGURE 9-1. COMPARISON OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND DESIGN METHOD

(AFTER DIETER 2000). 25

FIGURE 9-2. BASIC MODULE WITHIN DESIGN PROCESS (AFTER DIETER 2000).

27FIGURE 9-3. ITERATIVE MORPHOLOGIES OF DESIGN. 27

FIGURE 9-4. SINGLE ITERATION OF DESIGN MORPHOLOGY (AFTER DIETER

2000). 28

FIGURE 9-5. DESIGN PROCESS WHICH INCORPORATES ITS COMMUNICATION

(AFTER CROSS 1994). 28

FIGURE 9-6. DESIGN WHICH INCORPORATES HUMAN ELEMENTS (AFTER

CROSS 1994). 29

(iii)


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LISTOF TABLESpg.

TABLE 4-1. AREAS OF FACULTY EXPERTISE IN DEPT OF CIVIL & RESOURCE

ENGINEERING. 9

TABLE 11-2. DIVERGENCE, GRADIENT, CURL, AND VECTOR OPERATOR

NOTATION. 37

TABLE 11-3. BASIC ICONS IN FLOW-CHARTS, AND THEIR MEANING. 49

TABLE 11-4. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF WATER AS A FUNCTION OF WATER

TEMPERATURE. 50

TABLE 11-5. PROPERTIES OF WATER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE

(ZHANG* 1972). 50

TABLE 12-6. APPROPRIATE VOICE IN VARIOUS KINDS OF DOCUMENTS. 59

TABLE 14-7. COMMONLY-USED FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES, 66

(iv)


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Dalhousie University (Sexton Campus), Dept of Civil & Resource Engineering

CIVL4801 SENIORPROJECT I

FALL 2010

Instructor: Dr. D. Hansen, P.Eng. 494-3115 ([email protected]).TA: ?? (email: [email protected]).

Textbook: none, but all students are required to buy and use a log book (Lab Notes, blue hardcover, $5.95 + tax at Sexton Bookstore outlet). This is to be used for documenting attendanceat meetings, group decisions, and any notes taken during field trips.

NOTE: Each bulleted item below is a deliverable, due at 11:59 PM on the stated date.

1.0 OUTLINE

(i) Fundamental Principles of Format and Style for Engineering Documents.

Choose sub-discipline1 and find partners2. Submit both by email to TA by ???day Sept.??.

(ii) Citations of Authorities and Preparation of Reference Lists. CIVL4801/2 philosophy andstandards.

(iii) Using Compendex to Find Citations and Build your Lists of References.(Tutorial in B-316, tentatively ???day Sept. ??.)

Choose group leader and draft title of Senior Project II. Group leader to submit names andtitle, by email to the TA, by ???day October ??.

(iv) Morphologies of Design. DVD on Critical Thinking: Analyzing Problems & Decisions

(v) Organisation of Senior Project Reports. Tables of Contents to be used; section headingsand their content.

Hand in Literature Review section of proposal3. To be submitted ???day Nov. ??.

(vi) Equations and Graphs. CIVL4801/4802 standards and specifications.

(vii) Tables and Figures. CIVL4801/4802 standards and specifications.

(viii) Style. CIVL4801/4802 standards and specifications. Use of Foreign Phrases.

Pass in draft proposal to the dedicated CIVL4801~2 box on ???day Nov ??. Have 15 minutemeeting with Dr. Hansen the next day to identify deficiencies. (Use appointment sign-upsheet on the door of D-113 for ???day Dec.??).

1 Structural, hydrotechnical, geotechnical, environmental, transportation. Construction management can onlybe a partial choice/responsibility.

2 Preferably 4 students per group. The TA, under the guidance of Dr. Hansen, will match groups to projects

using a statement of student sub-discipline preferences, partner preferences (optional), and project preferences.

3 One such handed in per group, but with the sub-sections prepared individually and according to thepreviously-decided-upon sub-discipline responsibilities. An improved version appears in the final CIVL4801Senior Project Proposal. To pass it in, use the special Senior Project box near the entrance to the main office ofthe Dept of Civil & Resource Engineering.


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(ix) Explanation of use of log books, CIVL4802 monitoring system, and peer review system.Deductions for common errors; viewing of example Senior Projects. Details on how yourCIVL4802 project and presentation will be evaluated.

Pass in cerlox-bound final proposal on ???day Dec. ??. Use dedicated CIVL4801-2 SeniorProject box. As with all CIVL4801~2 deliverables, the evaluation will reflect what was

handed in on time.

Method of Evaluation:

CIVL4801 has a Pass or Fail outcome, the decision is based on the revised proposal.Note: CIVL4801 is a firm prerequisite for CIVL4802.

75% of the mark in CIVL4802 will be based on the technical calibre of your work, 25% will bebased on the format and style of your report. Deductions, such as those for failure-to-participate or lateness, will then be applied. With regard to technical calibre, it is possible forone person in the group to get a different letter grade if the sub-discipline for which they were

responsible represents too little work or work of low calibre.

[email protected]


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2.0 A CODE OF ETHICS4

Professional engineers shall conduct themselves in anhonourable and ethical manner. Professional engineers shalluphold the values of truth, honesty and trustworthiness. Theyshall seek to safeguard human life and welfare, and care for thenatural environment. In keeping with these basic tenets, theprofessional engineer shall:

1. Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the publicand the protection of the environment. He shall also promotehealth and safety within the workplace.

2. Only offer services in, advise on, or undertake engineeringassignments in his area(s) of competence. He shall onlyengage in the practice of engineering in a careful and diligent

manner.3. Act as a faithful agent of his clients or employers, maintain

confidentiality, and avoid conflicts of interest.

4. Keep himself informed in order to maintain his competence,strive to advance the body of knowledge within which hepractices, and seek to provide opportunities for theprofessional development of his subordinates.

5. Conduct himself with equity, fairness, courtesy, and goodfaith towards clients, colleagues and others, give credit whereit is due, and accept (as well as give) honest and fairprofessional criticism.

6. Present clearly to employers and clients the possibleconsequences of having his engineering decisions or

judgements overruled or disregarded.

7. Report to his association and/or other appropriate agenciesany illegal or unethical engineering decisions or practices byengineers or others.

8. Be aware of, and ensure that clients and employers are madeaware of, the societal and environmental consequences ofactions or projects. He shall seek to endeavour to interpretengineering issues to and for the public in an objective andtruthful manner.

4 see also Canadian Council of Professional Engineers web site.


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9. Treat equitably, and promote the equitable treatment of, allclients, colleagues and co-workers. This shall be doneregardless of race, religion, gender, age, physical or mentalability, marital status, or national origin.

Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, CIVL4801 Senior Project I

3.0 ISSUES OF INTERACTION5

3.1 Specific Issues

The following specific issues are relevant and important to the timely execution of yourprojects.

(i) You will have a regular weekly meeting in CIVL4802, with an assigned monitoring

professor, starting in January. Log books are to be kept starting in mid-November of

CIV4801, noting such things as the outcomes of group meetings. These books are to be

passed in at the end of CIVL4802, along with two copies of the final project report.

(ii) In terms of working with and getting advice from members of the faculty, you are free to

approach any professor for advice or input on any matter of technical import. The calibre

of your report will be judged by a committee of professors that may also include yourclients. Clients are often present at final presentations and often submit written

assessments.

(iii) It is up to the student(s) to determine what engineering codes and pseudo-codes are

relevant to a project. Although a professor(s) may not mention the specific need for a

given design to comply with a given code, this does not mean that the design does not

need to comply with the relevant code.

(iv) If you are having problems with member(s) of your group in group projects, notify Dr.

Hansen immediately. All the individuals in a given group do not necessarily get the same

mark. Reference will be made by the judging committee to the Division of Labour,

provided in the final Proposal and re-stated in your Final Report (and required as part of

the Appendix therein).

5 especially with Faculty and Staff.


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(xii) Every student must pass in their individual log book. It is your record of group meetings,

decisions at meetings, field trips, meetings with your client, key items of guidance

communicated to you in person or by telephone, and anything else of significance to the

flow of the project. These are to be passed in along with the actual final design project

reports. You will be allowed to have them back (if you pick them up).

(xiii) A CD of all your work (report Word doc of report itself, Excel sheets, computer programs,

extra photographs, AutoCAD drawings etc) is to be placed on the inside back cover of

each copy of your final report. One of these CDs will go to the client.

(xiv) If your project is going to involve the use of lab equipment and/or sample preparation

and/or sample testing, or if it is going to involve departmental equipment that will be used

in the field, and especially if your work will require the involvement of one of ourtechnologists (Blair Nickerson or Bryan Kennedy), explicitly show this in your time-line

or GANTT chart. Also point this out to Dr. Hansen and the appropriate technologist,

before the end of this semester. This will help our support staff to plan for your needs.

Becoming upset with a technician because he cannot help you on short notice will be

highly unproductive.

(xv) The TA will organise, publish, and post the timetable and classroom bookings for the

CIVL4802 Senior Project Presentations, usually held in H-19. She must have your final

and exact project title in good time. It is bad form if the published title does not match

your first Powerpoint slide!

(xvi) If you would like to see the present version of the form that will be used to evaluate your

final design and project report, this can be emailed to you (upon request). As shown on

this form, 75% is for Technical Calibre and 25% is for Format and Style. Students

correctly and thoroughly applying the material that they have been taught in 3000-level

courses can expect a grade of B on a given technical component. Students correctly and

thoroughly applying the material that is available6 in our 4000-level suite of courses can

expect a grade of A.

(xvii) Dress for your final presentation is business formal (shirt and tie7 for men, jacket

optional).

6 so choose your technical electives wisely!


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3.2 Examples of Project Troubles

Here are some examples of how students got into trouble with their Senior Projects.

(i) They waited too long to get quotes from suppliers and then found out that the nature of the

information that can be provided was both less than and different from what they needed.

This was due to supliers concerns about proprietary information being used by foreign

companies to reverse-engineer their products.

(ii) They asked (by email) for, but were not supplied with, certain topographic data from the

client, but the client was silent for three months. The project went nowhere for that time

period.

(iii) They collected good quality field data but then sat on it for four months. They thenfound out that they amount of work needed to make sense of the large amount of field

data was twice as much work as they had anticipated. (They also happened to have a poor

grasp of how to execute the proper engineering methods for analysing and using the data,

even though these had been taught in 3rd year).

(iv) Some of the constraints on the project were derived constraints. They were not part of

the terms of reference supplied by the client; they were found in engineering design

specifications (codes and pseudo-codes) that the students were not familiar with, and the

students took too long to find these constraints and make them specific to their problem.

3.3 Psychology of Procrastination.

Psychologists8tell us that some students procrastinate because of poor independent planning

skills. Such students benefit from frequent reminders from colleagues and more structure being

imposed by their professors. Others procrastinate as a type of adolescent opposition to

authority and actually procrastinate more when more frequently reminded to work. Some

students procrastinate due to overconfidence about being able to "pull it off" at the last minute.

Still others procrastinate because they are so anxious about doing the job well enough that they

cannot concentrate. Perhaps unfortunately, the Department of Civil and Resource Engineering

7 western or European standards for business attire should not be considered the only standard for CIVL4801/2;attire that is more appropriate to your own culture and country of origin is not only acceptable, it is mostwelcome!

8 Dalhousies Student Services has regular courses on time management, given by such professionals.


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is not particularly interested in the idiosyncrasies of your psychopathologies of procrastination;

the deadlines are the deadlines.

Fear is generally a poor basis for deciding to defer research, learn techniques, or delay

project-management decisions. Yet, students often seem to procrastinate with respect to

learning how something should be done because they are apparently afraid that it might give

rise to the need to learn something that is difficult or time-consuming. However, it is

obviously better to understand what is difficult and time-consuming about your project months

before your presentation and report deadlines, rather than weeks before these deadlines!

Advance appreciation of exactly where the true computational difficulties are, in a given

project, also gives one time to look for alternative methods of analysis, methods that may be

much simpler and less time-consuming! The extra effort and stress of trying to cope with

having only weeks to figure out what technical work is needed can very adversely affect all of

ones courses, not just CIVL4802.


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[email protected]


4.0 GROUPS AND INDIVIDUAL SUB-DISCIPLINES9

By 11:59 PM on ???day, Sept.??, 2010, email [email protected]:

(i) the names of the people in your group,

(ii) your own first choice sub-discipline and second-choice sub-discipline,

(iii) given the importance of email in CIVL4801~2, include ALL your email addressesafter each name, within your message (gmail, hotmail, etc).

Table 4-1. Areas of faculty expertise in Dept of Civil & Resource Engineering.

Sub-discipline (choice) Professor(s)

Construction Management No full-time professor, possibly PTF + N. Ali

Environmental G. Gagnon, M. Walsh

Geotechnical10 C. Lake, G. Fenton, D. Garagash, L. Liu

Hydrotechnical D. Hansen, M. Satish

Structural C. Barnes, D. Forgeron, Y. Liu, J. Newhook, F. Taheri, J.Thorburn

Transportation11 N. Ali

If you are in the Earth and Environmental Option, you are expected to take a sub-discipline that is environmentally-related.

It is obviously ill-advised to avoid the course(s) which give you the proper tools to analyse agiven problem. You will not be forgiven for such avoidance. For example, a structural design

problem may be so specialized that no standard code covers it. Custom application of the FEMmethod may therefore indicated. Your work will be judged as if you took the FEM course(CIVL4541), even if you did not. If an urban drainage design implies the need for non-trivialhydrology (beyond the rational method) and you apply trivial hydrology, you will not beforgiven for just using Q = C i A (CIVL4431 material is implied). You should therefore think

9 Deadline: ???day, Sept. ??, 2010. The sub-components of the work must be very clearly laid out in yourCIVL4801 proposal under Division of Labour.

10 including Geo-Environmental.

11 Mr. David McCusker, P.Eng., of HRM has helped to guide students in the past.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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very carefully about your choices of technical electives, in light of your choice of Senior Projecttopic.

CIVIL ENGINEERING

DESIGNAND MAINTENANCEOF PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTUREOF HUMAN CIVILISATION

Addresses Three Key Questions:

1. How can the needs of society for sound basic infrastructure be met?

2. What are the impacts of our natural environment on that infrastructure?

3. What are the impacts of the infrastructure of society, proposed or existing, on the

environment?

Six Major Sub-disciplines

1. Hydrotechnical and Water Resources Engineering assessment of adequacy of a water resource (for consumption or for industrial use, from

lakes, rivers, or groundwater);

development of a water resource (for domestic or agricultural or industrial use, from lakes,

rivers, or groundwater);

groundwater contaminant transport modelling;

prediction of floods; prevention/mitigation of flood damage (open channel and reservoir

design);

multi-objective water use allocation (recreation vs irrigation vs hydro vs human consumption

vs navigation);

hydraulic structures (hydroelectric dams, spillways, fish passageways, canals, coastaldefences, diffusers, culverts);

water distribution system design (potable water pipelines and watermain networks, water

pumping and storage systems);

wastewater collection (hydraulics of sanitary sewer networks, pumping station design);

storm water management and urban hydrology (design of new systems, evaluation of existing

networks of systems via hydrologic and hydraulic modelling).

2. Environmental Engineering

characterisation of water & wastewater (physical & organic aqueous chemistry, aquatic

microbiology);

water treatment unit operations (to make water potable: disinfection, pH adjustment,sedimentation, filtering);

wastewater treatment unit operations (screening, settling, aeration, stabilisation by bacteria,

anaerobic digestion, engineered wetlands);

water quality modelling (movement and fate of contaminants introduced by man into surface

and groundwaters);

solid waste management, environmental impact assessments.


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3. Construction Management

task scheduling and on-site management of equipment and personnel;

rehabilitation of deteriorated or damaged structures (sometimes while still in use: bridges);

inventory control (wood, concrete and its ingredients, reinforcing steel, structural steel);

selection, optimal use, and management of machinery.

4. Geotechnical Engineering

soil-structure interaction and design of foundations (soil bearing capacity and settlement

rates);

soil improvement (e.g. compaction);

pressures on retaining walls and tunnels (soil & rock mechanics);

seepage and the effects of subterranean waters on structures and embankments;

soil responses to earthquakes and other forces of nature;

slope stability analysis (embankment design, natural landslide prediction);

design and use of liners to contain landfill leachate, contaminant migration, site remediation

(geo-environmental engineering).

5. Structural Engineering

design and analysis of buildings, bridges, concrete dams, wharves, towers, and monuments;

assessing and/or enhancing the material properties (e.g. strength) and performance of wood,

concrete, steel, and composites used in structures;

computer simulation of the responses of structures to earthquakes, hurricanes, and snow

loads.

6. Transportation Engineering

traffic engineering (design and analysis of road networks, intersections, interchanges,

cloverleaves); pavement engineering (asphalt mix design, road construction & management, life cycle

management of roads);

transportation planning (design & operation of bus, subway, railway, airport systems &

infrastructure).

NOTE ON AWARDS

APENS Award for Best Senior Project in Civil Engineering Program: $100 per person12

Deptl 1st Prize: ~$75 per person13

2nd Prize: ~$50 per person14

The above are awarded once per year, in the spring. Co-op and non co-op Senior Projects aretherefore judged together.

12 up to a max of $500.13 up to a max of $300.14 up to a max of $200.


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The Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, the Canadian Geotechnical Society, the CanadianDam Association, the Atlantic Chapter of the American Water Works Association, and variousother learned organisations and societies have prizes and awards for undergraduate thesesand/or for conference papers that may be based on Senior Projects.

[email protected]


5.0 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR PREPARING ENGINEERING

DOCUMENTS

5.1 Accept Report Specifications of Employer

Virtually all companies and institutions have their own style, to be used by everyone in theorganisation. Some aspects of these specifications may seem arbitrary, and it may be somewhatirritating to have to follow them. As a junior engineer it is best to simply get used to them.

5.2 Promote

(i) clarity (i.e. good correspondence between intended meaning and readers comprehension)

(ii) efficiency (e.g. use the minimum number of words to express thoughts)

(iii) completeness, and logic in report structure & organisation(e.g. quality Table of Contents; good correspondence between form & function)

(iv) interest (e.g. engaging writing style; generous use of photos and figures)

(v) aesthetic acceptability (analogous to how one dresses for an interview)

(vi) consistency (e.g. no reason to randomly change report style within a given company or

academic unit, there is no reason to use a different citation style for every citation in a listof references)

5.3 Avoid

(i) ambiguity and impaired clarity

(i) redundancy and inefficiency

(ii) confusion and user-unfriendliness in report structure & layout

(iii) boredom (e.g. low information content, poor thought connectivity, many consecutivepages of pure text)

(iv) cognitive dissonance (e.g. untidiness, visual incongruities, aesthetic or tonal clashes)

(v) inconsistency(e.g. random changes in style and format, such as random font changes)

5.4 Other Issues

Legal and scientific and ethical issues:

(i) be honest with your use of raw data;


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(ii) cite authorities properly, giving credit where credit is due;

(iii) maintain professional integrity.

[email protected]


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6.0 COMPENDEX TUTORIAL15

Most engineering disciplines use an author-year system when citing a source or authority. If a

reference is not specifically cited in your report, it cannot be placed in the 'References' section.

Conversely, a reference that is listed in the 'References' section must be cited somewhere inyour proposal or report (CTRL F is useful for catching such inconsistencies).

Do not include bibliographies in CIVL4801/4802 proposals or final reports.

Shown below is the start of an example References section (it happens to show only journalarticles):

References

Ergun S. 1952. Fluid flow through packed columns. Chemical Eng. Progress, 48(2):89-94.

Garga V.K., Townsend R.D., and Hansen D. 1991. A method for determining the surface areaof quarried rocks. ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, 14(1):35-45.

McBean E.A. and Perkins F.E. 1975. Convergence schemes in water profile computation.ASCE Journal of the Hydraulics Division, 101(HY10):1380-138416

McCorquodale J.A., Hannoura A., and Nasser M.S. 1978. Hydraulic conductivity of rockfill.IAHR Journal of Hydraulic Research, 16(2):123-13717.

Task: Find some of the above articles in Compendex and convert them to the above format.

Suggestion: Use this tutorial to find articles of particular interest to your own CIVL4802project.

[email protected]

15 in C-300 or B-316.

16 Dalhousie subscribes to all the electronic versions of the journals of the American Civil Engineering Society,the Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, and the Canadian Geotechnical Journal. If you run WPA or VPNfrom your home computer, you will be able to download specific articles at home. Try downloading one ofinterest. Instructions for obtaining and installing WPA or VPN are available on the Dalhousie web site, andassistance is available at the Sexton Help Desk (494-3139), [email protected].

17 Some journals would show vol.16, no.2, p.123-137. This is becoming defunct, do not use it.


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7.0 CITATION OF AUTHORITIES AND PREPARATION OF REFERENCE LISTS

7.1 Preamble

The Civil Engineering program at DalTech uses the author-year system for citing a source orauthority, as is the case with most of the engineering disciplines. However, if you intend to

send your manuscript to a specific journal, check the requirements of the journal in question.Many journals make the specifications for their manuscript available via pdf files, which can bedownloaded from the web site for the journal in question.

If a reference is not specifically cited somewhere in your report, it cannot be placed in the'References' section. If you perused a reference and found it helpful, but do not cite it in yourreport, it might be put it in a 'Bibliography' section. However, a 'Bibliography' section is not tobe included in CIVL4801 or CIVL4802.

Your senior project, or that of prior student(s), is essentially an undergraduate honours thesisand must be treated as if it may be read and/or cited by any civil or environmental engineeranywhere in the world; that is, the community of engineers at large. Prior CIVL4802 Senior

Project reports can be cited, and yours must be considered to be a citable document.

However, citing or making passing reference to material that such engineers could notpossibly know anything about, or citation of printed materials that would be very difficult forsuch an engineer-at-large to obtain, should be avoided. It is also undesirable to make referenceto the course notes from one of your undergraduate courses. Students doing so will be requiredto replace such a citation and reference with one that is more available to, and more recognisedby, our intended audience and readership: the engineering community at large.

7.2 Examples

Here are some example sentences in which references are cited.

It has been demonstrated experimentally that no significant increase in friability occurs if the

strata is exposed to fewer than four freeze-thaw cycles (Edgemount 1982). This was first

observed by Gardiner (1986) and then by various other investigators using more sophisticated

laboratory equipment (Lau and Tardiff 1990; Kirchov et al. 1991).

Notice how it is sometimes desirable to put the authors name outside of the parenthesis.This highlights his contribution. The et al. shown above in italics because it is anabbreviation of a foreign phrase, the Latin phrase et alii, which means 'and others'.

The citation of authorities is done from various perspectives. Two common perspectives areillustrated by the following examples:

Kundaya et al. (2003) concluded that annual daily traffic, total rainfall, and the average

duration of the inter-event period accounted for 70% of the year-to-year variation in the mass of

sediment generated by 23 urban catchments.


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The person citing Kundaya et al. (2003) is nicely summarizing what Kundaya et al. foundout, the writer doing the citing is not interpreting their work. This is part-and-parcel of whatliterature reviews are about - covering the bases in terms of prior work done.

An increase in runoff also causes an increase in surface-borne pollutant loads, and it appears

that this increase is often due to land-use changes, especially if these changes decrease the

percentage of the watershed that is previous (Blinder 2001).

The person citing Blinder (2001) is doing so to lend support to a statement that he hasframed as a general truth by using the present tense. This is more than covering the bases,the writer is providing an interpretation - his own perspective on the work of Blinder.

Example of style (found within body of report) for making a direct quotation:

Kravitz (1982) has made the following interesting observation:

It has been demonstrated experimentally that no significant increase in friability occurs ifthe strata is exposed to three or fewer freeze-thaw cycles. This was first observed by

Gardiner (1986) and then by various other investigators using more sophisticatedlaboratory equipment (Lau and Tardiff 1990; Kirchov et al. 1991).

Note: the quote is within double-quotation marks and uses single line spacing, whereas the rest of thereport would be done using 1.5 line spacing. In addition, the direct quotation is set off by itself.

Example sentences (found in the body of a report) for citing a design code or

government standard:

The pre-design described herein was also subject to the Design Guidelines of the Public Works

& Transportation Services (DG-PWTS hereafter) of the Halifax Regional Municipality (2004).

Later in the same report one might read:

As per Section 3.6.6 of DG-PWTS (HRM 2004), manholes were located at a separation of not

greater than 120 m for all sewer pipes with diameters less than 600 mm.

Note that the author-year system is maintained. The name of a manual is not an author.

Exception in citing references: example of style used for citing personal

communication in body of reports (pers. comm. must be added):

As defined by eqn [13b], the value ofTranges from zero to unity, and is the definition that is

most commonly used by soil scientists (Shackelford, pers. comm. 2001).

Citing a Specific Clause in a Design Code

There are two ways to cite the clause that is of particular interest to you at a given juncture inyour report. The following examples are based on a fictitious design code.

Method 1: Cite the Precise Location of the Clause within Your Sentence


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"The slenderness of a wooden column affects its resistance to buckling, as does the quality or

grade of timber from which it was made. Section 3.6.8 of CTDM (2005) deals with this by

providing buckling coefficients that depend on both of these considerations."

Method 2: Cite the Precise Location of the Clause in a Footnote

"The slenderness of a wooden column affects its resistance to buckling, as does the quality or

grade of timber from which it was made. CTDM (2005) deals with this by providing buckling

coefficients that depend on both of these considerations1."

Then at the bottom of the page, underneath the solid line that MS-Word automatically puts into separate footnotes from the main body of your text, you would see:

1 Section 3.6.8 Slenderness Coefficients.

The meaning of CTDM would have to be spelled-out at its first appearance in your report.The second method above is more efficient and makes for better readability in the body of

your report. It also allows you to include more information about the clause in question (inthe footnote). Footnotes are inserted in MS-Word by executing menu sequence InsertReference Footnote. You can an icon to your icon tool-bar for doing this, it looks like .

Citing an Authority with regard to an Equation

A very common failure by students to cite appropriately is often seen in the context of statingequations. Essentially, if you do not cite any authority before presenting an equation, you areimplying that you invented the equation! Note that eqn [7-1] in the example given belowdoes not appear anywhere in the sentence that precedes the statement of this equation, norshould it.

Two E xamples :The ultimate friability can be computed using the following equation, first suggested by

Edgemount (1982):

( )=

=n

1i

inRC PYF [7-1]

The Edgemount equation (Edgemount 1982) is often the one used to determine whether the

friability exceeds the critical magnitude associated with brittle failure, and may be stated as:

( )=

=

n

1i

inRC PYF [7-1]

(See handout on Equations with regard to how to properly define terms and variables withinequations - not shown in the above examples so as to save space here.)

Order of Appearance of References

The references in the References section must appear in alphabetical order, on the basis of thesurname of the lead author. If you are writing for a specific journal, you can determine how itscitations are done by looking at the end of any article published in that journal. In your own


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list, do not separate your references according to the type of publication, as shown below. Usehanging paragraph format it helps the reader find the lead author. Although the InternationalStandard Book Number (ISBN) is not usually included in citations, you may need it in order toplace an interlibrary loan and/or in order pay CANCopy royalties. If you directly use materialfrom the reference in question within your document, it will be necessary to pay this royalty.Dalhousie University has a Copyright Officer through whom it can be paid (phone 494-6685).

For any of the types of citations following, if the date of the article is unknown, one simplyputs the word undated where the year would normally go.

Textbooks:

Ponce V.M. 1989. Engineering Hydrology: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall,Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 640 pp.

Taylor D.M. 1948. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 700 pp.

Note: The total number of pages is shown, not the pages that you used or referred to.

Articles in Conference Proceedings:Campbell D.B. 1989. Some observations relevant to the performance of flowthrough rock

drains. 13th annual BC Mine Reclamation Symposium, June 7-9, BiTech, Vancouver, BC,p.119-128.

Note: It is good practice to cite the publisher, if any. An established publisher can become the vendorof a set of conference proceedings if they decide to take over the sale and distribution of theremaining copies of the proceedings (a fairly common occurrence for very high-profileconferences). If a publisher exists and is cited, the city where the publisher is based is the city thatis cited, rather that where the conference actually took place. On the other hand, there is moreoften no long-term official publisher of printed conference proceedings. This is because theconference organizing committee arranged for local printing and binding, and the printer will

usually keep no leftover copies. The name of a local printer, as distinct from a publishingcompany, is not mentioned in citations.

Lane D., Berdusco R., and Jones R. 1986. Five years' experience with the Swift Creek rockdrain at Fording Coal Limited. Proc. Int. Symp. on Flowthrough Rock Drains,Cranbrook, BC, Sept.8-11, p.7-11.

Note: BC, not B.C.; use the same province codes that Canada Post uses.

Wilkins J.K. 1956. Flow of water through rockfill and its application to the design of dams.Proc. of 2nd Australia-New Zealand Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Canterbury University College, Christchurch, New Zealand, p.141-149.

Journal Articles:

Chetan M. and Sudheer K.P. 2006. A hybrid linear-neural model for forecasting flow in theMotobo River. AGU Water Resources Research, 42(4):W04402, 8 pp.

Ergun S. 1952. Fluid flow through packed columns. Chemical Eng. Progress, 48(2):89-94.

Garga V.K., Townsend R.D., and Hansen D. 1991. A method for determining the surface areaof quarried rocks. ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, 14(1):35-45.


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McBean E.A. and Perkins F.E. 1975. Convergence schemes in water profile computation.ASCE Journal of the Hydraulics Division, 101(HY10):1380-1384.

Notes: (i) It is helpful to indicate the learned or professional organisation that is responsible for thejournal in question. This is not part of the name of the journal but helps to clearly distinguishbetween the ASCEs Journal of Hydraulic Engineering and the IAHRs Journal of HydraulicResearch (for example). (ii) Only proper nouns are capitalized in the titles of articles. (iii) With

the advent of the simultaneous co-appearance are journal articles on the web, some journals havedispensed with consecutive page numbering within volumes or issues, instead assigning a uniquealphanumeric code to each article (note how this is handled in the citation of the Chetan andSudheer article above). (iv) If the article appears in a journal which has a conventional printedformat (as is most commonly the case) but is also viewable or available on-line, one does not alsopresent the web page (such as the Science Direct url) for said article as part of the citation.

Discussions of Journal Articles:

Reggio P.Q. 1975. Discussion of Convergence schemes in water profile computations byE.A McBean and F.E. Perkins, ASCE Journal of Hydraulics Division, 101(HY11):38-39.

On-line Journal Articles:

Pfeiger C.D. 1997. The fundamentals of information security. IEEE Software [Online], 14(1):15-16. Available at: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org [2000, August 29].

Design codes and government standards:

HRM 2004. Design Guidelines of the Halifax Regional Municipality, Part A. HalifaxRegional Municipality, Public Works & Transportation Services Division, 2750 DutchVillage Rd., Halifax, NS, 69 pp.

Note: The abbreviation of the name of the code is used in place of the author because this abbreviation is

the most precise and efficient way to cite the specific standard in question. Who the authoractually is becomes clear within the citation.

Consulting Reports:

CBCL Ltd 1989. Inflow and Infiltration Study of Timberlea NS. CBCL Ltd., Hollis St.,Halifax NS, 210 pp.

PhD or MASc theses:

Hansen D. 1987. Generation of Suspended Sediment Loads for Kennebecasis River bySediment Rating Curves. MScE thesis, University of New Brunswick, Dept of Civil

Engineering, Fredericton NB, 251 pp.

Prior CIVL4802 Reports:

Yeadon A. and Brutsaert W. 2001. Design of New Bridge for Fall River NS Geotechnicaland Structural Aspects. Submitted in partial fulfillment of CIVL4802, Dept. of Civil andResource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 91 pp.


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Maps:

Land Registration and Information Services 1991. Five Mile Lake, Hants County.Topographic map sheet 10 44 8500 63 900, 1:10,000 scale, ATS system, NTS referencenumber 11D/13. Nova Scotia Dept of Lands and Forests, Halifax, NS.

Note: the federal government decided some years ago that all apostrophes would be dropped from place

names, on Canadian maps. Joe Batts Arm became Joe Batts Arm.

Newspaper Articles:

Chronicle-Herald Mail Star 2008. Winds of change to blow in new rules. Jan.17, K. Shiersreporting, p.C1.

Software:

Haestad Methods 2002. WaterCAD (computer program). Haestad Methods Inc., Waterbury,Connecticut, USA.

Course Notes:

Hansen D. 2001. Course notes for CIVL4720 Civil Engineering Computations, section entitled'Cascade of Linear Reservoirs'. Dalhousie University, Dept of Civil & ResourceEngineering, 23 pp.

Note: It is very undesirable to make reference to the course notes from one of your undergraduatecourses. Find a generally-available reference that has the same material, and cite it instead.

Public Interviews:

Jones G. 1999. Taped interview of David Smith July 18. Recorded for CBC Radio Halifax

and aired on 'Cross-country Check-up' on July 31.

Websites:

On-line textbook

Harcourt Inc. 2000. Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology [On-line].Available at: http://www.Harcourt.com/dictionary [August].

Advertising

Waterworks Industries 2007. The hydrant setter [On-line]. Available at:http://www.waterworks ind.com/wtrwrkdvn/FireHydrants/tdw/hydrantsetter.htm (October).

Note: websites are not considered by professors to be authoritative sources of information. 'Surfing theweb' does not constitute a proper literature review.

Personal Communications:

Telephone conversation

Jones P. 1999. Telephone conversation of July 18, with D. Hansen.

Face-to-face conversation

Jones P. 1999. Personal conversation of July 18, with D. Hansen.


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Notes: (i) 'Personal Communications' are generally an undesirable type of reference with respect toauthoritativeness. (ii) Reference can be made to them only with the explicit consent of theperson in question Mr. Jones in this case! You therefore must ask the person in question MayI quote you on that?, and can only make the above citation if agreement is obtained (preferablyin writing).

E-mail:Richardson, D. ([email protected]) 1999. Email of May14 Disk upgrade schedule, to

H. Powell ([email protected]).

Note: Email is considered an undesirable type of reference, having very little weight in terms oftechnical authority. It should be avoided. Permission to use email with respect to looking fortechnical authority or support for a statement is not automatic.

7.3 Philosophical Note

Showing the context of ones work is fundamental. It is very important to be able to show therelationship between your work and the learned or professional context in which it falls. This isnot something to be ashamed of - you have probably not invented something completely newand revolutionary. It is worth pointing out that it is actually dangerous to deliberately obscurethe depth or breadth of previous scientific work within a particular area, especially in a Ph.D.thesis. Beyond technical ability and computational prowess, a person with a Ph.D. inengineering is also considered to be a scholar in his or her field of specialization. How can thisbe true if the person only knows about his own research (albeit complicated research) but isvery unfamiliar any other research?

There is no shame in showing that someone has already done similar work, the operative

word being similar. Previous research is almost never identical to your own. The GuidingCommittees of graduate students actually look more favourably upon candidates who canclearly demonstrate where science has gone before, not less favourably. In engineering,especially environmentally-related aspects of civil engineering, most problems have site-specific components that automatically bring in elements of uniqueness. Sometimes the scopeof work had to be adjusted along the way, in light of what you and your advisor found in theliterature. This is especially true of the Ph.D. degree, the contribution of which is of a muchhigher calibre than that of an MASc. The time period over which a Ph.D. is done is about twiceas long as that of a typical MASc. Keep in mind that it is far better to make adjustments to theresearch direction than to find out that years of work and research work are simply redundant.The worst-case scenario is to have this redundancy pointed out by the External Examiner during

a formal PhD defence!

[email protected]


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8.0 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HISTORY OF DEGREES

The Table of Contents used for scientific investigations, as might be described in an MScthesis, seeks to reflect the thought processes described below.

1. Choose or identify your problem.(i) What is it that you want to explore? Choose something that interests you. At least be

able to take ownership of an idea (even if it is not your idea).

(ii) Choose a problem that no one really knows the answer to, or that has an aspect to itthat has never been thoroughly investigated (MSc, PhD). Choose some aspect of aproblem that has not been completely investigated, or which is site-specific.

(iii) Choose something that you can work with and are able to do; that is, it seemslogistically feasible and practical for you to conduct the implied investigation. (Labequipment? Computer software? Manageable theory?)

2. Research your problem.(i) Check related textbooks. Perform a detailed journal-literature search as to what has

already been done. Along the way try to ascertain the whys and hows of themethods used by previous researchers.

(ii) Get advice personally (your Academic Advisor, members of the Guiding Committee ofyour thesis or report, other professors, email, telephone).

(iii) Surf the web, but be aware that the web is heavily influenced by advertising and isoften light on facts that can be cited in the academic sense.

(iv) Beware or paradigms and broad presuppositions that may undermine your research bylimiting the questions that you are allowed to ask (Kuhn 1972, Wieland 1981).

3. Develop a hypothesis (or hypotheses).

(i) This is a statement that implicitly tries to explain a relationship between the relevantvariables.

(ii) Form your hypothesis from a simple question that uses the words if and then.Consider what is, and what is not, a logical syllogism:

A syllogism: If A happens then B happens. A happened, therefore B will happen.Not a syllogism: IfA happens then B happens. B happened, therefore A happened.

(The second statement is not considered to be logical.)

(iii) Your hypothesis must be very clear, so that it can be tested.(iv) It is often useful to ask yourself: What do I think the answer to my question will be?

when trying to frame the question.

(v) It is preferable to frame your hypothesis so that it can be falsified by counterexample(Gitt 2005). As a negative example, there is a German saying which goes (Gitt loc.cit.)When the cock crows on the dungheap the weather will change, or it will remain as itis.


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4. Write down your procedure.

(i) What will you do to test your hypothesis? (Experiments? Runs of a computerprogram?)

(ii) Be sure that you will be actually be testing your hypothesis as stated. (Is thereanything you havent considered that could affect your experiment?)

(iii) List the materials that you will need.

(iv) List each thing you will do and number each step. Write down everything that you willdo. This is an important planning step but is also done in a formal way because othersshould be able to repeat your experiment by repeating your stated procedure.

(v) Think about how you will control the important independent variables. Think abouthow you may want to freeze the independent variables in a sequential manner.

5. Test your hypothesis.

(i) Get the necessary samples, materials, and equipment.

(ii) Follow your procedures; that is, perform your experiments, whether they be physical,numerical, or a combination of computer-based work and lab-based work.

(iii) Make detailed observations. Draw pictures, take digital photographs, take videos.Note that video frame-capture images may not be of sufficient quality for a thesis.

(iv) Be honest about accepting outcomes.

(v) Collect your data and record it. Back it up (burn a CD).

6. Organize your data.

(i) Look at your raw data and your processed data. Group it in a variety of ways. Ponderit, cogitate over it. Look at it from unusual angles, sleep with it under your pillow.

(ii) Make tables, flow-charts, and graphs which synthesize your results.

(iii) Write down in words (point form) what these tables, charts, and graphs are telling you.

7. State your conclusions.

(i) Interpret what happened. Was it what you expected? Did you find out what youwanted to know?

(ii) State what your data tells you about your hypothesis.

(iii) Decide how you or a future investigator might change the starting hypothesis based onyour results.

(iv) Think about what might be done in the future by way of additional experiments.(v) Verbally communicate your results to others. Do a dry run of your presentation before

your actual defence.


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On the History of University Degrees

University degrees, including graduate degrees, have their roots in the Middle Ages when the

language of educated people (mainly the clergy) was Latin. All important documents, including

those specifically related to science, were written in Latin and this pattern endured for

centuries. Our word "Bachelors" comes from the medieval Latin word baccalaureus. A

baccalaureus was normally an unmarried vassal knight who did not have his own estate and

lived in the house of a lord. The term also referred to an advanced student lecturer who was

allowed to work under a master's supervision and who did not yet have a personal license to

teach. Our word "Masters" comes from the Latin "Magister", meaning master or teacher. From

this word we get magistrate (judge). The Magister was the supervisor of the Baccalaureus. In

the Middle Ages the Doctor of Philosophy was the only advanced degree and was undertaken

by very few individuals. It was primarily intended for clergymen, although others were

sometimes allowed to participate in such advanced studies. Whatever the specific interest of an

individual studying for a Ph.D. in those days (law, rhetoric, literature, etc.), he would have been

required to acquire expertise in philosophy, especially in the teachings of Aristotle. Aristotle

was considered to be both a philosopher and a scientist. Indeed, the learneds and intelligentsia

of those days made little distinction between philosophy and science. Science was considered a

branch of philosophy; literature, rhetoric and law were its other branches. In the academic

world, the Ph.D. degree was very rare before the 20th century, and was still quite rare during the

first half of the 20th century.

References

Gitt W. 2005. In the Beginning was Information. Master Books, Green Forest AR, 264 pp.

Kuhn H. 1972. Selbstorganisation molekularer Systeme unddie Evolution des genetischenApparats. Angewandte Chemie, 84:838-861.

Moore W.E. 1967. Creative and Critical Thinking. Houghton Mifflin, Boston MA, 340 pp.

Wielend W. 1981. Moglichtkeiten und Grenzen der Wissenshafts-theorie. AngewandteChemie, 93:627-634.

[email protected]


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9.0 MORPHOLOGIES OF DESIGN AND PROBLEM SOLVING

a) scientific method. b) design method.

Figure 9-1. Comparison of scientific method and design method (after Dieter 2000).

The scientific method has given rise to a typical or standard reporting structure for journal

articles and scientific treatises: problem description, hypothesis, method of investigation,

analysis of results, conclusions. It was influenced by such earlier writing structures and

standards as the formal letter of the ancient Greeks, which had the following structure:

(i) the Opening (name of writer and greetings), (ii) the Exordium (praise, and expression of

concern for, the readers), (iii) the Appeal (presentation of the reasons for the need of the letter

itself, and of its arguments), (iv) the Peroration (full exposition of the appeal), and (v) the

Conclusion (which included closing salutations to the readers).


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The McMaster Five-Step Strategy for Problem Solving

1. DEFINE:a) Understand the problem. Understand the words, drawings.b) Identify the unknown quantity or the stated objective.c) Draw a diagram or visual representation.

d) Isolate the system and identify inputs and outputs - as stated in the problem.e) Identify the known; inputs, outputs, identified laws, and assumptions.f) Identify the stated constraints and list the inferred constraints.

g) Identify the stated criteria and list the inferred criteria.

2. EXPLORE:a) Recall past related problems or experiences.b) Recall pertinent theory and fundamentals.c) Identify tentative pertinent relationships between inputs, outputs, and unknowns.d) Hypothesize, visualize, idealize, generalize, and simplify.e) Gain an overall appreciation of the problem by solving an extremely simple version of it to find

out "about" what the answer is.

f) Translate the problem into another form.g) Discover what the real problem is; that is, what is the real unknown. Consider both short term

and long term implications.h) Identify meaningful criteria.i) Identify real constraints.j) Choose a basis or reference set of conditions.k) Collect missing information.l) Guess the answer or result.

m) Select useful heuristics and hints.

3. PLAN:a) Generate alternative ways that the objective can be achieved. Consider both technical/practical

aspects ("what?" questions) as well as mathematical aspects ("how?" questions).b) Identify problem type & select tactics: working-backwards, sub-problem, heuristic, or

contradiction.c) Map out the procedure (algorithm) to be used.

d) Assemble resources needed.

4. DO IT:a) Follow the procedure developed under the plan.b) Calculate criterion functions.

c) Compare alternatives and select the best.

5. LOOK BACK:a) Check that the solution is blunder-free.b) Check reasonableness of results.c) Check that criteria and constraints are satisfied.d) Check procedure.e) Study related problems (everyday, desert island, technical/engineering)f) Identify experience factors to be memorized.g) Identify what has been learned about problem-solving from the problem just solved.h) Communicate results.


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Figure 9-2. Basic module within design process (after Dieter 2000).

a) after Cross (1994).

b) after Dieter (2000).

Figure 9-3. Iterative morphologies of design.


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Figure 9-4. Single iteration of design morphology (after Dieter 2000).

Figure 9-5. Design process which incorporates its communication (after Cross 1994).


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Figure 9-6. Design which incorporates human elements (after Cross 1994).

References

Cross N. 1994. Engineering Design Methods Strategies for Product Design (2nd ed.), JohnWiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester, 179 pp.

Dieter G.E. 2000. Engineering Design A Materials and Processing Approach. McGraw-HillInc., NY, 798 pp. (DalTech library TA 174 D495)

[email protected]


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10.0 ORGANISATION OF REPORTS

The technical aspects of the work should receive the emphasis in the body of the report. Thedescription of the work done must follow the Table of Contents shown in the following pages.By way of background:

Ph.D. dissertations describe the results of relatively comprehensive scientific investigationsand have very original ideas and/or analyses. This originality is judged in light of all existingknowledge available within the sub-discipline in question. State-of-the-art analyticaltechniques are used, of the kind described in refereed journals.

M.A.Sc. theses describe the results of scientific investigations and have original ideas and/oranalyses; uses excellent or state-of-the-art analytical techniques usually only described inrefereed journals.

M.Eng. reports design or project-oriented reports that contain less than a thesis in terms ofscientific contribution and originality but use relatively high-calibre analytical techniques. Very

detailed case-studies also qualify.Undergraduate Senior Project Reports for CIV4801-2 describe the results of a group design

effort and contain at least a modest amount of innovation. They present the results of applyinggood analytical techniques, at least of a calibre covered in an undergraduate B.Eng. program.

10.1 Some Specifics

(i) If your work pertains to a particular location or area, it is usually highly desirable tomention the location or area in your title.

(ii) Brevity in the body of the report or thesis is encouraged. The liberal use of appendices tohelp achieve this goal is encouraged.

(iii) Except for the top level headings (such as 4.0 SELECTION OF DESIGN), do not createsections (or subsections) without any text in said section or subsection.

(iv) In the body of the report use a 12 point Times New Roman font with 1.5 line spacing.All left margins set at 25 mm. Left-only justification of paragraphs (not right and left).

(v) As a matter of interest, one page of just text, with 1.5 line spacing and the proper marginsfor a thesis, has about 400 words.

(vi) Number all equations to the right of the equation. Refer to "equation [3-2]" in the body ofthe text. Do all equations using an equation editor.

(vii) Always use one space after commas and two spaces after periods.

Do not forget to pass in your individual log books. You will be able to retrieve them.


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a) Option 1. b) Option 2.

Figure 10-1. Flowcharts reflecting content of proposal for CIVL4801. (Section

7.0 References and Section 8.0 Appendices not shown, these are alsorequired.)


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Figure 10-2. Flowchart reflecting content of final report for CIVL4802. (Section

7.0 References & Section 8.0 Appendices not shown but are required.)


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Title of Your Senior Report (repeated here, centred, in 14 pt font)

TABLEOF CONTENTS

Page

List of Tables x

List of Figures xList of Symbols and Abbreviations x

Acknowledgments x

Abstract x

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background

State the clients or users need (or needs). This is not very detailed and often stated innon-technical terms. Mention some of the key design constraints. A suite of figures is

expected in this section: location of town/city in NS (map with inset), the inset of theimmediate area of the site as a figure itself (a portion of a 1:2500 topo map is oftenused), a simplified 3-D view of the object that was designed (perhaps use GoogleSketch-up), and photograph(s) of the existing conditions at the site.

1.2 Objectives

Give an exposition of the implications of the clients basic need or design requirement.Elaborate upon these, where appropriate.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The specific geographic location and its characteristics will often be a important aspect of

your report. Therefore, if consultants have published significant studies specific to yoursite, you must provide a review of these studies in a sub-section of this chapter. It can be achallenge to do a literature review in design-based senior projects, especially if it isdifficult to obtain and review consultants reports. However, there are often grounds forconsidering the more subtle aspects of a design problem. All codes (concrete, steel, wood,masonry, bridges, dams, foundations, urban drainage) are based on the implications of andapplication of good science. For example, the information used to come up with snowloads for the roofs of buildings included statistical analysis of snowfall data, studies ofdrifting behaviour for various building geometries, knowledge of how rainfall andtemperature sequences can change snow density, and sometimes famous roof failures thatwere known to be caused by deep wet snow. Most such studies have been published

somewhere in journal literature, and these scientific outcomes did eventually influenceengineering practice (i.e. the codes). These articles, together with any dealing with currenttrends on the same (or analogous) questions, should provide a very rich basis for presentinga proper literature review. This section can also be used to cover some basic theory.


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3.0 GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVES

3.1 Needs Analysis and Design Constraints

A more detailed and formal needs analysis, using engineering language, followed by acareful description of all the relevant design constraints. This section is used to coverthe relevant theory because how a physical thing(s) behave in response to external

factor(s) is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry and is a kind of designconstraint.

3.2 Supplementary Data Collection

Optional. Sometimes the constraints on the design cannot be fully and properlydefined without certain information that is quite critical to the design. This additionaldata is often obtained via field work or laboratory work, and might involve activities asdiverse as interviewing taxi-drivers, digging test pits, or obtaining samples of corrodedmetal. The outcomes of such efforts are specifically directed at trying to better defineand understand the problem. For example, the discovery of soft soil in one area buthard rock in another that is nearby might indicate that differential settlement is going to

be a problem. This section is not, however, where a design that would be able tohandle this differential settlement is presented; rather, it should describe how the soilsamples were collected and analysed, and why this was considered necessary.

If Section 3.2 does not apply to your project you should omit it.

3.3 Design Alternatives

Present a number of seemingly viable alternatives. Figure(s) are usually needed in thissection, in order to lessen the amount of text. With respect to the mental processesinvolved in generating alternatives, refer to a modern text that describes modernengineering design morphologies, such as Dieter (2000). The feasibility of a givenproposed design, particularly one which is attractive for cost reasons, may imply the

need to go and collect even more information (such as field data) before its truefeasibility can be assessed (see Dieter 2000). This section should also be used to coverany of the more advanced theories not explained up to this point in the report.

4.0 SELECTION OF DESIGN

Present the rationale for the final and best design alterative that you selected and areactually recommending. The ground has been prepared for your rationale in Section 3.0, sothat this section can be relatively brief and broken down by sub-discipline. In some cases,competing designs are very close to each other in relative merit and the specific reasons foryour final choice (recommended design) need to be explained and justified at some length.

5.0 DETAILS OF FINAL DESIGN

Present the details of your design and the components comprising it. Use simple schematicand good quality line-drawings liberally. For the fine details the reader is simply referredto the various appendices. Two required sub-sections here: cost and potentialenvironmental impacts.


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6.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Simply numbered using (i), (ii), (iii).Preferably stated very succinctly, without using sub-sections.

7.0 REFERENCES

Study the material provided in CIVL4801~2 as to how they are to be formatted. Each typeof reference has its own format, as is standard with all theses and learned publications.

8.0 APPENDICES (continuous Arabic numbering from body of report - very important!)

8.1 Division of Labour (i.e. what actually happened)

8.2 supporting calculations (named appropriately and broken down into subsections)It is a gross waste of time to type your calculations.

8.3 supporting Tables and Figures(be specific with regard to their nature, using 8.3.1, 8.3.2)

8.4 Construction Details (and larger formats, if needed, go in the pocket)8.5 Pocket with . (drawings and CDs, be specific).

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11.0 EQUATIONS, TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FIGURES

11.1 Equations

Make sure that the nomenclature that appears in the body of your report is exactly the same as

that used in the List of Symbols and Abbreviations found in the frontal material. Presentseparated nomenclature lists for Roman and Greek symbols/characters, and place these at theend of the List of Symbols and Abbreviations section, in the frontal matter.

NOTESONEQUATIONSTHATHAVECALCULUSWITHINTHEM: if you have a variable namedV (for example), do not define dV in addition to defining V. You may usually assume thatyour readership knows basic calculus and therefore knows that dV means differential V.

Table 11-2. Divergence, gradient, curl, and vector operator notation.

Name Operator Meaning Notes

divV Vz

V

y

V

x

V ZYX

+

+

div = divergence

V is a vector quantity

grad

+

+

zk

yj

xi

grad = gradient

is the scalar quantity

curl V V

ZYX VVVzyx

kji

del-squared ( ) =2

2

2

2

2

2

2

zyx

+

+

02 = , sometimes called

LaPlace equation or LaPlacian

Always use an equation editor, the one that is built into MS-Word is fine. Never use theforward slash character to indicate division, nor put fractions on single lines; always use over-and-under style for fractions. Do not use an asterisk or a dot or an x-cross to indicatemultiplication of variables within equations, these are not needed. A single space betweenvariables will suffice (Ctrl-spacebar within Equation Editor). However, it is proper to use a

small dot when expressing numbers in scientific notation (e.g. 110-6). Do not use italics in

equations19

. Using italics for equations makes Greek letters less readable and also makes theGreek completely indistinguishable from the letter v. Centre equations and use square

brackets around your numeric identifiers. Place the numeric identifier of the equation on thesame line and at the far right. These should all line up at the far right (see examples below).Use the SI abbreviation system, in which second is s, hour is h, and litre is L. State thedimensions of each variable if the equation is dimensionally consistent but state the units of

19 to turn off the Italics setting within eqns (the default condition in Word 2003), click twice on equation, go tomenu at very top of the screen, click on Style, click on Define at the very bottom of the list, and un-check allthe italics boxes. Some italicized Greek letters are very hard to read, a good reason to turn off this default.


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each variable if it is dimensionally inconsistent. This obviates the need to point out this veryimportant distinction to the reader, using sentence(s). In the list of definitions of terms foundunderneath each equation, line up your equal signs with tabs. Variables defined early in areport need not be redefined over and over again. Variable names must be assigned in such away that no mathematical ambiguity is introduced. A variable name such as IET, indicatinginter-event time (for example), is unacceptable as a name for a variable. It is not concise and

raises the question Is the writers intended meaning I multiplied by E multiplied by T?Subscripts are very useful in making variable names more meaningful and easier for the readerto remember. A much better choice of nomenclature for inter-event time would be tie.

Do not break down the numbering scheme for equations tables and figures to a level finerthan the chapter level. Make the numbering of these items sequential within chapters, so ifthere are two equations in chapter 1 and three equations in chapter 2, the reader would see [1-1]and [1-2] in chapter 1, and then [2-1], [2-2], [2-3] in chapter 2. This is also more convenientwhen editing because if you add another equation part-way through a chapter, it only affects thenumbering within that chapter. The word equation should be abbreviated as eqn when usedbeside the number of the equation, but not if it is the first word in the sentence. It is veryimportant to note that equations usually require that a citation be made (see also handout onCitations). A half-line-space20 precedes and follows each equation. Here are five examples ofhow to refer to an equation within the body of a report:

Example 1

The irascibility factor I can be found using the following eqn, first suggested by Goatcabin(1982) and later applied to extremely irritating people by Clampette (1991):

( ) =

2

1

t

t

indtPYI [11-1]

where:

I = irascibility (dimensionless),Y = yodelling intensity (db/hr),P = persistence effect (interruptions/second),

= loudness exponent (dimensionless).

Equation [11-1] is widely used in North America but the Chezy equation is more commonly-used in Europe. Technically, eqn [11-1] only applies to the condition of uniform flow.

Note that the lead-in sentence does not make specific mention of the eqn number; this iscompletely unnecessary. Also note that in defining terms in variable lists, small words such asthe and an are left out, as shown in the following examples.

Example 2

Although developed a little over 100 years ago in the Republic of Ireland (Eire in the Gaeliclanguage), the equation describing steady uniform open-channel flow attributed to RobertManning is by far the most commonly-used such equation in North America. It may be written:

2/1

0

3/2 SRn

49.1V = [11-2a]

where:V = average velocity of flow in cross-section (ft/s),

20 Format, Paragraph, Indents-and-Spacing, Spacing Before 6 pt, After 6 pt


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n = roughness coefficient,R = hydraulic radius (ft),S0 = friction slope, equal to bed slope if flow is uniform (dimensionless).

and where:

RA

P

= [11-2b]

A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2),P = shear perimeter, also known as wetted perimeter (ft).

When referring to a variable in a sentence, separate it with commas. For example:

"The shear perimeter, P, in eqn [11-2b] is also known as the wetted perimeter."

The above example uses a [11-2a] and [11-2b] system because eqn [11-2b] is actually part ofeqn [11-2a]. If they were mathematically distinct they would be numbered [11-2] and [11-3].

Example 3

The impulse-momentum equation is merely a finite-difference form of Newton's Second Law.It may, for example, be used to analyze the severity of a traffic collision. It may be stated as:

VMtF = [11-3]where:

F = force exerted on mass M (F),

t = finite time interval in which deceleration occurs (T),

M = mass of decelerating object (M),

V= change in velocity occurring within t (L/T).

Example 4

At its most fundamental level, the phenomenon of hydrologic routing is governed by therequirement that volume be conserved. The following differential equation may be stated for asingle reservoir (Ponce 1989):

OUTIN QQdt

d=

[11-4]

where:

= volume in reservoir (L3),

t = time (T),QIN = inflow to reservoir (L

3/T),QIN = outflow from reservoir (L

3/T).

The meaning of the derivative in example 4 above was deliberately not provided in thedefinitions under "where". If you are writing for an engineering readership, you may assumethat they recognize derivatives, integrals, etc. This assumption may be incorrect if you arewriting for lay-people, necessitating explanation that a derivative indicates instantaneous rate,or that an integral indicates an exact summation.

Example 5


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Note on reporting changes in a quantity: It is usually better to report ratios (new value/oldvalue) than it is to report percent changes. It is also preferable to do so in a table rather thanin sentences. If you must report percent changes, explicitly state which of the followingmethods was used:

=

old

oldnew%100change%

=

new

oldnew%100change%

old

oldnew%100change%

=

new

oldnew%100change%

=

11.2 Graphs as Figures

A graph or figure must appear after being mentioned in the body of the text of a report,preferably on the very same page. It is not preferable, however, to break up a paragraph merelyin order to insert a figure. If the sentence that refers to the figure is too close to the bottom ofthe page to permit putting the figure on the same page, it should appear on the next page, rightafter the end of the paragraph that contains the referencing sentence.

The single-most important overriding principle in the design of figures is that they should beas self-explanatory as possible. The casual reader should not have to read any of the report inorder to appreciate the basic message of a graph. One should include representative graphs inthe body of the report. If a graph merely plays a supporting role, place it in an Appendix, andmake sure that you refer to it. Graphs and other kinds of figures must be self-explanatory.

Raw data points should not usually be joined with connecting lines. Conversely, lines orcurves that are in some sense theoretical, either because they represent a best-fit curve orbecause they are the result of some kind of simulation, are best presented as lines or smoothcurves having no markers. A possible exception to this rule is the presentation of time seriesdata, wherein there are often very many closely-spaced observed data points, necessitating theuse of a curve with no markers for raw data.

Engineering journals rarely publish anything in colour. Some medical journals will publishin colour. Some non-medical journals may make an exception if a strong argument is made thatcolour is essential, but may then charge the authors page significant fees for publishing thepaper. Colour adds complexity to report duplication. You must therefore assume that colour isnot available to you as a means of differentiating symbols and lines on your graphs.

11.2.1 Excel notes

Excel has two types of graph that appear to be similar, but are not similar: "Line Graphs" and

"X-Y Graphs". Engineers rarely use "Line Graphs" but often use "X-Y Graphs", and there is adangerous pitfall in using the former. A "Line Graph" is essentially a "Column Chart" that usesa series of connected lines instead of vertical bars. It therefore spaces the data at equal intervalseven if the abscissa values of the data are not equally-spaced. A "Column Chart" is thereforepreferable to a "Line Graph", especially if there is only one quantity (dependant variable) forthe ordinate. Many specialty software packages (such as MatLab) do not produce plots thathave a format that is acceptable for formal technical reports.

Use care when formatting "Column Charts" having multiple vertical bars for each abscissavalue; the result can be a mesmerizing pattern. This is very undesirable.


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Engineering column graphs/charts can be very misleading unless they are carefully designed,and are sometimes simply the wrong type of graph needed to best present the data in question.You must decide whether your labels on the abscissa are merely indicators, or whether yourintended meaning is a true scale, such as a distance or elapsed time. Indicators that must betextual are obviously merely indicators, as in the case of Figure 11-1 below, and may requirereference to another figure in order to be fully understood (unfortunately).

Labels on the abscissa that are indicators but which have numeric significance have aspecific meaning. In Figure 11-2 below the reader is being told that the concentrations weremeasured at the exact distances shown on the abscissa, not somewhere in between the distancesshown. The gap between the pairs of bars is therefore necessary and important. See also,however, Figure 2-4 and the comments on it that follow.

Engineering column charts frequently require the specification of true intervals on theabscissa, often oftime or distance. The bounds of such intervals should be placed at the bounds

themselves, but Excel does not have a means of easily placing the boundary markers (tick

marks) at the boundaries themselves, with the Data Labels located at the centre of each

column. Figure 11-3 was generated in Excel as a Column chart but was subsequently

modified as a bitmap within Windows Paint, in order to achieve the needed effect. If you useWindows Paint to do this, it is recommended that you switch it to black & white mode and savethe file as a monochrome bitmap. Note how the title for the ordinate in Figure 11-3 helps toclarify how it is possible that there is a single value of concentration between the distancesshown.

Figure 11-1. Concentrations of lead and arsenic in soils near Kinkaren Landfill Facility(see Figure 1-4 for sample locations corresponding to codes on abscissa).


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Figure 11-2. Concentrations of lead and arsenic in soils near Kinkaren Landfill Facility.

Figure 11-3. Concentrations of arsenic in soils near Kinkaren Landfill Facility.


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If the numeric values have literal and precise meaning, then a column chart is often thewrong choice. A true numeric scale is needed, especially if the identifiers are not integers.Figure 11-4 below will then be preferable to Figure 11-2.

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Distance from landfill (km)

Concentration(mg/L)

LeadArsenic

Figure 11-4. Concentrations of lead and arsenic in soils near Kinkaren Landfill Facility.

Figure 11-5 is an example of an acceptable 'X-Y' graph.

Figure 11-5. Kinematic viscosity of water versus water temperature.(1.2 on ordinate 1.2 10-6 m2/s)


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A typical graph will take up half of a page. Graphs that are somehow related to one anothershould be placed in groups. If the information content is not individually too dense, even fourgraphs to a page is acceptable in landscape mode. Landscape mode can be selected for a single

page by using a Section Break in Word.

Two-part figures can be done left-right or over-and under. The following is an example of

left-right layout. It is actually a hybrid type of figure, being a pair of graphical schematics orline-drawings of hypothetical graphs.

a) moving operating point on characteristic b) movement of system curve.

curve of pump.

Figure 11-6. Schematic representation of migration of operating point andshift in system curve during pump-down test.

If you are presenting a series of graphs that are related to each other, try to ensure that theabscissa and ordinate ranges are all the same so that the reader can compare like and like.

A portrait-oriented graph should fill the width of the page (without exceeding the margins

imposed on the entire document, typically 25 mm on all four sides). In expanding a graph thathas been cut from Excel and pasted into Word (so that it fills the available width), the font of

the axis labels may end up being somewhat larger than 12 pt. This is hard to avoid but isacceptable. The range for the abscissa and for the ordinate should be appropriate for the dataand the fitted curve being presented, as in the example above. There should not be large emptyareas, nor should there be the unnecessary maximization of the noise in the data. The lattermistake is promoted by using the maxs and mins in the data as the limits for the abscissa andordinate ranges. If it makes engineering sense to include the value zero on one or both axes, doso.

11.2.2 Other formatting points

Your senior project report will be checked for compliance with the following:1. No interior shading is permitted in the plotting area. This reduces clarity, wastes

printer-toner (ink), and does not always reproduce well (i.e. if photocopied the result isoften blotchy).

2. No exterior border is permitted. This is best removed while still in Excel (i.e. before

cutting-and-pasting into MS-Word).

3. All figures are to be centred.


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4. Do not place an additional interior title at the top of the graph, as is often the case for

graphs seen in Excel. This is redundant.

5. Do not include grid-lines for X-Y graphs with linear scales. Horizontal grid-lines maybe needed for column charts.

6. Legend are to be placed inside the plotted area but must not interfere with the data. The

legend symbols must be clear and easy to differentiate. If many data-sets are presentand symbol differentiation becomes a problem, it may be necessary to re-distribute yourdata among multiple graphs.

7. If the legend starts to look confusing, note that hollow markers are easier to differentiatethan solid markers. Lines/curves can sometimes be differentiated by thickness (withinreason), and by dashing, dotting, and combinations thereof. Unfortunately, the latter

choices do not usually work very well in Excel and you may only find this out when

you actually print to paper. If you begin to run out of symbols and/or line styles, andspace for your legend, this is a sign that more than one graph is needed in order topresent your results.

8. The caption for a graph is placed underneath it, and outside of it. Nothing in a caption isunderlined. The caption is part of the body of the report, not part of the graph, which isan inserted object. 'Small words' are avoided in captions (words like "the" and a).

9. The format for the axis labels is: Quantity (units)(i.e. using the same Times New Roman font as is found in your report, and not bold-faced).

10. The units for the abscissa and ordinate ranges must use real superscripts and/orsubscripts, if needed.

11. At most two places behind the decimal is usually adequate for the numbers on theabscissa and ordinate.

12. Do not use Excel-style scientific notation. Use 1.50 10-6 for1.50E-06.

13. If you have log(Y) vs log(X) data, plot raw Y vs raw X on log-scales, not the values oflog(Y) and log(X). Grid lines are needed in this case because they help the reader toperceive that the scale(s) are transformed. Do not include any unused decades in suchplots, unused decades compress your data and make any scatter that may be in your datapoints to appear to be deceptively small.


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11.3 Photos as Figures

Two-part figures must be done in a particular way with regard to captioning. The following isan example. Note how the main figure caption is suitable to both photos, and that the sub-captions add helpful further explanation.

a) setting up tripod for retrieval hoist.

b) looking down into access point; note how condition of rungs worsens with depth.

Figure 11-7. Confined-space entry considerations (photo by C. Hansen, P.Eng., of CalgaryAlberta, used by permission).

Note also that the (a) and (b) captions are not inherent to the images, they are generated inand are part of the text of the Word file, just as with ordinary captions. The wording of themain caption is deliberately made generic; its information content nicely overarches that of the


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sub-captions. On the other hand, the words for the sub-captions are not redundant and have therequisite specificity with respect to the visual content that they imply. Note that the source ofthe photos has been given. If you a

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