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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM - 1- COPYRIGHT CORNELL INFORMATICS PVT LTD

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

2BCA3- DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM UNIT I Operationaln data, Purpose of database syatem, Views of data, Data models:Relational, Network, Hierarchical, Instances & Schemes, Data dictionary, Types of Database languages : DDL, DML,Structures of a DBMS, Advantageas & Disadvantages of a DBMS, 3-level Architecture Proposal : External, Conceptual & Internal levels, Entity Relationshiip Model as a tool of conceptual design : Entities & Constraints, Keys Entity relationship diagram (ER diagram) : Strong & Weak Entities , Generalization,Specialization, Aggregation, Reducing ER diagram to tables. UNIT II Set theory concepts and fundamentals L: Relations, Domains Attributes Tuple Concepts of Keys : Candidate key, Primary Key Alternet key super key Foreign key Fundamental integrity rules: Relational Algebra : Select Project Cross product Different types of joins i.e. theta join equi join natural join outer join set operations Structured query language codd,s rule. UNIT III Functional Dependencies Good & bad decomposition Anomolies as a database: A consequence of bad design Universal Relation NBormalizationn : first Second Third & BCNF Normal Forms Multivalues Dependency Join Dependency & forth fifth normal form UNIT Iv Basic Concepts Indexing & Hashing Indexing : B+ tree Index files Hashing : static hash functions, Dynamic Hash functions Index Defination in SQL : multiple access key UNIT V Failure Classification , the storage hierarchy, transaction model, log based recovery, Buffer management, Shadow paging.



UNIT-I

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM :- Information fdlh Hkh Organization dk eq[; vk/kkj gksrh gS A Data Base ,d vR;ar egRoiw.kZ element gS tks management o organization dks izfrLi/kkZ esa c<+r izkIr djus esa l{ke cukrk gS A ;g ,d organization dk ,d izeq[k lalk/ku gSA Information og data gS ftls eq[; fcUnq ekudj fdlh O;fDr vFkok izkIrdrkZ rd igqWapk;k tkrk gsS ftls fu.kZ; ysuk gksrk gS] fd database esa fdl izdkj dh activities djuk gSA Database health, business, education library lfgr lHkh izdkj ds organization esa data dks store rFkk manipulate rFkk retrive djus es fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA Network server ds }kjk dbZ O;fDr work group database dks bLrseky djrs gSa rFkk employe organization distributed application ds }kjk database dks access djrs gSaA tkudkjh data, picture, text, documents vkSj documents ls feydj vkSj sound ls feydj fufeZr gksrh gSA data dsoy dqN viw.kZ rF; o vkadM+s gksrs gSaSA ftUgsa record fd;k tk ldrk gS rnksijkar gh ;g ifj.kke nsrs gSa A Database ,d concept gksrk gS tks fd fdlh Hkh DBMS software ds }kjk leLr record dk manipulation, updating, inserting , deleting, etc. dh lqfo/kk dks izkIr dj ldrs gSaA Data base software fdlh Hkh row ;k column ij dependency dks ugha n'kkZrk gSA blesa izR;sd row vkSj columns independent gksrh gSA Database dk mi;ksx networking ds }kjk ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd user use dj ldrs gSaA database software dbZ izdkj ds relation tSls& join, order wise, grouping dh lqfo/kk Hkh nsrk gSA Database software ogqr secure gksrs gSa A blds vykok ;g protection vyx& vyx user ds fy;s Hkh iznku djrk gSA Database software esa dbZ izdkj dh lqqfo/kk,a gksrh gSa tSls& data recovery, tks fd system fail gks tkus ds ckn Hkh user dks data recover djsus dh lqfo/kk nsrh gS] Data base esa gkfu;ka Hkh gksrh gSa tSls& System dk fail gks tkukA OPERATIONAL DATA:- fdlh Hkh organization ;k industries esa decision making dk dk;Z data ij fuHkZj djrk gS A fdlh Hkh Organization ;k Industries esa Data company ds fy;s vyx&vyx Hkkxksa ls izkIr gksrk gSSA vkSj fQj mu lHkh data dks ,d system ds vanj j[kk tkrk gSA Operational data dss :i esa ge mu data dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa ftudk mi;ksx orZeku esa ;k Hkfo"; esa fd;k tk ldrk gSA Operational Data Store djus ds fy, ,d System dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ftlesa Data ls tqM+s gq, lHkh fu;e igys ls gh lfEefyr gksrs gSs vkSj blh System dks ge Database Management system ds uke ls tkurs gSa ftlesa ,d Company dh iwjh Information gksrh gS A blesa Management ds lHkh fu;e igys ls gh define fd;s gq, gksrs gSaSA DBMS system fail gks tkus ij Hkh Mata Data dks Recover djus dh lqfo/kk Hkh iznku djrk gS A



SCHOOL

HIGHER

NUMBER OF STUDENT

SECTION

AREA STAFF CLASS

HIGH

PRIMARY

EXAMPLE:- Operational data dks represent djus ds fy, ge ,d school dk mnkgj.k ysrs gSa ftlessa school lcls igys Operational data dk dk;Z djsxk ysfdu tc school ij fo'kys"k.k fd;k tk,xk rc Operational data ds :Ik esa class staff vkSj area dks fy;k tk,xk bu lHkh dk tc fo'kys"k.k fd;k tk;xk rks dbZ izdkj ds individual data dh izkfIr gksxh A PURPOSE OF DATA BASE:-Database System vyx&vyx rjg dh Information dks Store djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS Data dks Store djus ds fy, vyx&vyx rduhd dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj Data ds vuq:i vyx&vyx nks rduhd esa ls ,d dk selection fd;k tkrk gSA Data dks Store djus ds fy, Data dh ,d System File cuk yh tkrh gS A vkSj user dks vyx&vyx Rights fn, tkrs gSaA ftlls fd og information dks use dj ik,A users information dks update djus ds fy, og vyx&vyx application program ls fQj ge dbZ programs cuk ldrs gSaa tSls& (1-) ,d account dh debit vkSj credit ns[kus ds fy, ,d program cukukA (2-) fdlh ,d u, account dks tksM+us ds fy, program cukukA (3-) account dk balance cukus ds fy, ,d program cukukA (4-) monthly statement dks ns[kus ds fy, ,d program cukukA



bu vyx&vyx applications dks organization ds gh programmer cukrs gS vkSj vyx&vyx vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj database ds lkFk u, program tksMs+ tkrs gaS] gj rjg ds output dks ikus ds fy, dbZ izdkj ds program cuk, tkrs gS bl dkj.k ;g system dkQh T;knk complex gks tkrk gS vkSj lHkh file system dks gesa eq[; computer ij pykuk gksrk gS ysfdu blesa leL;k ;g gksrh gS fd tc ,d file dh processing dh tkrh gS rks ,d ls T;knk application program gksus ds dkj.k ;g ,d gh record dh dbZ copy create dj nsrk gS blh dkj.k database dk management vyx&vyx copy cu tkus ds dkj.k vkSj Hkh dfBu gks tkrk gS A tc ge fdlh ,d system ij dk;Z djrs gSas vkSj mlesa fdlh file dks create dj ysrs gSa vkSj vc ge pkgrs gSa dh bl system ij dh lkjh files dks ge nwljs system ij ys tk,a rks ;g dkQh eqf'dy dke gksrk gS A ,d file processing system ds fuEu advantages gS A (1)Data dk vyx&vyx format esa gksuk %& bl system esa application program }kjk yacs le; ls vyx&vyx program, programmer }jk gh cuk, tkrs gSa A ;g programmer bu application dk fuekZ.k viuh bPNkuqlkj vyx&vyx programming language esa djrk gS A vyx&vyx programming language gksus ds dkj.k cnyko fd, tkus ij bu application programs dh ,d ls T;knk dbZ copy cu tkrh gSA (2)Condition ds vuqlkj data dk mi;ksx %& File processing system esa lHkh data system file ds :i esa gksrs gSa A bu data dks ubZ&ubZ condition ds vuqlkj ns[kus ds fy, application program dk fuekZ.k djuk gksrk gS A tSls %& fdlh bank manager dks mu customer dh data ns[kuh gksrh gS ftudh balance ,d yk[k :i, ls T;knk gks A

(3)Data Isolation: - bl system esa data vyx&vyx format esa store gksrk gS A vkSj bu vyx&vyx format ds data ds fy, ,d u;k program cukuk cgqr gh T;knk dfBu gksrk gS A (4) Integrity problem:- Data ds cnyko vkSj u, data dks insert djus ds fy, vyx&vyx conditions dks dataaaa ds lkFk tksM+uk file processing system esa cgqr gh T;knk dfBu gksrk gS A tSls&fdlh ,d company ds fy, (tks fd internal company gS) flQZ vidisha city esa jgus okys yksxksa dh gh informations dks ns[kuk gS ;k fQj mlesa dqN modifications djuk gks rc ge integrity problem dks solve djus ds fy, fQj ls user dks ,d program cukuk gksrk gSA Views of Data :-DBMS inter relatives files vkSj program dh collection gksrh gS ftldk mi;ksx user data store djus vkSj program ls files dks access djus vkSj modifications djus ds fy, djrs gSa bl system dk eq[; mnn~s'; user dks data abstract view fn[kkuk gksrk gS ;g system data ds dqN Hkkxksa dks Nqikdj j[kus dh {kerk iznku djrh gS bu system esa vyx&vyx conditions tksM+us dh Hkh lqfo/kk gksrh gS ;g 'krZ ml system ls tqM+s gq, user ds fy, gksrh gS tks relative user gks bUgha conditions ds vuqlkj data base dk mi;ksx djrk gS bu conditions dks ge rhu Hkkxksa esa ckWVrs gSaA



(a) Physical level: - ;g lcls lowest level gksrh gS bl level esa data dks dgkaW store fd;k x;k

gS bldh iwjh detail dks j[krk gS A (b) Logical level: - ;g physical level ds ckn dh level gksrh gS blesa vyx&vyx data dh

relations dks j[kk tkrk gS A bl level dk use data base administrator djrk gS A (c) View level: - ;g lcls highest level gksrh gS blesa iwjs data base dh detail j[kh tkrh gS A

tgkWa logical level esa relationship ds lkFk&lkFk data dgkWa store gS mldh iwjh tkudkjh dks fn[kykrk gS A

DATA MODELS: -Data model mu fopkjksa dk laxzg gksrk gS tks fdlh database ds structure (vFkkZr data type relationship ds fy, constant) dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds fy, ,oa data abstraction dks izkIr djus ds fy, mi;ksxh gksrk gS A vyx&vyx rjg ds data models tks fd data base structure o dbZ abstraction dh vyx&vyx fopkj/kkjkvksa ij vk/kkfjr gksrs gSa A Data models dh rhu izeq[k Jsf.k;kWa gksrh gS A

(1) Object Base Data Model: - bl Model dk mi;ksx Logical o View Level ij Data dks le>kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA Structure dks vklkuh ls ifjHkkf"kr djuk ,oa fo'ks"k rjg ds data constraint bl model dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk,Wa gksrh gS A Object Based Data Model dks Hkh ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa&

(A) Entity Relationship Model (ER-Model) (B) Object oriented model (C) Semantic Model (D) Functional Data Model

VIEW LEVEL ...........

----------

VIEW n

LOGICAL LEVEL

PHYSICAL LEVEL

VIEW 2 VIEW 1



(2) Record Based Logical Model: -bu Model dk mi;ksx logical vkSj view levels ij data dks le>kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS blesa data base ,d lqifjHkkf"kr vyx&vyx rjg ds record dk laxzfgr Structure gksrk gS data base dk iw.kZr% logical structure ,oa high level ij execution dh iwjh tkudkjh bldh eq[; fo'ks"krk,W gSaA record based logical model dks Hkh fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa%& (A) Relational Data Model:- u;s System ds fy;s] lokZf/kd lkekU; Database Model, gj fjys'ku vkSj esuh&Vw&esuh fjys'kuf'kIl ds fy;s] lk/kkj.k VscYl dks ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSa A dzkl&fjQzsal dh lkj.kh dks ,d lkFk fyad djrh gSa] tks bafVfVt ds chp laca/kksa dks n'kkZrk gS A izkbejh vkSj lsds.Mjh dh bUMsDl] ;ksX;rkvksa ij vk/kkfjr] MkVk rd rst ,Dlsl iznku djrs gSa A vf/kdrj ubZ ,Iyhds'kUl fjys'kuy DBMS ds mi;ksx ls curh gSa A

(B) Network Data Model:-bl Model esa] gj File LosPNk vuqlkj dbZ File ls lacaf/kr gks ldrh gS gkykfd ;g cgqr yphyk gS D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh laca/k Implement fd;k tk ldrk gS Implementation dk Form lkekU;r% fofHkUUk Files ls lacaf/kr Records ds iz;ksx ls Storage Space vkSj Maintanance Time esa egRoiw.kZ Overhead cukrk gS lekU;r% Network Model System dsoy One To Many RelationShip dk gh leFkZu djrs gSa ijarq dqN Many To Many Relationship dk leFkZu djrs gSa Network Model System vHkh Hkh 'kfDr'kkyh Mainframe ij vkSj gkbZ okY;we VªkatsDlu Processing Application ds fy, yksdfiz; gS D;ksfd Database Design dk Data laxBu ij bruk fu;a=k.k gksrk gS] blfy, Network System ds lkFk] gkbyh Optimized Database Design djuk laHko gS A mngj.k ds fy, izR;sd Record Type dks Hashing Algorithm ds iz;ksx ls laxfBr fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k bls vU; lacaf/kr Record Type ikl fLFkr fd;k tk ldrk gS ;g DylVfjax dk izkjafHkd izdkj gS Network System gkbjkfdZdy Database System ls vf/kd izdkj dh Processing Requirements dk lEkFkZu djrs gSa ijarq Network System esa vc Hkh vR;f/kd Programming vkSj Database Design ds Kku dh vkSj le; dh vko';drk gksrh gS vkSj bl dkj.k ;s mu laxBuksa esa izk;% iz;ksx fd;s tkrs gS ftudks ,sls rduhdksa esa egkjFk izkIr gS A (C) Hierarchical Data Model:- bl Model esa Files Top-Down Structure esa j[kh tkrh gSas] tks Tree ds leku gksrk gS A Data Relationships ds usLVsM One-to Many lewg esa lacaf/kr gksrs gSa A lokZsPp File dh ,d isjsaV ;k vksuj File gksrh gS vkSj ,d ;k vf/kd Children Files gksrh gS lcls iqjkus Database Architectures esa] dbZ Hierarchical Database vkt Hkh cMs+ laxBuksa esa ekStwn gS A ;g rduhd rc loksZRre gS] tc dUlsIpqvy Data Model Hkh ,d isM+ ds ln`'k gks] vkSj tc vf/kdrj



Data Access ,d gh :V ls izkjaHk gks A Hierarchical Database rduhd gkbZ okY;we VªkatsD'ku izkslsflax vkSj MIS Application ds fy, iz;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gS A Hierarchical DBMS esa lkFk dqN u;s Database fodflr gq, gSa& D;ksafd ubZ Applications dh vko';drk,sa lk/kkj.k VªkatsD'ku Processing ;k Data ds lejkbts'ku ls vf/kd foLr̀r gSa A (3) Physical Data Model: -bl Model dk mi;ksx fo'ks"k :i ls low level ij data dks le>kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr mu fopkj /kkjkvksa dks le>rk gS tks computer esa data fdl rjg ls laxzfgr gksrk gS physical data model dks Hkh ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa %&

(A) Unifying Model (B) Frame memory model

Data model dks fuEu izdkj ds structure ds ek/;e ls vklkuh ls le> ldrs gSa %& ***Instance & Schemes:- Database rFkk Database ds Description dks vyx&vyx djuk cgqr gh vko';d gS D;ksafd nksuksa vyx&vyx gh gksrs gSa Database ds Structure dks Schemes dgrs gSa A Schems dh ;g fo'ks"krk gksrh gS fd ;g ifjorZu dHkh&dHkh djrs gSa A

DATA MODEL

BJECT BASED DATA MODEL

RECORD BASED DATA MODEL

PHYSICAL DATA MODEL

ENTITY RELATION SHIP MODEL

OBJECT ORIENTED DATA MODEL

SEMANTIC DATA MODEL

FUNCTIONAL DATA MODEL

RELATIONAL DATA MODEL

NETWORK DATA MODEL

HIERARCHICAL DATA MODEL

UNIFYING DATA MODEL

FRAME MEMORY DATA MODEL



fdlh fo'ks"k {k.k ;k ifjfLFkfr esa Database esa Store Data dks Instance dgrs gSa A mnkgj.k Lo:i fdlh Hkh Table ds Structure dks Scheme vkSj Table ds vanj Store Data dks Instance dgrs gSa A fdlh fn, x, Database esa izR;sd Schemes ds ikl Lo;a dk Instance dk lewg gksrk gS A

***DATA DICTIONARY: -MsVkcsl schemas dks ge vyx&vyx special languages eas define djrs gSsa bl language dh compilation ds ckn table ds :i esa tks file store gksrh gS mls data dictionary dgrs gSsa ,oa bldk nwljk uke data directory Hkh gksrk gS A Data dictionary ,d ,slh file gksrh gS ftlesa meta data dks j[kk tkrk gS meta data ,d ,slh data gksrh gS tks data dh Hkh data dks j[krh gS actual data dks read ;k modify djus ij meta data dks Hkh use fd;k tk ldrk gS A

TYPES OF DATABASE LANGUAGES:- DBMS eq[; :i ls nks rjg dh languages ;k lqfo/kk,Wa iznku djrk gS A (1)Data definition facilities ;k data definition languages (DDL) (2)Data manipulation facility or Data Manipulation languages (DML) (1)Data Definition Languages (DDL): - Data Definition Languages dk mi;ksx fdlh conceptual scheme dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds fy;s o data dks laxzg djus okys physical midj.kksa ds fy, fdl fdz;kUo;u scheme dk mi;ksx djuk gS] dh tkudkjh bR;kfn ds fy, djrs gS A bl ifjHkk"kk esa lHkh entity sets o muls laoaf/kr attributes lkFk gh lHkh entity sets ds chp dh relationship o constraints (;fn dksbZ gS rks ) bR;kfn 'kkfey gksrs gSa ;g leLr tkudkjh compiled :i esa laxzg gksrh



gsS ftls data dictionary, directory ;k system catalog dgrs gS vr% data dictionary esa database esa laxzfgr data ls laoaf/kr lwpuk,a gksrh gSSa rFkk data ij fdlh Hkh manipulation ls iwoZ DBMS ls enn yh tkrh gS A izeq[k DDL language fuEu fyf[kr gSa % & (A)DROP (B) ALTER (C) CREATE (2) Data Manipulation languages (DML): - DML dk mi;ksx database ds data ij dksbZ Hkh manipulation(tksM+uk] feVkuk ;k ifjorZu) djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA manipulation esa data dk database ls retrieval (i<+uk ;k ns[kuk) u;s MsVk dk MsVkosl esa bulVZ djuk o MsVk dk fMfy'ku ;k viMs'ku lkfey gS A DML dks fuEu izdkj ls foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gS %& (A) Procedural DML: - izkslhtjy Mh,e,y esa ;wtj dks fdl rjg dk MsVk pkfg;s o dSls pkfg;s nksuks ckrsa crkuk gksrh gSA (B)Nonprocedural DML:- ukWuizklhtjy ysaXost esa ;wtj dks flQZ ;g crkuk gksrk gS fd dkSu lk MsVk pkfg;s ijarq dSls pfg;s ;g crkus dh t:jr ugha gksrhA izeq[k DML commands fuEufyf[kr gSa A (A)INSERT (B) UPDATE (C) DELETE STRUCTURE OF DBMS: - ;wtj dh lqfo/kk ds vk/kkj ij Mhch,e,l dks fuEufyf[kr vo;oksa esa foHkkftr dj ldrs gSaa A (1)Data Definition Languages Compiler :- ;g MhMh,y dEikbZyj MhMh,y dFkuksa dh VscYl ds lewg esa ifjofrZr djrk gSS A bu Vscyksa esa esVk MsVk gksrk gS tksfd MsVkcsl ls lacaf/kr gksrk gS o ,sls :i esa gksrk gS ftldks Mhch,e,l ds nwljs vo;o Hkh vi;ksx dj ldsa A (2) Data Manager: - ;g Mhch,e,l dk dsanzh; lk¶Vos;j vo;o gksrk gS ;g Qkby flLVe ls bUVjQsflax dk dk;Z djrk gSS o MsVk dh ,d:irk] LFkkf;Ro o lqj{kk dks cuk;s j[krk gS A MsVk esustj ;wtj dh D;wjh ds vkijs'kUl dks ;wtj ds ykWftdy O;w ls fQftdy Qkby flLVe esa ifjofrZr djus dk dk;Z djrk gS (pkgs D;wjh izklslj dks ;g D;wjh lh/ks nh xbZ gks vFkok fdlh ,Iyhds'ku izksxzke ds }kjk vizR;{k :i ls nh xbZ gks)A ;g csdvi o fjdojh vkijs'kUl esa Hkh Hkkx ysrk gS A (3)File Manager:- Qkby eSustj Qkby Lisl o Qkbyksa ds LVªDpj ds dk;Z dks fu;af=kr o lapkfyr djrk gS ;g ml Cykd dks <w<+us dk dk;Z Hkh djrk gSA ftlesa og fjdkMZ 'kkfey gks ftldh gedks t:jr gks A rRi'pkr~ fMLd eSustj ls bl Cykd ds fy;s fjDosLV djrk gS vkSj fQj var esa ml Cykd dks MsVk eSaustj dks ns nsrk gSA bl Qkby eSustj dk fdz;kUo;u gksLV dEI;wVj ds orZeku vkijsfVax flLVe ds ,d fo'ks"k Qkby lcflLVe esa bUVjQsflax ij gksrk gSa A



(4) Disk Manager: - fMLd eSustj lHkh buiqV o vkÅViqV vkijs'kUl dks iw.kZ djrk gS A ;g vkijsfVax flLVe dk ,d Hkkx gksrk gS ;g fMLd eSustj] Qkby eSustj ds }kjk ftl Cykd dh fjDosLV Hksth tkrh gS] mls ykSVkrk gS A (5)Query Processor: - D;wjh izkslslj dk mi;ksx fdlh vkWuykbu ;wtj dh D;wjh dks jksddj ,d mfpr vkijs'ku dh Ja[kyk esa ( tksfd MsVk eSustj ds }kjk fdz;kfUor dh tk lds) ifjofrZr djrk gS A D;wjh izkslslj MsVk fMD'kujh dk mi;ksx djds MsVkcsl ds mfpr Hkkx ds LVªDpj dks <w<+rk gS A o bl lwpuk dk mi;ksx djds D;wjh dks ifjofrZr dj nsrk gSA bl rjg ls MsVkcsl dks ,Dlsl djus dk vkfIVey Iyku(lcls mfpr rjhdk) rS;kj djrk gS A ADVANTAGES OF DBMS: - MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ds ykHk fuEufyf[kr gSs %& (1)Controlling Redundancy:-fjM.MsUlh dk vFkZ gS ,d gh MkVk dks ckj&ckj LVksj djuk blls dbZ leL;k,sa mRiUu gksrh gSa %&

· ,slh gj QkbZy esa flaxy ykWftdy viMsV djus dh vko';drk gksrh gS tgkWa ,d gh MkVk LVksj gksrk gSA blls MkVk dk MqIyhds'ku gksrk gS A

· tc ,d gh MkVk dbZ ckj LVksj fd;k tkrk gS rks LVksjst Lisl O;FkZ gksrh gSA · os Files Inconsistent (ijLij fojks/kh) gks ldrh gSa tks ,d gh Data dks izLrqr djrh gSa ,slk

blfy;s& D;ksafd ,d Update dqN File dks Applied dh tk pqdh gS] ijarq vU; dks ugh vFkkZr Redundancy ds dkj.k dqN Data Update fd;s x,s gksrsa gsSa vkSj dqN ugha ;gh Data dks Inconsistent cuk nsrs gSa A

bl leL;k dks gy djus] o DosSfjt dh dk;Z{kerk dks lq/kkjus fd fy;s] Redundancy dks fu;fU=kr djuk gksxk A

(2)Restricting Unauthorized Access: - tc vusd ;wtj ,d MkVkcsl dks vkil esa ckWVrs gSa] rc laHko gS fd dqN Users MkVkcsl ij miyC/k iwjh tkudkjh dks ,Dlsl djus dk vf/kdkj ugha j[krs gksa A lkFk gh] gks ldrk gS fd dqN ;wtlZ dks dsoy MsVk fjVªkbo djus dh gh vuqefr gks] tcfd dqN dks fjVªkbo djus o viMsV djus] nksuksa dh vkKk gks A blfy;s] ,Dlsl vkijs'ku dk izdkj Hkh fu;af=kr gksuk pkfg;sA DBMS dks ,d lqj{kk vkSj izkf/kdj.k lcflLVe iznku djuk pkfg;s] ftldk iz;ksx DBA [kkrs cukus vkSj [kkrk lhek,Wa fu/kkZfjr djus ds fy;s djsa A (3)Enforcing Integrity Constraint: - vf/kdrj MsVkcsl ,Iyhds'kUl ds dqN bUVsfxzVh dkaLVsªUV~l gksrs gSa& tks MkVk ij ykxw gksus pkfg;sA,d DBMS dks bu izfrca/kksa dks ifjHkkf"kr o ykxw djus dh {kerk,sa iznku djuk pkfg;sA lcls lk/kkj.k izdkj ds bUVsfxzVh daLVªsUV~l ds vUrxZr gj MkVk vkbZVe dk MkVk Vkbi fu/kkZfjr djuk vkrk gSA bUVsfxzVh dh leL;k ;g lqfuf'pr leL;k gS&fd MkVkcsl ess LVksj fd;k x;k MsVk lVhd gS ;k ughaaA dqN daLVªsUVl(:dkoV) dh tkap viMsV izksxzkEl }kjk dh tkuh gksrh gS D;ksfd MkVk izfof"B ds le; dksbZ MsVk xyrh ls izfof"Br fd;k x;k gks ldrk gS ijarq fQj Hkh bUVsxzhVh daLVªsUVl ds vuqlkj gks ldrk gS A



mnkgj.k%& vxj fdlh Nk=k dh xzsM A gS vkSj geus xyrh ls C MsVkcsl esa izfof"B dh gS rFkk DBMS bls Lor% igpku ugha ldrk A (4)Reduced Application Development Time:-,d ckj tc MkVkcsl rS;kj gks tkrk gS] rc og u;s MkVkcsl dh fMtkbfuax vkSj bEIyhesafVax dh vis{kk ls de le; ysrk gSSA DBMS ds mi;ksx ls] fodkl le; ijaijkxr QkbZy flLVe ls ,d NBk@,d PkSkFkkbZ gS A (5)Flexibility: - ge vko';drk esa cnyko ds vuqlkj MkVkcsl ds LVªDOkj dks cny ldrs gS MkVkcsl esa ubZ QkbZysa tksM+uk ;k fdlh igys ls ekstwn QkbZy ds MsVk ,yhesaV~l dks c<+kuk t:jh gks ldrk gSA bl izdkj DBMS LVksj fd;s tk pqds MkVk ;k mifLFkr ,Iyhds'ku izksxzke dks izHkkfor fd;s fcuk MkVk ds LVªDpj esa dqN cnykoksa dh vkKk nsrk gS A DISADVANTAGE OF DBMS:- ds cgqr ls ykHkksa ds ckctwn ,slh dqN ifjfLFkfr;kWa gSa ftuesa ;g flLVe dqN vuko';d [kpksaZ dks c<+k nsrk gS tks ijaijkxr flLVe esa t:jh ugha gksrsA DBMS ds eq[; disadvantage fuEu fyf[kr gSa %& (1) u;s fo'ks"kK dkeZpkfj;ksa dh vko';drk%& cgqr ls lsaxBu DBA dks viuk jgs gSa mUgsa Data Base dministration services miyC/k djokus o u, staff dks O;ofLFkr djus ds fy,] O;fDr;ksa dks] database fufeZr djus o ykxw djus ds fy, izf'k{k.k nsus ; u, O;fDr;ksa dks fu;qDr djus dh vko';drk gksrh gS A (2) Installation o j[kj[kko dh ykxr rFkk tfVyrk%& ,d Multi-user database ,d cM+k vkSj tfVy software dk lewg gksrk gS ftldh izkjafHkd ykxr mPp gksrh gS o bls install o operate djus ds fy, izf'kf{kr deZpkfj;ksa dh vko';drk gksrh gSA vkSj blds lkFk gh blds j[k&j[kko o dh okf"kZd dher cgqr T;knk gksrh gS A (3) Conversion Costs: - Organization esa file processing ;k iqjkuh database rduhdks ij vk/kkfjr iqjkuh application ds fy, vk/kqfud system esa :ikarfjr djus esa dkQh T;knk ykxr yxrh gS tks fd MkWyjksa esa gksrh gS A (4) Li"V Backup o Recovery dh vko';drk% &,d shared database ,dne lgh o gj le; miyC/k gksrk gSA blds fy, foLr̀r o le>us ;ksX; izfdz;kvksa dks fodflr djus o fdlh izdkj ds uqdlku dh fLFkfr esa Database dks iqu% laxzfgr djus ds fy, MsVk dh csdvi dkWfi;ksa dks miyC/k djkus ds fy, bu izfdz;kvksa dk mi;ksx djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA File System dh vis{kk vk/kaqfud Database Management System lkekU;r% vf/kdre csdvi o fjdojh dk;ksZ dks Lo;a gh dj ysrk gSA (5) Complex Query: - DBMS esas Data Access djus ds fy, gesa DDL vkSj DML Statement dk Use djuk gksrk gS buds Statement dkQh T;knk Complex gksrs gSa vkSj budk Use djus ds fy, gesa dkQh T;knk Study djuk gksrh gS A 3-LEVEL ARCHITECTURE PROPOSAL :-ANSI(American national Standards Instiute)/SPARCE(Standards Planing And Requirements Committe) ds DBMS ds Three Level



dk mi;ksx fQftdy Database o User ds Application dks iF̀kd&iF̀kd djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA izR;sd Level ds View dks n'kkZus ds fy;s ,d Scheme dk mi;ksx djrs gSA Scheme ,d Plan gksrk gS tks fjdkMZ o View dh leLr fjys'ku'khi dks ifjHkkf"kr djrk gS bl Arichitecture ds fuEu rhu View gksrs gSa A

(1) External Level (2) Conceptual Level

(3) Internal Level (1) External Or User View: -;g Database dk lcls T;knk Abstracted Level gksrk gS tgkWa ij fd Database dk og Hkkx gh fn[krk gS tks fd fdlh User dks ;k Application Program dks pkfg;s gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh ,d Global (Conceptual) Level ds cgqr ls User Views gks ldrs gSaA o LkkFk gh ,d ls vf/kd ,d leku Views Hkh gks ldrs gSaA og Scheme ftlds }kjk External View dks ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS bls External Scheme dgrs gSa A bl Scheme esa Logical Record dh ifjHkk"kk] External View esa Relationship o ,slh Methods ftlds }kjk Object dks Conceptual View ls External View es ys tk;k tkrk gSA fdlh Hkh Object esa Entity, Attributes o fjys'kuf'ki bR;kfn 'kkfey gksrs gSaaA

(2) Conceptual/Global View:- Database Abstraction dk ;g Global View leLr Database dks iznf'kZr djrk gS A og Scheme tks fd Global View dks ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS] mls Conceptual dgrs gSa Aftlesa lHkh Database mu lHkh ds chp dh Relationship o ,slh fof/k ftlds }kjk Objects dks Internal View ls Conceptual View ij yk;k tk lds A izR;sd Database esa flQZ ,d gh Conceptual View gksrk gS A bl Level ij Data ds izk:i dh tkudkjh mlds fQfTkdy izk:i ls iwjh rjg ls fHkUu gksrh gS A



(3) Internal View: - ;g database dk lcls de ,ClVªDVsM ysoy gksrk gS tks ;g crkrk gS fd Data fdl rjg ls laxzg gksxk] Database ds }kjk fdl rjg dk Data Structure o Access Method mi;ksx dh tk;xh vFkkZr ;g Level Physical Stores fof/k ls cgqr gh utnhd gSA ftl Scheme dk mi;ksx bl Level dks ifjHkkf"kr djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gS mls Internal Scheme dgrs gSaaaasaA bl Scheme esa laxzghr fjdkMZl~ dh ifjHkk"kk] Data File dks n'kkZus dh fof/k o Accessing fd fy, enn bR;kfn 'kkfey gksrh gS A *** Entity Relationship Model as A Tool of Conceptual Design: - Entity –Relationship ;k E-R Model ,d mPp&Lrjh; o izpfyr oSpkfjd MsVk Model gSA bl Model dk] Database Application ds oSpkfjd Design vkSj Database Design esa ckj&ckj iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ,d Entity –Relationship Model fdlh O;kolkf;d {ks=k ;k laxBu ds fy, Data dk ,d foLr̀r Logical izLrqfrdj.k gSA E-R Model dh O;kolkf;d okrkoj.k esa Entities ds inksa esa mu Entities ds lkFk laca/kksa vkSj Entities vkSj muds laca/kksa mdh fo'ks"krkvksa esa O;k[;k dh tkrh gSA ,d E-R Model lkeku;r% ,d E-R Diagram ;k Entity –Relationship Diagram ds :i esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gS tks E-R Model dk Graphical izn'kZu gksrk gS Avr% E-R Model vf/kdrj] Database Design vkSj End Users ds chp Database fodkl dh fo'ys"k.k voLFkk ds nkSjku Communication ds fy, ,d midj.k ds :i esa iz;qDr fd;k tkrk gSA E-R Model cukus ds fy, ge rhu vk/kkjHkwr Concepts dk Use djrs gSa %& (1) Entity & Entity Set: - ,d Entity okLro esa ,d Object ;k /kkj.kk gS tks vU; Objects ls vyx dh tk ldrh gSA vRk% Entity ,d Object ;k fj;y oYMZ Object gSA Entity Set: - Database esa lHkh Entities dk lap;u Entity Set dgykrk gSA (2)Relationship : - fdlh Hkh Database esa tCk ,d Field nwljh Field ij fuHkZj gks rc og fdlh Hkh Database ds fy, Relationship dks n'kkZ ldrh gS ;k fQj nks Database esa fdlh ,d leku Field dks Use djds Relation Operations dks Complete dj ldrs gSaA

(3) Relationship & Relationship Set: -Relationship ,d izdkj dh Relations dk lewg gS A ekuk fd] gekjs ikl nks Entities Set gSa

(1) Customer Entity Set (2) Account Entity Set

nks Entities Set ds e/; ds laca/k dks RelationShip Set dgrs gSaA

(4)Attributes:-Entities Set ds xq.k Attributes dgykrs gSaAfofHkUu izdkj ds Attributes fuEufyf[kr gSa%& (1)Simple Attribute: - ;g ,d ,slk Attribute gksrk gS ftls ge dsoy ,d okj gh mi;ksx dj ldrs gSsA ,d okj mi;ksx gks tkus ds ckn ge mldk nksckjk mi;ksx ugha dj ldrs A nwljs 'kCnksa esa ge ;g



dg ldrs gSa fd ,sls Attribute ftls vkSj vkxs fo?kfVr ugha fd;k tk lds] lk/kkj.k Attribute dgykrs gSaA (2)Composite Attribute: - ,d ,slk Attribute ftls vius lgk;d Attribute esa foHkkftr fd;k tk lds] fefJr Attribute dgykrk gSA

(3)Single-Value Attributes: - ,d ,slk Attribute ftldh fdlh Entity ds fy;s flQZ ,d gh Value gks] og Single Value Attribute dgykrk gSA

Example: -

;gkWa ij izR;sd Attribute dh flQZ ,d gh osY;w gS tSls NAME dh Ram, ADD dh LIG o CITY dh Indore A (4)Multivalue Attribute: - ,d ,slk Attribute ftldh fdlh Entity ds fy;s ,d ls vf/kd Value gks] og Multivalue Attribute dgykrk gSA

Example: -

;gkWa ij ,d gh Entity ds fy, ADD Attribute dh ,d ls vf/kd Values gSa A (5)Null Attribute: -,d ,slk Attribute ftldh fdlh Entity ds fy;s dksbZ Value u gks ;k fQj Value lansgkLin gks rks mls Null Attribute dgrs gSaA

Example: -

NAME

FIRST NAME FIRST NAME FIRST NAME



(6)Derived Attribute:-tc Attribute dh Value fdlh nwljs Attribute dh lgk;rk ls fudkyh tk ldrh gS ;k fudkyh tkrh gS] rk og Attribute Derived Attribute dgykrk gSA

Example:-

Derived Attribute Base Attribute ij fuHkZj djrk gS A tSls Date Of Completion ,d fuHkZj Attribute gS tks Date Of Addmission ij fuHkZj djrk gS A ;gkWa ij Date Of Addmission ,d Base Attribute gS o Date Of Completion ,d Derived Attribute gSA MAPPING CARDINALITIES:- ;g Entities dh la[;kvksa dks O;Dr djrk gS] ftlls Relationship Set ls vU; Entities dks tksM+k tk ldrk gS Mapping cardinalities Binary Relationshi[p Sets dks of.kZr djus esa vR;f/kd mi;ksxh gksrh gS A ;|fi dHkh&dHkh os mu Relationship ds Sates ds o.kZu esa ;ksxnku nsrh gS] ftuesa nks ls vf/kd Entity Sates gksrs gSa A nks Entity Sates A o B ds chp ck;ujh Relationship Set R gksus ds fy, fuEufyf[kr esa ls dksbZ ,d Mapping cardinalities vo'; gksuh pkfg, A (1)One to One:- A dh ,d Entity T;knk ls T;knk fdlh ,d B dh Entity ls vkSj B dh ,d Entity T;knk ls T;knk A dh ,d Entity ls lEcfU/kr gSa A



(2) One to Many:-A esa ,d Entity B esa fdlh Hkh laa[;k esa Entities ls lEcfU/kr gksxh A gkykafd B esa ,d Entity A dh ek=k ,d Entity ls gh lEcfU/kr gks ldrh gS A

(3) Many to One:-A dh ,d Entity T;knk ls T;knk B dh ,d Entity ls] tcfd B dh ,d Entity A dh fdruh Hkh Entity ls laEcaf/kr gks ldrh gSa A

(4) Many to Many:-A dh ,d Entity B dh fdruh Hkh Entity ls rFkk B dh ,d Entity A fd fdruh Hkh Entities ls lEcfU/kr gSa A

DIFFRENT KEYS: -Key ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dk Attribute gksrk gS bldh enn ls ge vU; Attribute dks tksM+ ldrs gSa A Keys dks ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa %



(1) Primary Key:- ,d Attribute ftlds }kjk fdlh fjys'ku esa izR;sd ykbZu dks vf}rh; :i ls igpkuk tk lds A blesa nks xq.kksa dk gksuk vfuok;Z gS %

(A) Unique (B) Not Null Example: Student Table

;gkW Student Table esa izR;sd Nk=k dk R.NO vf}rh; gksxk blfy;s R.NO dks ge izk;ejh&dh ds :i esa ys jgs gSa A (2) Foreign Key: - ,d gh Database ds ,d fjys'ku dk og Attribute tks mlh Database ds vU; fjys'ku ds fy;s izk;ejh&dh dk dk;Z djsa A bls fjQjsUl&dh Hkh dgrs gSsa] D;ksafd ;g nks Tables ds chp fjys'ku LFkkfir djrh gSSS A QkWjsu&dh esa iqujkof̀Rr o Null Value dk mi;ksx lEHko gSS A

Student Table

Primary key

Student Table o Class Table nksuksa esa gh Attribute R.NO gSA Student Table esas bls izk;ejh&dh cuk;k x;k gS] tcdh ;gh Class Table esa Foreign Key gSA ;g ,d Common Field gS ftlds }kjk ge nksuksa Tables ds chp lEcU/k LFkkfir dj ldrs gSa A

R.NO NAME ADD CITY 101 RAM LIG INDORE 102 HARI PALASIA INDORE 103 SITA NAGAR INDORE



(1) Composite Key: -,d ,slh Primary Key ftlesa ,d ls vf/kd Attributes gksa Composite Key dgykrh gS A

(2) Super Key : - Attributes dk dksbZ lewg] tks fjys'ku esa gj Tuple dks vf}rh; :i ls

Identify (igpkurk) djrk gS] mls Supper Key dgk tkrk gSA vFkkZr ,d Key ,d Minimal Super Key gksrh gS A Minimal ls gekjk vk'k; gS fd Key Attributes ds Set dk dksbZ lclsV] Relation esa Tuples dks vf}rh; :i ls Identify ughaa djsxk A

(3) Candidate Key:- izR;sd Attribute ;k izR;sd Attribute dk lewg tks Relation esa

izR;sd Row dks vf}rh; :i ls n'kkZ lds Candidate Key dgykrh gSA bu lHkh Candidate Key esa ls gh ge fdlh ,d dks izk;ejh&dh ds :i esa pqurs gSaA

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM (E-R DIAGRAM): -,d E-R Diagram vusd Entities dsa e/; lEcU/k vkSj vkilh fuHkZjrk dks n'kkZrk gS A fdlh Hkh E-R Diagram dks n'kkZus ds fy, rhu bdkb;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS igyh Entity nwljh Attribute vkSj rhljh bdkbZ bu Entities ds e/; ds Relation n'kkZrk gS A Example: -

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa ,d Finance djus okyh Company dk E-R Diagram cuk;k x;k gS ftlesa Company-Customer vkSj ys[kk (A/c) ds ckjs esa Data Store gS A

Strong Entity Set:-,d ,slk Entity set ftleas ,d ,slh Field (Attribute) gks ftldks dh Primary Key cuk;k tk lds A bl Entity Set dks Strong Entity Set dgrs gSa A



Example: -

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa RN Field dks Primary Key ds :i esa fy;k tk ldrk gS] D;ksafd ;g izR;sd ykbZu ds fy, ,d vf}rh; eku dks n'kkZrh gS A Weak Entity Set: - ,d ,slk Entity Set ftlesa ,d Hkh ,slh Field u gks ftldksa dh Primary Key cuk;k tk lds A bl Entity Set dks Weak Entity Set dgrs gSa A

Example:-

mijksDr mnkgj.k esa dksbZ Hkh Field dk eku vf}rh; ugha gSa vr% buesa ls fdlh Hkh Field dks Primary Key ugha cuk;k tk ldrk gS A SPECIAL E-R FEATURES: - E-R fopkj/kkjk ds fo'ks"k xq.k fuEufyf[kr gSa %& (2) Specialization: - ;g fdlh Higher Level Entity ds Lower Label Entity Sates esa foHkktu dh izfdz;k gS A ;g izfdz;k blfy;s vko';d gS D;ksafd ,d Entity Set esa ls ,slh Entities dk lekos'k gksrk gS Abuds xq.k/keZ vkil esa leku ugha gksrs gSa A



(2)Generalization (Supertype): -bl izfdz;k esa nks ;k mlls vf/kd Lower Level Entities dks ,d Higher Level Entity Set ds Union ds :i esa n'kkZrs gSa Higher Level Entity Set ds Attribute dks Lower Level Entity Set ls Inherited fd;k tkrk gS A (3)Aggregation: - E-R Model dh ,d lhek ;g gS fd ;g Relationship ds chp Relationship dks iznf'kZr ugha dj ldrk gS A blh ds fy;s ge Aggregation dk mi;ksx djrs gSa A Aggregation ,d Abstraction dh izfdz;k gS ftlesas Relationship Stats dks ,d Higher Level Entity ds :i esa iznf'kZr djrs gSa bl izdkj Relationship Sets o mlls lEcfU/kr Entity Sets dks ge ,d Higher Level Entity ds :i esa ns[krs gSa vkSj ;g mlh rjg dk O;ogkj djrh gS] ftl rjg ls nwljh Entity A



UNIT-II SET THEORY CONCEPTS AND FUNDAMENTALS (1) Relation: - R (A1, A2.....An) }kjk n'kkZ;k tkus okyk ,d Relaion Schema ‘R’, Relation Name R Attribute dh List A1, A2..........An ls feydj cuk gS izR;sd Attribute Ai Relation Schema R esa fdlh Domain D }kjk fuHkkbZ tk jgh Hkwfedk dk uke gS bls dom(Ai) n'kkZ;k tkrk gS A ,d Relation dk o.kZu djus ds fy, Relation Schema dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A R Relation dk uke gS] ,d Relation eas Attribute dh la[;k dks Relation dh Degree dgk tkrk gS A Relation dh dqN Property gksrh gsS tks Relation dks Non Relational Table ls vyx djrs gSa A (1) Database esa gj Relation ;k Table dk ,d fHUUk uke gksrk gsS A (2) izR;sd Row vkSj Column ds Intersection(TkksM+) ij Entry Atomic ;k Single Valued gksrh gS A ,d Relation esa dksbZ Multivalued Attribute ugha gksrk gS A (3) izR;sd Row fHkUu gksrh gS] ,d Application esa dksbZ Hkh nks Rows leku ugha gksrh A] (4) ,d Table ds vaUrxZr izR;sd Attribute dk ,d vf}rh; uke gksrk gS A (5) Columns dk dze egRoghu gksrk gS] Relations ds Columns dks Interchange (vkil esa cnyuk) fd;k tk ldrk gS] blls muds vFkZ ij dksbZ izHkko ugha gksrk A (2)Domains: - Domain ,d Atomic Value dk Set gksrk gS vFkkZr Domain esa izR;sd Value Individual gksrh gS Domain dks Specify djus dh lcls Common Method gS ml Data Type dks fu/kkZfjr dj nsuk ftlls Domain cukus okyh Data Value yh xbZ gSs] Domain dh Values dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, Domain ds fy, uke fu/kkZfjr djuk Hkh mi;ksxh gksrk gS A Domain ds dqN mnkgj.k fuEu gSa %&



yksdy&Qksu uacj% Hkkjr ds ,d fof'k"V ,fj;k dksM esa ekU; N% vadks ds Qksu uacjksa dk lewgA jksy uacj % ikWp&vadks dk EkU; jksy uacj A uke % O;fDr;ksaa ds ukeksa dk lewg A fo"k;&uke % fo"k; ds uke tSls xf.kr] foKku] vkfn A bUgsa Domains dh Logical Dedination dgk tkrk gS A bl rjg Domain dks ,d uke] Data Type vkSj Format fn;k tkrk gS A Domain ds Vaklues ds vFkZ dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, vfrfjDr tkudkjh Hkh nh tk ldrh gsS A mnkgj.k ds fy, O;fDr ds otu tSlh la[;kRed Domain dks ekius dh bdkb;kWa gksuh pkfg;s tSls fd fdyks vkfn A (3)Attribute:-,d Entity] Attributes ds Sets }kjk iznf'kZr dh tkrh gS A Attribute, Entities Sets ds izR;sd lnL; dk o.kZukRed xq.k/keZ gksrk gS A izR;sd ,afVVh lsV ds fy, Attributes dk uke ;g O;Dr djrk gS fd Database ,afVVh lsV dh izR;sd ,afVVh ds fy, ,d leku lwpuk laxzfgr djrk gS] tcfd ,afVVh IkzR;sd Attribute ds fy, ,d eku j[k ldrh gS A Customer ,afVVh lsV ds laHko Attributes gSa& Customer_name, social_securty_number ,oa Customer_city gSa A Attributes ftl izdkj ls ER Mk;xzke esa mi;ksx gksrk gSa] mUgsa fuEUkfyf[kr izdkjksa esa foHkkftr fd;k tk ldrk gSa& (i) Simple And Composite Attribute (ii) Single Valued and Multivalued (iii) Null Attributes (iv) Derived Attrkibute (4)Tuple:- Relation (lkj.kh) dh Rows Relation ds Tuple dgykrs gS A ,d Entity ftlesa n Attribute gS] dks bu Attributes ds Orderd Set ds }kjk iznf'kZr fd;k tk ldrk gS] ftUgas n Tuple dgrs gSa A bu n Attributes ds eku Domain D1...Dn esa gksrs gSa A Tuple File System esa Record ds leku gksrk gS vkSj ;g Entities esa Entities ds chp Relationship dks gSaMy djus esa mi;ksx gksrk gS A Tuples dks lkekU;r% vaxzth o.kZekyk ds v{kjksa r,s,t....... ds }kjk iznf'kr fd;k tkrk gS A ,d n Tuple t dks t=a1,....an ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gS A CONCEPT OF KEY: - Key ,d fo'ks"k izdkj dk Attribute gksrk gS A bldh enn ls ge vU; Attribute dks igpku ;k tksM+ ldrs gS A Keys dks ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa A (1) Candidate Key: -izR;sd Attribute ;k izR;sd Attributes dk lewg tks Relation esa izR;sd Row dks vf}rh; :i ls n'kkZ lds Candidate Key dgykrh gS A bu lHkh Candidate Key esa ls gh ge fdlh ,d dks Primary Key ds :i es pqurs gSa A



(2) Primary Key: - ,d Attribute ftlds }kjk fdlh Relation esa IkzR;sd ykbZu dks vkf}rh; :i ls igpkuk tk lds A blesa nks xq.kksaa dk gksuk vfuok;Z gSa % (1) UNIQUE (2) NOT NULL Example: ;gkW STUDENT TABLE esa izR;sd Nk=k dk RN (jksy ua-) vf}rh; gksxk blfy;s RN dks ge Primary Key ds :i esa ys jgs gSa A (3) Alternate Key:- og dsafMMsV ‘dh’ tks izkbejh ‘dh’ ds :i esa ugha pquh xbZ gS mUgsa dsfMMsV ‘dh’ dh vYMjusV ‘dh’ dgrs gSa A (4) Super Key: - Attributes dk dksbZ lewg] tks fjys'ku esa gj Tuple dks vf}rh; :i ls Identify (igpku) djrk gS] mls Supper Key dgk tkrk gS A vFkkZr ,d Key ,d Minimal Super Key gksrh gS A Minimal ls gekjk vk'k; gS fd Key Attributes ds Set dk dksbZ lclsV] Relation esa Tuples dks vf}rh; :i ls Identify ughaaa djxk A Foreign Key:- nks lkjf.k;ksa ds e/; Relations dks n'kkZus dk dk;Z Foreign Key ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gS Foreign Key Database ds Relation esa og Attribute gS tks mlh Database esa vU; Relation dh Primary Key dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS A mnkgj.k fd fy;s %& EMPLOYEE ( Emp-no, Name, Dept_no, Salary) DEPARTMENT (Dept_no, Location, Fax) Attribute Dept_no EMPLOYEE esa Foreign Key gS A ;g User dks fdlh Hkh deZpkjh dks] ml foHkkx ds lkFk tksM+us dh vuqefr nsrh gS ftl foHkkx ds lkFk mls fu;qDr fd;k x;k gS A dqN ys[kd bl RkF; dks T;knk egRo nsrs gSa fd Dashed Underline ds mi;ksx ls ,d Attribute Foreign Key gS tSls& EMPLOYEE (Emp-no, Name, Dept_no, Salary) og Foreign Key tks Lo;a ds Relation esa Primary Key dks References djrh gS mls Recursive Foreign Key dgk tkrk gS A



For Ex- EMPLOYEE (Employee_No, Name, Birthdate, Manager_No.) Manager_No. reference Employee_No in Employee relation.

FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRITY RULES: Entity Integrity:- ,d Relatiom esa Row dk fu/kkZj.k okLrfod nqfu;k dh oLrq ds Database esa Instance dks n'kkZrh gS A mnkgj.k ds y, Worker esa ,d Row ,d fu/kkZfjr deZpkjh dks n'kkZrh gS] Building esa ,d Row ,d fu/kkZfjr Bulding dks n'kkZrh gSa] ASSIGNMENT esa] ,d Row Building deZpkjh ds ,d fu/kkZfjr dk;Z dks n'kkZrh gS A Relation esa ,d Key gj Row dks vf}rh; :i Identifies djrh gS vkSj bl dkj.k gj Entity Instance dks Identifiers djrh gS A blfy, vxj Users ,d fuf'pr Row esa Store fd, x, Data dks Retrive ;k Manipulate djuk pkgrs gSa rc mUgsa Key ds fy, vFkok Row ds fy, Values Kkr gksuh pkfg;s A bldk vFkZ gS fd ge dksbZ Hkh Entity Database esa rc rd ugha n'kkZuk pkgrs tc rd gekjs ikl Entity ds Key Attributes dh iw.kZ igpku u gks] blfy, ge fdlh Hkh Key dh ;k Key ds Hkkx dh ,d Null Value ugha gksus nsuk pkgrssss A ;g Entity Entegrity fu;e eas le>k;k x;k gS A Relation esa fdlh Hkh Row esa Key Attribute dh Null Value ughaa gksuh pkfg;s Referential Integrity: - Relation Data Model esa lkjf.k;ksaa ds chp esa laca/kksa dks Foreign Key ds iz;ksx ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS A Example:-

CUSTOMER vkSj ORDER ds chp laca/k] ORDER eas Customer-no Attribute dks Foreign Key dh rjg 'kkfey djds] ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS A bldk vFkZ gS fd blls igys dh ge Order Table esa ,d ubZ Row Insert djsa] ml Order ds fy, Customer, CUSTOMER Table esa mifLFkr gksuk pkfg, A Referential Integrity Constraint og fu;e gS tks nks Relations dh Row’s ds e/; fLFkjrk cuk, j[krk gS A fu;e dgrk gS fd vxj ,d Relation esa Foreign Key dh gS] rc ;k rks gj Foreign Key dh Value vU; Relation esa Primary Key dh Value ls Match gksuh pkfg;s ;k Foreign Key dh Value Null gksuh pkfg, A vU; Relations esa Database okLrfod Key Values Referential Integrity dk vuqlj.k djrh gSa A



****Extension & Intention:- Not Found RELATIONAL ALGEBRA: - ;g ,d Procedural Query Language gS A ;g Operation ds ,sls lewg ls feydj curh gS tks ,d ;k nks Relation ij Input dh rjg dk;Z djrs gSa vkSj ifj.kke izkIr djus ds fy, u;s Relations dh jpuk djrs gSa A ewy Operations gSa Select, Project, Union, Cartesian, Product, Rename vkSj Set Difference. vkSj blesa dqN vkSj Operations Hkh 'kkfey gSa tSls Sate Interesection, Natural Join, Division o Assignment A (1)Select Operation: -bls ,d ,slk Tuple pquus ds fy, vi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gS] tks ,d nh xbZ 'krZ dks iwjk djrk gks A bls s (Sigma) Notation ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gS A Select Operation dk iz;ksx] Relations ls Tuples ds ,d ,ls Subset dks pquus es fd;k tkrk gS tks ,d nh xbZ 'krZ dks iwjk djrk gS A Syntax is: s<condition>(Relation) Example:- (1) ,sls deZpkjh Tuple dks Select djus ds fy, ftldk foHkkx 4 gS A

sDNO=4 (Employee)

(2) deZpkjh ds mu Tuples dks pquus ds fy, ftudk osru 30]000 ls T;knk gS A

sSalary>=30000(Employee)

blesasa fuEu Relation Operators 'kkfey gS tSls =, ≠, <, ≤, >, ≥ vkSj and tSls Logical Operator tSls ^ ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gS] or ftls v ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gS not operator ! Project Operation: -Project Operation Uniry Operation gS tks dqN Attributs dks NksM+dj Argument Relation nsrk gS A pwawfd ,d Relation ,d Set gksrk gS] vr% dksbZ Hkh MqIyhdsV iafDr gVk nh tkrh gS A Project dks xzhd v{kj ikbZ (&) }kjk iznf'kZr fd;k tkrk gS A ftu Attribute dks ge ifj.kke esa pkgrs gSa vUgsa & dh Subscript ds :i esa fy[krs gSs Argument Relation dks & ds ckn dks"Bd esa fy[kk tkrk gS A Example:-;fn ge vu ikfVZ;ksa ds uke ns[kuk pkgrs gSa ftuls ge Mhy djrs gSa rc ge Project Opetrator dk mi;ksx djrs gSa A &p_name (Party_master 1)



Project Operation:-Project Operation Unary Operation gS] tks dqN Attributes dks NksM+dj Argument Relation nsrk gS A pwafd ,d Relation ,d Set gksrk gS] vr% dksbZ Hkh MqIyhdsV iafDr gVk nh tkrh gS A Projection dks xzhd v{kj ( π) ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tkrk gS A ftu Attributes dks ge ifj.kke esa pkgrs gSa] mUgas π ds Subscript ds :i esa fy[krs gSa A Argument Relation dks π ds ckn dks"Bd esa fy[kk tkrk gS A mnkgj.k%& ;fn ge mu ikfVZ;ksa ds uke ns[kuk pkgrs gSa] ftuls ge Mhy djrs gS] rc ge izkstsD'ku Operator dk mi;ksx djrs gSa A πp_name (Party_master 1) Cross Product: -Relation Algebra ges'kk ,d Index Label dk fuekZ.k djrk gS vkSj bl Index Label ls tqM+h gqbZ okdh Table tks fdlh Reference dh enn ls Data Access dj jgh gS ;k fQj Cross Project Table esa :i esa og iqjs Project Table lHkh Use dks ,d leku Data Rights dh lqfo/kk nsrk gS vkSj budk Use Dumb Table ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gS bldk Syntax fuEu izdkj dk gksrk gS vkSj bl Syntex esa Multiple Table ds Data dks n'kkZ;k x;k gS A Select *from ABC Where per=(select per from xyz) where grade=’first’); DIFFRENT TYPE OF JOIN: - DBMS esa nks Tables dh Relation djkdj gh nksuksa dks ns[kuk vko';d ugha gS SQL ds ek/;e ls Join dh ,salh lqfo/kk nh xbZ gS ftldh enn ls ge nks Tables dks ,d lkFk ns[k ldrs gS vSj buesa Conditions Hkh yxkk ldrs gSa vkSj blh Condition dks ge Join Condition ds uke ls tkurs gS vkSj blds vyx&vyx rjg ds Join miyC/k gksrs gSa tSls& Theata Join, Equi Join , Natural Join, Outer Join, Inner Join. Join ds vanj ge Cross Project dk Hkh mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa A Cross Project rc Use fd;k tkrk gS tc Join Cortesian Product cu tkrk gS A Natural join: - ,slh Join dh Condition ftlesa nks Relation ,d tSls gks vkSj muds Attributes Hkh Common gksa Natural Join dgykrk gS A Natural Join dh Condition nks Relation dks Maintain djus ds fy, mi;ksx esa ykbZ tkrh gS ;g ,d Binary Operation gS ;gkWa ;g Selection vkSj Cartesian Product dks ,d Operation ls feyk nsrk gS ftls Join fpUg ds }kjk n'kkZ;k tkrk gS vkSj bldk lkadsfrd :i fuEu izdkj ls n'kkZ;k tkrk gS&| Example:- mu lHkh Customers dk uke Kkr djks ftudk Bhopal Branch esa Depositor gS ? Customer_name (sCustomer_city=" Bhopal”(Customer | deposit))



Outer Join: - bl Join dh Condition esa Inner Join dks Represent djrh gS Join Operation mu Tuples dks describe djrs gSa tks Join Conditions dks Setisfy djrs gSa mnkgj.k ds fy, ,d Natural Join esa R o S dks ysaxs tgkWa R esa dsoy og Tuples gS ftudh S ds Tuple ls Matching gks jgh gS vxj ge pkgrs gSa fd R ds lkjs Tuple ;k S ds lkjs Tuple ;k nksuksa Relation ds Tuples Join ds lkFk lnSo miyC/k jgs rc ge Outer Join dk mi;ksx djrs gSa Outer Join esa ;g t:jh ugha gksrk gS fd nksuksa esa Matching Tuples gksa ;k ugha A ekuk fd gesa Employees ds uke dh List vkSj ml Department ds uke dh List pkfg, ftUgsa dksbZ Company Maintain djrh gS rc ,aslfh fLFkfr esa Employee Detail vkSj Department Detail uke ds nks Database dks Maintain djuk gksxk A bu nksuksa dks ns[kdj ge ;g Kkr dj ldrs gSa fd fdlh ,d Databse ls Hkh ge Condition dh izkfIr dj ldrs gSa A Example:- mu lHkh deZpkfj;ksa dk uke o irk Retrive djsa tks Research Department ds fy, dk;Z djrs gSas \ Research-DeptÑsDNAME=’Research’ (DEPARTMENT) Research-Emps Ñ(Research_Dept | DNUMBER=DNO EMPLOYEE) ResultÑ&FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS (Research_Emps) Theta Join: -Relationals Models ds Manipulation djus ds fy, vkSj nks Objects dks ,d lkFk mi;ksx djus ds fy, Relational Algebra ds Join dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS bl Join esa Theta Join ds }kjk dqN Operations mi;ksx esa yk, tkrs gS vkSj bu Operations esa Relational Operators dk Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS Theta Join esa Generally nks Attributs dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A Equi Join: - Equi Join dks ge “=” Hkh dgrs gSa blesa nks Attribute dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS lokZf/kd leku Join eas og Condition vkrh gS tks ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd Attribute ds fy, dh tkrh gS ysfdu Equi Join esa dsoy og Condition vkrh gS tks lekurk dh rqyuk esa gksrh gS vxj Equal ds igys vkSj Equal ds ckn dh Value cjkcj gS rks og Equi ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gS A Set Operations:-;g ml Table dks fn[kykrk gS ftlesa Relation ls lacaf/kr Data gks ,oa ;g tc] fdlh Tuple ds nks Relations ds leku gksus ij gh Execute gksrk gS vkSj bls ‘U’ Sign ls n'kkZrs gSa Set Operations dks ge nks Hkkxksa esa ckWV ldrs gSa %&

(i) The Union Operation (ii)Set Intersection Operations Union Operation rHkh gksrk gS tc nksuksa Tuples ds Data ds lkFk&lkFk Fields Hkh leku gksuk pkfg, tcfd Intersection rc gksrk gS tc nksuksa eas dksbZ ,d Common gks] Field ;k Data.



STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL):- SQL ,d High Level Language gS tks Relational Data Base esa Data ds ifjHkk"kk] fu;a=k.k vkSj Manipulation dk leFkZu djrh gS A ;g Language Programmer dks ;g fu/kkZfjr djus esa lgk;d gksrh gS fd fdl Data dh vko';drk gS ijUrq ;g fu/kkZfjr ugha fd;k tkrk dh ;g dk;Z dSls lEiUu gksxk A SQL Relational Database Management flLVe ij vk/kkfjr gS A SQL Statement dks ;k rks Terminal ij Interactively Invoked fd;k tk ldrk gS ;k bUgsa Application Programe esa Embedded fd;k tk ldrk gS A ADVANTAGES OF SQL:-

(1) SQL ,d High Level Language gS tks Procedural Language ls vf/kd ek=kk esa Abstraction (iF̀kDdj.k) iznku djrh gS A

(2) SQL System Personnel vkSj User dks dbZ Database System ds lkFk dk;Z djus esa l{ke cukrh gS A

(3) SQL es fyf[k Application vklkuh ls b/kj&m/kj ys tkus ;ksX; (Portable) gksrh gS vFkZr bUgsa Array Platform ij vi;ksx esa yk;k tk ldrk gS A

(4) SQL lk/kj.k o lh[kus esa ljy gS ijUrq tfVy ifjfLFfr;ksa esa dk;Z dj ldrh gS A (5) SQL uk dsoy ,d Query Language gS ijUrq bldk mi;ksx Data Structure dks Define

djus esa] Data rd Access dks fu;af=kr djus vkSj Data ds Occurrence dks Delete] Insert vkSj Modify djus esa iz;ksx gksrk gS A

Codd’s Rules:- (1) Information Rule: - Relation Database dh lHkh lwpuk,Wa Table dh Values ds }kjk iznf'kZr dh tkrh gS A (2) Guaranteed Access Rule:-Relational Database esa Data dk NksVs ls NksVk Hkkx mlds Table ds uke o Primary Key Value dh enn ls Access fd;k tkrk gS A (3) Systematic Treatment of Nulls Rule:- RDBMS ,ssls Records ftudh Value vKkr o xyr gks] mUgsa iwoZ ifjHkkf"kr rjhds ls fu;af=kr djrk gSA (4) Active On-Line Catalog Based On The Relational Model Rule:- Database dk fooj.k o mlds vo;o Database Tables gksrs gSa] blfy;s Data Manipulation Language dh enn ls lh/ks dksbZ Hkh D;wjh dh tk ldrh gS A (5) Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule:- RDBMS cgqr lh Languages dks Support djrk gS] ijUrq muesa ls dksbZ ,d Language ,slh gksuh pkfg;s ftlls&Tables ;k Views dks ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk lds] D;wjh dh tk lds o Data dks Update dj ldsa] Integrity Constraint dks ifjHkkf"kr dj ldsa] Authorisations dk fu/kkZj.k o Transaction dks ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk lds A



(6) View Update Rule:- dksbZ Hkh View tks Theoretically ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gks] mls RDBMS ls djuk Hkh laHko gks A View esa ifjorZu ij mlds Base Table ds ifjorZu ij mlds View eas gksus okys ifjorZu ij Data Consistency cuh jguk pkfg;s A (7) High-Level Insert, Update Rule:- Table ds Insertion, Updation o Deletion dks RDBMS ds }kjk Support fd;k tkuk pkfg;s A (8) Physical Data Independence Rule:-vLFkkbZ Request o Application Programe ds fdz;kUo;u ls Physical Data Access o Stores Method esa dksbZ varj ugha vkuk pkfg, A (9) Logical Data Independence Rule:-Table ;k View esa fdlh Hkh Logical ifjorZu tSls Columns dks tksM+uk ;k gVkuk] Field Length esa ifjorZu bR;knh ds fy, Programs ;k vLFkkbZ Request ds :i esa ifjorZu djus dks Tk:jr ugha i<+uk pkfg;s A (10) Integrity Independence Rule:-Table ;k View dh Definitions dh rjg gh Integrity Constraints Hkh On Line Catalog esa gh laxzg gksus pkfg;s vkSj Application Program esa ifjorZu ds fcuk gh buesa ifjorZu laHko gksuk pkfg, A (11) Distribution Independence Rule :- Application Programs o vLFkkbZ Request esa gksus okys ifjorZu ds dkj.k Physical Data ds forj.k esa varj ugha vkuk pkfg;s A (12) Non-Subversion Rule:-;fn RDBMS esa ,slh dksbZ Language gks ftlls fd Record ls lwpuk,Wa Access dj ldsa] rc ;gh Language Integrity Constraints dks rksM+us ds fy;s mi;ksx ughaa dh tkuh pkfg;s ;g Data Integrity ds fy;s cgqr t:jh gS A



UNIT-III FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY:- fdUghaa nks Attrbutes ;k nks Attributes ds lewg ds chp ds izfrca/k dks Functional Dependency dgrs gS A Functional Dependency(iwoZ fu/kkZfjr funsZ'k lewg lEcfU/kr fdz;kUo;u) dks X->y ls tkuk tkrk gS A ftlesa x o y nks Attributes ds lewg gSa rFkk ;s nksuks lewg R ds milewg gSa A tks fd ,d :dkoV dks lEHko Tuple(Record) ds mij Specify djrk gS vkSj tks fd R voLFkk ds ,d lEcU/k dks LFkkfir dj ldrk gS A ;g :dkoV gS dksbZ Hkh nks Tuple ds ft, tks R esa t1 vkSj t2 ds uke ls tkuh tkrh gS ftuesa ;g gS & t1(x)=t2 . bldh izdkj r esa t1(y)=t2(y) Hkh gksuk pkfg;s A vFkkZr r esa fdlh Tuple ds y vo;oksa dh Value x ds vo;oksa ij fuHkZj djrh gS A ;k bls ge dzekuqlkj bl izdkj Hkh dg ldrs gSa fd fdlh Tuple esa x vo;oksa dh Value tks fd Unique gks y vo;oksa dh Value dks fu/kkZfjr djrh gS A ;gkWa ij x ls y ds chp esa Functionally Dependency gS ;k y Functionally ij fuHkZj gS A Functional Dependency dks laf{kIr esa F.D. ls Hkh iqdkjk tkrk gsS A Attribute x ds lewg dks F.D. dk Left-Hand Side Hkh dgk tkrk gS rFkk Attribute y ds lewg dks F.D. dk Right-Hand Side dgk tkrk gS A bl izdkj x relation Scheme R esa fdlh lEcU/k }kjk fu/kkZfjr djrk gS A ;fn] R esa r ds nksuks Tuples mudh X-Value ds cjkcj gksa rks mUgas vko';d :i ls mudh Y-Value ds cjkcj gksuk pkfg;s A ;fn R ij ,d crkrk gS fd ;g ,d Tuple ls vf/kd ugha gks ldrs gSa A tksfd fdlh Relation (R) Value esa fn;s x;s gSa A bldk eryc gS fd x r dk Key Candidate gS A ;fn R esa x->y gS] rc ;g vko';d ugha gS fd R esa y->x Hkh gksxk A



Functional Dependency Attribute ds vfHkizk; dk xq.k gS ;k ;g Semantics dk xq.k gS A tc R nks lewgksa ds Attribute dk Semantics esa ;g n'kkZrk gS fd Tuple dks chp esa Functional Dependency gksuk pkfg;s] rc gesa Dependency dks izfrca/k dh rjg fu/kkZfjr djuk pkfg;s A r(R) esa dksbZ lEcU/k foLrkjiwoZd Functional Dependency izfroa/k dks larq"V djrk gS] rc ;g R! dh Legal Extension (mfpr lEcU/k voLFkk) dgykrk gS AD;ksafd os Record ds chp lEcU/k j[kus okys izfrcU/k dk ikyu djrs gSa A vr% Functional Dependency dk eq[; dk;Z blds Attribute ij izfrcU/k crkrs gq;s tks ges'kk cuk jgs ,ls Scheme R dk o.kZu djuk gS A Fore Example: Code number -> Ename Pnumber -> {Pname, Plocation} {Code number, Pnumber} ->Hours ;g Functional Dependency Li"V djrh gSa & (1),d Employee dk Code Number dk eku [kkl djds Employee ds uke dks fuf'pr djrk gS (ename). (2)Project ds Number dk eku (pnumber) [kkl djds izkstsDV uke (pname) vkSj fLFkfr (Plocation) dks fuf'pr djrk gS A (3) Code Number o Pnumber ds ekuksa dk lewg [kkl djds ?k.Vksa dh la[;k tks fd deZpkjh dke djrk gS ,d izkstsDV ij gj lIrkg bl ckr dks fuf'pr djrk gS A TEACH TEACHER COURSE TEXT Vibha Data Management Awadh Vibha Data Structure KIanitkar Poonam Data Management Naughton Pramod Compilers Hoffman Subber Data Structure O’ Neil Teacher- Åij fn;k x;k Teach fjys'ku LFkkfir ugha gks jgk gS] D;ksafd Teacher ,oa dkslZ ds chp Functional Depending dk fu;e ykxw ugha gks jgk gS] D;ksafd ,d Teacher nks dkslZ Data Structure ,oa Data Management dks i<+krk gS A GOOD AND BAD DECOMPOSITION:- ,d ls T;knk Schemas vkSj dbZ Attributs dk mi;ksx djus ds fy, ge Decoposition dh enn ysrs gSa tgkWa ,d vPNs Database Design esa Decoposition dh Size vkSj Attributes de ls de gksrs gSa ogkWa ,d Bad Design esa vyx&vyx Relational Schemas gksrs gSa vkSj mleas Attributes dh la[;k ,d ls T;knk gksrh gS bl rjg dh Designing dks ge Careless Decomposition dgrs gSa A



Decomposition Database dh Design dks Define djus dk dke djrk gS fd mldh Design vPNh gS ;k cqjh A Good & Bad Decomposition:-

Åij fn;k x;k Schemas Bad Decomposition dks n'kkZ jgk gS tgkWa lkjs Fields vkSj Attributs ,d gh Table esa n'kkZ, x, gSa vkSj bl rjg ds Schemas esa fdlh Hkh rjg dh Relation dks tksM+uk izk;% laHko ugha gksrk gS vkSj ,sls Schemas esa mistak dh T;knk laHkkouk,as jgrh gSa A Bad Decomposition Schema esa Data dks lHkh User use dj ldrs gS vkSj lHkh User mudh Fields esa dqN u dqN gLr{ksi Hkh dj ldsrs gSa vxj ge blh Table dks nks Hkkxksa esa ckaV ns rks oks gekjs fy, Good Design o Decomposition dgykrk gS vksj T;knkrj Companies blh rjg dh Designing esa ge Relationship dks Hkh vklkuh ls Maintain dj ldrs gS A Decomposition esa ftl User ds ikl Rights gksaxs ogh Database esa gLr{ksi dj ldrs gSa vkSj ;g nks Table fuEu izdkj ls gSa & BRANCH_NAME BRANCH_CITY ASSETS CUSTOMER SBI VIDISHA 90000 RAM PNB BHOPAL 10000 SITA UNION GUNA 71000 GITA CANARA REEVA 85000 HARI ***ANOMALIES AS A DATABASE: - Anomalise dk use Insertion ,oa Modification ds Time Additional Work ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gS tc ge Relation ls fdlh Information dks Delete djrs gSa rc Accidental Loss dh laHkkouk gksrh gS A ,d Database esa NULL Value ,oa Aggregation Operation ,oa Joining ds le; NULL Value ds Store gksus ls Storage Space [kjkc

BRANCH_NAME BRANCH_CITY ASSET CUSTOMER LOAN_NO AMOUNT SBI VIDISHA 90000 RAM L-17 10,000 PNB BHOPAL 10000 SITA L-18 15,000 UNION GUNA 71000 GITA L-19 20,000 CANARA REEVA 85000 HARI L-20 25,000

CUSTOMER LOAN_NO AMOUNT RAM L-17 10,000 SITA L-18 15,000 GITA L-19 20,000 HARI L-20 25,000



gksrk gS Database Joining ds le; Improper Related Database Relation ds dkj.k Invalid Generation gksrk gS A NORMALIZATION: -tfVy Data Structure dks lk/kj.k Data Structure eas ifjofrZr djus dh izfdz;k Normalization dgykrh gS A bl izfdz;k esa fofHkUu Relations ftuesa vlqfo/kk gks] dks NksVs&NksVs iw.kZ ifjHkkf"kr o laxfBr Relations esa foHkDr fd;s tkrs gSa A ;gkWa ij ge Normalization dh izfdz;k dks le>us ds fy;s ,d cgqr gh ljy mnkgj.k ys jgs gSa A EXAMPLE:-

NORMAL FORM:- Normalization dks fofHkUu inksa esa iwjk fd;k tkrk gS blesa IzkR;sd in ,d ukeZy Form ls lacf/kr gksrk gS A Normal Form fdlh Relation dh og State gksrh gS] ftls Attributes dh Relationship ls lEcfU/kr fu;eksa dks ml Relation ij ykxw djds izkIr djrs gSa A bu ukeZy QkElZ dks ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZdr̀ dj ldrs gSa % First Normal Form: - ,d Relation rc izFke Normal Farm esa gksrk gS] flQZ vkSj flQZ mlesa dksbZ Hkh Multivalued Attribute u gks A First Normal Form dks ge ,d mnkgj.k ds }kjk vklkuh ls le> ldrs gSa%& Example:- GRADE SHEET (UNNORMALIZED TABLE) RN SNAME SADD SUBJECT

CODE SUBJECT NAME

FACULTY FACULTY ADD

GRADE

101 RAM LIG CM-201 CM-202

NETWORKING DBMS

ABC XYZ

MIG HIG

A B

102 HARI PALASIA CM-201 CM-203

NETWORKING MATHS

abc xyz

SAKET LIG

B A

FIRST NORMAL FORM

RN SNAME SADD SUBJECT CODE

SUBJECT NAME

FACULTY FACULTY ADD

GRADE

101 RAM LIG CM-201 NETWORKING ABC MIG A



Secod Normal Form:- ,d Relation Second Normal Form esa rc gksrk gS tc flQZ vkSj flQZ og izFke ukeZy QkeZ esa gks vkSj izR;sd Nonkey Attribute (Primary Key) ij iwjh rjg ls QaD'kuyh Dependent gksa A uhps ,d Table fn;k x;k gS tks fd First Normal Form esa gS mls ge Second Normal Form esa cnysasxs %& FIRST NORMAL FORM

;gkWa ij SNAME o SADD ds fy;s RN izk;ejh&dh gS rFkk SUBJECT NAME, FACULTY, FACULTY ADD ds fy, SUBJECT CODE izk;ejh&dh gSa ijarq GRADE ds fy, RN o SUBJECT CODE Primary Key gSa A Third Normal Form: - ,d Relation Third Normal Form esa rc gksrk gS tc flQZ vkSj flQZ og Second Normal Form esa gks vkSj dksbZ Transitive Dependencies u gks Ablds fy, ge fuEu Table dks Normalized djsaxs A

101 RAM LIG CM-202 DBMS XYZ HIG B

102 HARI PALASIA CM-201 NETWORKING abc SAKET B

102 HARI PALASIA CM-203 MATHS xyz LIG A

RN SNAME SADD SUBJECT CODE

SUBJECT NAME

FACULTY FACULTY ADD

GRADE

101 RAM LIG CM-201 NETWORKING ABC MIG A

101 RAM LIG CM-202 DBMS XYZ HIG B

102 HARI PALASIA CM-201 NETWORKING abc SAKET B

102 HARI PALASIA CM-203 MATHS xyz LIG A



mijksDr mnkgj.k esa STUDENT o GRADE Relation esa dksbZ Transitive Dependency ugha gS blfy, og igys ls gh Third Normal Form esa gS ijarqq Subject esa Transitive dh leL;k gS D;ksafd Faculty Address Faculty ij fuHkZj djrh gS tcfd nksuksa Non Key gS A Transitive Dependency: - nks ;k nks ls vf/kd Non Key Attribute ds chp vfn Functional Dependency gks rks og Transitive Dependency dgykrh gS A Determinate: - Determinate dks ge Functional Dependency esa -> ds }kjk n'kkZrs gSa vkSj ;g lnSo ok,Wa rjQ okys Attribute dks n'kkZrk gSa A

Boyce/ Codd Normal Form (BCNF):- R.F. Boyce o E.F. Codd us 3NF dk l'kDr :i ifjHkkf"kr fd;k A bl 3½ Normal Form Hkh dgrs gSa A ,d Application BCNF esa gksxk] flQZ vkSj flQZ rc tcfd og 3NF esa gks vkSj Relation esa izR;sd Determinate Candidate Key gks A BCNF ,d ,slh fLFkfr gsS tks cgqr de ns[kh tkrh gS A ;gkWa ij BCNF dks le>us ds fy, ,d mnkgj.k ys jgs gSa A

Example:-



bl mnkgj.k esa&

RN, SUBJECT FACULTY, GRADE (Existing conditions)

FACULTY (Possible Condition)

;gkWa ij mijksDr Relation esa Faculty ,d Determinet gS ijUrq Candidate Key ugha gS ;gkWa ij dksbZ Transitive dependency ughaa gS blfy;s ;g 3NF esa gS ijUrq BCNF esa ugha gS A blfy;s bl Relatuion dks ge BCNF esa ifjofrZr djsaxs A

Multi-Value Depenndency :- tc fdlh Relation R esa de ls de A,B,C elements gksa vkSj A dh izR;sd Value B ds fy, ,d ls vf/kd Values dks ys ,oa C dh Hkh ,d ls vf/kd Valuses gksa] ysfdu B dh lHkh Value C dh lHkh Value ,d nwljs ls iw.kZr% Lora=k gks bl izdkj dh fLFkfr Multi Value Dependency dgykrh gS A tSls&



Forth Normal Form: - ,d Relation Forth Normal Form esa rHkh gksxk tc og BCNF Form esa gks vkSj dksbZ Multi Value Dependency u gks Abldks Hkh ge ,d Table ds ek/;e ls le> ldrs gSa A

;fn ge nksuksa Tables dks ,d Table esa cnysaxs rks gesa Rdundancy dh izkfIr gksxh A

Fifth Normal Form:- vHkh rd geus bl ckr ij /;ku fn;k gS fd fdlh Relation Schemas ds fdlh vokaNuh; xq.k dks gVkus ds fy, ge mls nks Relation esa bl rjg ls fo?kfVr djrs gSa fd ewyHkwr lwpukvksa dk uqdlku u gks bu fo?kfVr Relations dks tksM+us ls gesa iqu% eq[; Relation o lwpuk,Wa izkIr gksrh gSa A ijarq dHkh&dHkh ;g laHko ugha gksrk gS fd fdlh Relation dks fcuk xq.k [kks, gq, nks Realtions esa fo?kfVr djsa A



Fifth Normal Form okLro esa dqN ugha gS og flQZ Join Dependency dh fopkj/kjk dks viukrk gS A vFkkZr fd;h Relation dks ,d lhek ds ckn fcuk vFkZ [kks, gq, fo?kfVr ugha fd;k tk ldrk gS blds fy, ge fuEu mnkgj.k ls le> ldrs gSa A

mijksDr Table Furth Normal Form esa gS D;ksafd blesa dksbZ Hkh MultiValue Dependency ugha gSa A blesa vHkh Hkh Rdundancy cph gqbZ gS ijarq bl Rdundancy dks vFkZ iw.kZ lwpuk ds uqdlku ds fcuk nwj ugha dj ldrs gSa blfy, vc gesa bldksa nks Table SUBJECT-1, SUBJECT-2 esa fo?kfVr djrs gsSa %&

;gkWa Rdundancy dqN gn rd nwj gks xbZ gS ijarq dqN vFkZiw.kZ lwpuk,as izkIr gksrh gSa tls& dkSu lk Subject dkSu lh Faculty i<+k,asxh] vkSj dkSu ls Student dks dkSu lh Faculty i<+k;sxh A vc ge ns[krs gSa fd D;k ;s nksuksa Projections dk Natural Join ogh ewyHkwr lwpuk,Wa ns ik;asxk A



bl Join ls tks Table Subject-3 cuk gS og xyr gS Table dh ftu ykbZuksa ds vkxs xyr dk fPkUg(X) yxk gS og xyr lwpuk ns jgh gS A vc ;fn ge lkspss fd eq[; Table dk fo?kVu vf/kdre rhu Tables esa djrs rks mlesa Subject-1 o Subject-2 ds vykok ,d vkSj vafre Table Subject-4 gksxk %&

;fn rhuksa Projections dk Join ysrs gSa A SUBJECT-1 o SUBJECT-2 ds Join ls cuk gqvk xyr Table SUBJECT-3 rks igys ls gS vkSj ;fn bls SUBJECT-4 ftlesa SUBJECT o FACULTY Columns gS ds vk/kkj ij Join djsaxs rks gesa Table SUBJECT-5 izkIr gksxh%&



varr% SUBJECT-5 Table Hkh ,d xyr Table gS A D;ksafd blesa Hkh ,d xyr Line gS A vr% fu"d"kZ ;g gS fd mijksDr mnkgj.k esa fofHkUu Projections dh iqu% Join izfdz;k ls ge ewyHkwr lwpuk,a izkIr ugha dj ldrs gSa A Join Dependency :-Join Dependency ml Concept dks dgk tkrk gS ftlesa fdUgha nks Table ds chp Join fd;k gqvk gks vkSj mu nksuksa Tables dh Field vkil esa ,d nwljs ij Completely Join gks vFkkZr fdlh ,d Join djus ij nksuksa Table Constraint ds :i esa vi;ksxh gks A Join Dependency dks ge J-D ds }kjk n'kkZ ldrs gSa blesa lHkh izdkj dh Join dk tSls&Natural Join, Theta Join, Equi Join dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS A Universal Relation:-Functional Dependency Data Base ds Set Attributs ds chp dk Contant gS A ekukfd ,d Relational Data base Schema esa n Attribute A1,A2,......An gSa tc ge lEiw.kZ Database dks ,d Single Schema ds }kjk Discrive djrs gSa A og Universal Relation R={A1,A2,........An} gksxk A bls ge ,d Single Universal Table esa Store djrs gSa bl Concept dk Use Data Dependency ds Formal Theory dks Devlope djuas esa fd;k tkrk gS A



UNIT-IV

INDEXING AND HASHING: -System esasa ,d File ds fy, Index Bhd mlh rjg dk;Z djrk gS] tSls Library esa fdlh cqd ds fy, Catalog vxj ge fdlh fof'k"kV ys[kd dh fdrkc [kkst jgs gSa] rks ge ys[kd ds Catlog esa ns[krs gSa Catlog dk Card gesa ml LFkku dk irk crk nsrk gS] tgkWa fdrkc j[kh gS A gekjh lqfo/kk ds fy;s lHkh Library vius Card Alpahabatic dze esa j[krh gS blfy;s gesa gj Card VVksyus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh A ewyr% nks izdkj dh Indexing gksrh gS A

(1) Ordered Indices :- ,slh Indices Value dh Sorted Ordering ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gS A (2) Hash Indices :- ,slh Indices Bucket’s ds pkjksa vkSj] Uniformly QSykbZ tk jgh Values ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gS A og Bucket ftls Value Assign dh tkrh gS] og Hash QaD'ku dgs tkus okys QaD'ku }kjk fu/kkZfjr dh tkrh gSa A izR;sd rduhd dks fuEufyf[kr rdksaZ ds vk/kkj ij j[kuk pkfg;s A (1) Access Type : - ml Type ds Access] tUgsa dq'kyrkiwoZd liksVZ fd;k tkrk gS]A bl Type ds varxZr fu/kkZfjr Attribut’s Values ds records dks [kkstuk] ;k ,sls Records dks [kkstuk] ftldh Attribute Value ,d fu/kkZfjr lhek ds vUrxZr vkrh gks] vkfn 'kkfey gSa A

(2) Insert Time: - ;g og le; gS tks u;s Data Item dks Insert djus esa yxrk gS] bl Value esa u;s Item dks Insert djus gsrq txg [kkstus esa yxus okyk Time Hkh 'kkfey gksrk gS vkSj lkFk gh og Time Hkh blds vUrxZr vkrk gS] tks Index Structure Update djus esa yxrk gS A (3) Access Time:- ;g og le; gS tks ,d fu/kkZfjr Data Item dks <w<+us esa og fdruk le; yxrk gS] ,d Item ds Set ds :i esa lEcfU/kr rduhd dk iz;ksx djrs gq, blds vUrxZr rduhd dk iz;ksx djrs gq, Item ds Set dh rjg ,d fof'k"V Data Item dks Kkr djus esa yxus okyk le;k 'kkfey gS A (4) Deletion time:- Deletion Time Data Item Delete djus es yxus okyk le; gS A bl Value ds vUrxZr og le; Hkh gksrk gS] tks] Delete fd;s tkus okys Item dk irk yxkus esa mi;ksx gksrk gS lkFk gh bl le; esa Index Structure dks Update djus esa yxus okyk le; Hkh 'kkfey gksrk gS A (5) Space Overhead:-Space Overhead Index Structure }kjk Occupy dh tkus ohyh vfrfjDr Lisl gS A vxj Occupied Space Moderate gks] rks lkekUr% csgrj Performance ds fy;s Lisl dk Sacrifice djuk Bhd ekuk tkrk gS A lkekU;r% gekjs ikl ,d Qkby ds fy;s ,d ls vf/kd Index gksrs gSa A Qkby esa fjdkWMZ~l dks Lookup djus esa mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys Attribute’s ;k Attributes ds lewg dks Search Key dgk tkrk gS A vxj ,d Qkby esa dksbzzZ Indices gS] rc mlesa dbZ Search Key’s Hkh gksaxh A



Ordered Indices :-,d File Record djrs le; rst Random Access ikus ds fy, ge Index Structure dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa A izR;sd Index Structure ,d fof'k"B Search Key ls tqM+k gksrk gS Index File ds Lo;a ds Records fdlh Sorted dze esa gks ldrs gSa A tSls Library esa fdrkcsa dqN Attributs }kjk Sort dh tkrh gSa A ,d File esa fofHkUu Search Keys ij fofHkUu Indices gks ldrh gSa ;fn Qkby dze esa Records j[krh gS] rks bls izkFkfed lwph i=k dgrs gSa A Primary Indices dks Clustering Indices Hkh dgk tkrk gS A Primary Index dh Search Key lkekU;r% Primary Key gksrh gS A gkykafd ;g ges'kk t:jh ugha gksrk A os Indices ftudh Search Key Sequential dze ds vfrfjDr dksbZ dze n'kkZrh gS] ml Indices dks Secondary Indices ;k Non Clustering Indices dgk tkrk gS A INDEXING B+Tree Index File:- B+-Tree ,d Multi-level Index gS ijUrq bldk Structure MultiLevel Sequential File ls fHkUu gS A fp=k esa bl izdkj dk Node n'kkZ;k tk jgk gS A blesa n-1 rd dh Search Key Values gksrh gSa k1, k2....kn-1 vkSj n Pointers p1,p2 pn Node ds vUnj ds Search Key Values Sorted dze esa j[kh gksrh gSa blfy, vxj kj gS rks ki<kj gksxk A igys Leaf node dk Strucure For I=1, 2.....N-1 PI Pointers ki Search Key Value okyh Qkby Record dks Point djrs gSa ;k rks Pointers dh ,slh Bucket dh vksj Point djrs gSa ftldk gj Point ml Qkby Record dks Point djrk gS ftldh Search Key Value Key gS A Bucket Structure dk iz;ksx dsoy rHkh fd;k tkrk gS rc Search Key’s Primary ugha cukrh vkSj vxj Qkby Search Key Value dze esa Sorted ugha dh xbZ gS A

mijksDr fp=k esa Account File ds fy, B+ Tree dk ,d Leaf Node n gS ftls n ds :i esa 3 gksus dks pquk gS A vkSj Search Key Branch Name gS pwWafd Account File Branch Name }kjk Order dh tkrh gS] blfy;s Leaf Node ds Pointers lh/ks File dks Point djrs gSa A vc tc ge Leaf Node dk Structure ns[k pqds gSa] rks vc ge ;g ns[krs gSa fd ,d Node dks Search Key Value dSls Assign dh



tkrh gS A gj Leaf n-1 rd dh Values j[k ldrh gS ge Leaf Node dks dsoy [(n-1)/2] rd gh Value j[kus dh vkKk nsrs gSa A gj Leaf node esa Values dh Range dHkh Overlap ughaa djrh A blfy;s Li vkSj lj Leaf Node gSa rc Li esa izR;sd Search Key Value Li esa Search Key Value ls de gksxh A vxj B+-Tree Index, Dense Index gksrh rc gj Search Key Value dks fdlh Leaf Node esa Appear gksuk pkfg, A B+ -Tree ds Non Leaf Node, Leaf Nodes ij ,d Multiplelevel Index cukrs gSa Non Leaf Nodes dk Structure Leaf Node tSlk gh gksrk gS] QdZ dsoy ;g gS fd lHkh Pointers Tree Nodes Pointers gksrs gSa A ,d Non Leaf Node, n Pointers dks j[k ldrk gS ijUrq bldk [n/2] Pointers dks Hold djuk vko'k;drk gS A Node esa Pointers dh la[;k dks Node dk fanout dgrs gSa A Leaf ls Root rd ds gj Path ;k jklrs dh yEckbZ leku gksrh gS A ;g xq.k gksuk B-Tree dh vko';drk gS A B-tree esa ‘B’ dk vFkZ gS “Balanced”, B+ Tree esa Balance dk ;gh csgrj mnkgj.k Lookup, Insertion, Deletion dk dkj.k gS A B-Tree Index Files: - B-Tree Indices , B+-Tree Indices ds leku gksrs gSa A ij B-Tree Search Key Values dks Redudant Stores dks feVk nsrk gS A B+- Tree esa gj Search Value dqN Leaf Node esa fn[krh gSa] vusd Non-leaf Node esa Repeat Hkh dh tkrh gS A ,d B-tree, Search Key Values dks dsoy ,d ckj vkus dh vuqefr gh nsrh gS A blfy, gesa Index dks B+ Tree Index ls de Tree Node Store djus dh {kerk nsrk gS A D;ksafd tks Search Key, Non, Leaf Node esa vkrh gS] os B+-Tree esa vkSj dgha Hkh ugha gksrh A blfy, ge Non Leaf Node esa gj Search Key ds fy, ,d Additional Pointer Field 'kkfey djus ds fy;s ck/; gks tkrs gSa A ;s vfrfjDr Pointers ;k rks File Record dh vksj Point djrs gSa A ;k lEcfU/kr Search Key ds fy;s Bucket ij Point djrs gSa ,d lkekU; B-Tree Node fp=k (a) esa fn[kk;k tk jgk gS vkSj ,d Non Leaf Node fp=k (B) esa A

Pointers P1 rhu Pointers gSa A Non Leaf Node esa Pointers Bi Buckets ;k File Record Pointers gS A ,d Generalized B-Tree esa Leaf Node esa n-1 Keys gksrh gSa] ij Non Leaf Node esa M-1 Key gksrh gS A B-Tree ds ,d Lookup esa Access fd;s tkus okys Nodes dh la[;k] bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrh gS fd Search Key dgka fLFkr gSa A B+ Tree ess Lookup ds] Tree dh Root ls fdlh Leaf Node rd Path ds Traversal dh vko';drk gksrh gS A dHkh&dHkh B-Tree esa eupkgh Value dks Leaf Node rd igWapus ds igys [kkst ysuk lEHko gS A B-Tree ds Leaf Level esa Non Leaf Level’s ds n xquk(n-Times) Key’s LVksj gks tkrh gS D;ksafd n dkQh cM+k gksrk gS blfy;s dqN Values dks tYnh



[kkst ysus ds ykHk de gksrs gS A Non Leaf B-Tree Node esa de Search Key’s gS vFkkZr B-Tree dk NksVk Fanout gksrk gS] vkSj blfy;s blesa Corresponding B+ Tree ls T;knk xgjkbZ gks ldrh gS A bl izdkj B-Tree esa dqN Search Key’s ds fy, Lookup rst gksrk gS vkSj vU; ds fy, laxzg A;|fi lkekUrj Search Keys ds Logarithm ds fy, Lookup le; vHkh Hkh vuqikfrd jgrk gS A B-Tree esa Deletion vf/kd tfVy gksrk gS A B-Tree esa Delete dh tk pqdh Entry Non Leaf Node esa ikbZ tk ldrh gSa A Delete dh xbZ Entry j[kus okys Node dh Subtree ls Replacement dh rjg ,d mi;qDr Value pquh tkuh pkfg;ss A fo'ks"k :i ls vxj Ki Delete fd;k tk jgk gS rks Pointers Pi +1 dh Subtree esa vkus okyh lcls NksVh Search-Keys ml Field ij Move dj nh tkuh pkfg;s tks igys Ki }kjk Occupied Fkh A B-Tree esa Insertion dqN vf/kd tfVy gSa A HASHING: - Static Hash Functions: - Sequential File Organization dh ,d deh ;g gS fd gesa Data dks Locate djus ds fy, ,d Index Structure dks Access djuk gksrk gS] ;k gesa Binary Search dk mi;ksx djuk gksrk gS] vkSj bldk ifj.kke gksrk gS vf/kd I/O Operation A Hashing ij vk/kkfjr File Organization esa Index Structure dks Access djusa ls cpus nsrk gS A Hashing, Indices cukus dk] ,d jkLrk Hkh iznku djrk gS A Hash Function lHkh Search Key Values dks ,d gh Bucket eas j[kus dh {kerk j[krk gS vkSj bl Function dks lcls T;knk vi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS D;ksafd blesa Records ,d gh Bucket esa gksrs gSa vkSj ml Bucket esa ls fdlh Record dks <w<+uk dkQh vklku gksrk gS A ,d vPNs Hash Function esa Functions Keys dks vyx&vyx Distribute fd;k tkrk gS rkfd og Bucket ds gj Position esa ls Record dks <wz<+ lds A ,d vPNk Hash Function esa Search Key esa Binary dk Use djrk gS vkSj ;g Binary Form ,d Machine ds :i esa Hkh dke djrk gS A ,d lk/kkj.k Hash Function lcls igys fn, x, Characters dh Binary dks Compute djrk gS vkSj ml Bucket esa ls ml Reord dks <w<+dj Data dks Return djrk gS A Dynamic Hash Function: - ge tkurs gS fd ,d Bucket esa ftrus Hkh Address gksrs gS Static hash Function dsoy mrus gh Function dks Search djrk gS (ftrus User us Data dk Use fd;k gS ) vkt ds T;knkrj lHkh Database dkQh cM+s gksrs gS ftl dj.k Sataic Hash Function dh enn ls Search djuk vkSj dsoy ,d gh Block dks Search djuk laHko ugha gks ikrk A ,sls esa gekjs lkeus rhu vyx&vyx Options gksrs gSa &

(1) ,sals Hash Function dk Use djuk tks fd File ds Size ds vuqlkj gks A bl Option dk mi;ksx djus ij gekjs Database esa Performance dkQh de gks tkrh gS D;ksafd geasa gj pht ds fy, vyx&vyx Functions cukuk gksrk gS A

(2) ,sls Hash Function dk Use djuk tks fd File ds Size ds vuqlkj viuh Size dks Set dj lds vFkkZr T;knk cM+h File Size dks Accept dj lds A bl Option ls



gekjs Database dk dkQh Space cckZn gks tkrk gS ftlls Working Speed Slow gks tkrh gS A

(3) Database dh File dh Size ds vuqlkj gj ckj ,d u;k Hash Function cukuk] vxj ge ,salk djrs gSa rks Working Speed dkQh Slow rks ugh djsxk ysfdu bldk Use dkQh dfBu gks tk,xk D;ksafd gj ckj gesa ,d u, Function dks fy[kuk gksxk ftlls gekj le; [kjkc gksxk A

Åij fn, x, lHkh Options Database dh mi;ksfxrk vkSj Performance dks de djrs gSa ;k gekjh Working dks Defficult cukrs gSa blds vykok Hkh ,d rduhd gS ftldk mi;ksx djds ge Åij nh xbZ Problem dks Solve dj ldrs gS vkSj blh rduhd dks ge Dynamic Hashing rduhd dgrs gSa bl rduhd esa Function Database esa File Size ds vuq'kkj [kqn ls de ;k T;knk gksrs gSa A blds fy, ge ,d Figure dks cuk jgs gSa A bl Figure esa ,d Dynamic Hash Function dh enn ls dbZ Buckets dks tksM+k tk jgk gS ftlesa Search Key dks ge i ls n'kkZ jgs gSa A

INDEX DEFINITION IN SQL:- Standerd SQL esa Database, User ,oa Administrator ds }kjk Controll gksrk gS vkSj bldh Controlling esa dkSu lh Index dks Create djuk gS rkfd Database lgh rjhds ls Maintain gks ik, ;k Index dk lgh mi;ksx fd;k tk jgk gS ;k ugha A Index dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh Working dks Fast djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS A Index ds }kjk Update ,oa dbZ Quries dh ge SQL esa lqfo/kk dks izkIr dj ldrs gSa A T;knkrj lHkh Programmer dks SQL esa ;g lqfo/kk nh tkrh gS fd og fdlh Hkh Data base esa fdlh Hkh Field ij Index dk Use dj lds ftlls ,d lgh Database dh izkfIr gks A Multiple Key Accesses: - SQL ds u, lq/kkjksa dh enn ls ,d Index dk Use fdlh Queries dks Process djkus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS ,slk djuk Multiple Index ;k Multiple Key Access dgykrk gS



tc fdlh ,d Database esa dksbZ Index Keys dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS rc User ds lkeus ;g lqfo/kk jgrh gS fd og mu keys dk mi;ksx djsa rks mu Keys dks vuqlkj gh og Data dh izkfIr dj ldsa A Example:-Use ram (database name)

Select a- key Index on name to RAM Select b-key Index on roll to RAM Set a->name (Arrange order) Set b-> roll (arrange order)



UNIT-V

FAILURE CALSSIFICATION: - dbZ ckj Failure System esa ?kfVr gks ldrs gS bu lHkh dk vyx&vyx rjg ls lkeuk djuk gksrk gS A lcls ljy Failure og gS ftlds }kjk System esa tkudkjh dks {kfr ugha igqWqprh A os Failure ftlesa tkudkjh {kfrxzLr gks tkrh gS mudk lkeuk djuk dfBu gksrk gS A fuEu izdkj ds Failures gSa& Transaction Failure: - pkj izdkj dh =kqfV;kWa Transaction ds Fail gksus ds dkj.k gksrh gS A Logical Errors:-dqN vkfUrfjd fLFkfr;ksaa ds pyrs Transaction vius lkekU; Execution dks fujarj tkjh ugha j[k ldrk tSls xyr Input, Data Not Found, Overflow ;k Exceeded A System Error: -System fdlh vuqfpr voLFkk esa igqWap pqdk gS (tSls&Deadlock) ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i Transaction viuk laiknu tkjh ugha j[k ldrk gS gkaykfd dqN le; i'pkr~ vkSj nqckjk Execute fd;k tk ldrk gS A System Crash:- dksbZ Hardware Main Function gS] ;k Database Software ;k Operating System esa dksbZ Bug gS tks Volatile Stores ij j[ks Contents dks {kfr igqWapkrk gS vkSj System dh Transaction Processing dks jksd nsrk gS A Non Volatile Stores ds Contents {kfrxzLr ugha gksrs gSa A ;g ekU;rk gS fd Hardware Errors vkSj System Bug System dks tke dj nsrs gSa ijUrq Non Volatile Stores dks {kfr ugha igqWapkrs] bls Fail Stop Assumption dgrs gSa A mfpr :i ls Design fd, x, System esa Hardware o Software Lrj ij dbZ vkUrfjd ifj{k.k gksrs gSa tks fd fdlh =kqfV ds ?kfVr gksus ij System dks tke dj nssrs gSa A bl dkj.k Fail Stop Assumption mfpr gS A Disk Failure: -,d Head Crash ;k Data Transfer Operation ds nkSjku Failure ds dkj.k Disk Block vius Content [kks nsrk gS A Failure ls mHkjus ds fy, Data dh vU; Disk ij dkWfi;kWa ;k Taps tSls Tertiary Media ij Archval Backups vkfn dk iz;ksx gksrk gSa A Recovery ds fy, lkekU; fof/k;ksa dks fuEu izdkj Summarize fd;k tk ldrk gS A 1- ;fn Disk Crash tSls Catastrophic Failure ds dkj.k Database ds vf/kdka'k fgLls dks foLrr̀ {kfr

igqWaph gS rks Recovery Method Databsase dh ml fiNyh dkWih dks Restore djrh gS tks fd Archval Storage dks Backup dh xbZ Fkh vkSj Backedup Log ds fy, Failure ds le; rd Commited Transaction ds Operations dh Reaplying djds ;k Redo djds ,d vf/kd orZeku voLFkk dks iqu% fufeZr djrk gS A

2.tc Database Physicaly {kfrxzLr u gqvk gks ijarq 1 Though 4 ds Catastrophic Failure ds dkj.k Inconsistent cu x;k gks rc fof/k gS dqN Operations dks Undo djds mu ifjoZuksa dks Reverse djuk tks Inconsistency dk dkj.k gS A tSlk ge ns[ksaxs Database dh consistent fLFkfr dh Restore djus ds fy, dqN Operations dh Redo djuk Hkh t:jh gS A bl fLFkfr dks Store djus ds fy, dqN Operations dks Redo djuk Hkh t:jh gS A bl fLFkfr esa gesa Database dh iw.kZ vkfpZoy dkWih dh



vko';drk ugha gksrh A ijUrq On-Line System Lor: esa j[kh izfof"B;ksa dks Recovery ds nkSjku Consult fd;k tkrk gS A

THE STORAGE HIERARCHY: - Data dks Store djus ds fy, Storage media dk mi;ksx fd;k

tkrk gS] bu Media dks ge mldh Speed Capacity vkSj Recovery ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx Hkkxksa esa ckWVrs gSsa A tSls&

(1) Volatile Storage: - Volatile Storge esa Store Information dks System Crash gksus ds ckn okil ugha yk ldrs A tSls& Main Memory vkSj Cache Memory es Store Data Power Fail gks tkus ds ckn Recover ugha gks ikrk gS A Volatile Storage dh Working Non Volatile dh rqyuk esa T;knk Fast gksrh gS vkSj Data Accessing ds fy, Volatile Storage dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A

(2) Non Volatile Storage:- Non Volatile Storage esa Store Information System Crash gksus ds ckn okil Hkh yk;k tk ldrk gS blds mnkgj.k esa ge Magnetic Tape dks ysrs gS ftldk mi;ksx Disk dh Backup dks j[kus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gS A Disk ds Fail gks tkus ij Recovery ds fy, ge fdlh tape dks ysrs gSa ftldk mi;ksx Disk dh Backup dks j[kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS A Disk ds Fail gks tkus ij Recovery ds fy, ge fdlh tape dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa A Non Volatile Storage Volatile Storage ls dkQh Slow gksrk gS A

(3) Stable storage: -blesa Store Data dHkh Hkh [kjkc ugha gksrk gS tc rd Storage Device dke djrk jgsxk rc rd blesa Data Store gksrk jgsxk A bldh Data dks feVkuk laHko ugha gks ikrk gS A dqN ubZ rduhd dh enn ls Stable Storage esa iqjkus Data dks feVkdj u;k Data fy[kk tk ldrk gS A ;g Storage dkQh T;knk Fast dke djrh gS ysfdu bldh Capicity dkQh de gksrh gS A

***TRANSACTION MODEL:-



Transaction Processing ds :i esa Non-Volatile Storage dkQh mi;ksxh gksrh gS A Database System esa Non-Volatile Storage Data dks Fixed Length esa Store djk;k tkrk gS ftls Block dgk tkrk gS A ;g Block ,d ,slh Unit gksrh gS tks Disk ds Item dks Main Memory rd igqWpkrh gS vkSj ;gh Block Main Memory dk Input dgykrk gS bl Input vkSj Output dh working dks Transaction Model ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gS A

· Transaction Input Information tks fd Disk ls Main Memory essa vkrh gS A vkSj fQj Output ds fy, Information dks Disk esa Hkstk tkrk gS ;g lHkh Input vkSj Output fdlh Hkh Block Unit ds }kjk gh fd, tkrs gS tks Block Disk esa miyC/k gksrk gS mls Physical Block dgk tkrk gS tc ;gha Block vLFkk;h :i ls Main Memory esa vkrs gS rc bls Buffer Block dgk tkrk gS Memory ds ftl Hkkx esa ;g Block Temprory :i ls LFkkbZ gksrs gSa A mls Disk Buffer dgk tkrk gS A Block dk Movement Disk vkSj Main Memory ds chp nks Operations ds fy, gksrk gS&Input vkSj Output .

Input ->Disk dh Block dks Input ds :i esa Transfer fd;k tkrk gS tSls fd Åij fn, x, fp=k esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS A tgkWa ,d Input Block gS tks Main Memory esa Transfer gks jgk gS A Output -> Main Memory esa Hksts x, Buffer Block tks fd Disk esa j[ks tkrs gSa vkSj Disk ds ,d fuf'pr Physical Block dks Replace djrs gSa og Disk ds fy, Output ds :i esa gksrs gSa tSls fd Åij fn, x, fp=k esa fn[kk;k x;k gS tgkWa Main Memory esa Hkh Buffer Block gS vkSj ;gkWa ‘B’ Buffer Block ds fy, Disk esa ,d Physical Block cuk jgk gS A Åij fn, x, fp=k esa Oracle dk ,d Transaction Model cuk;k gS ftleaas Client Physical Block dk mi;ksx ,d Server ds :i esa dj jgk gS vkSj Buffer Block ds Server ds }kjk gh ;g lqfo/kk Client dks miyC/k djkbZ xbZ gS A bl Model esa lHkh Input/Output Operation Client ds }kjk gh djok, tk jgs gSa ysfdu Data Transfer Server ds RAM vkSj Server ds Hard Disk ds e/; gks jgk gS A bl Model esa lHkh Users ds File Safety dh lqfo/kk miyC/k djkbZ tkrh gSa A Transaction Model ds ckjs esa ge laf{kIr esa dg ldrs gSa fd Server ds }kjk Attach Client dks File mi;ksx djus dh lqfo/kk nsuk ,oa fdlh Specific User ds }kjk Database esa Manipulate djokuk vkSj Operations gksus ds ckn Database dks lgh :i ls manage djuk bR;kfn ls gksrk gS A



Log Based Recovery:- Log Database Modification dks Record djus ds fy, vf/kd mi;ksx gksus okyk Structure gS A Log11, Log Records dk ,d dze gS vkSj ;g Database esa lHkh Update xfrfof/k;ksaa dk Record Maintain djrk gS A ,d Update Log Record ,d flaxy Database Write dk o.kZu djrh gS vkSj blesa fuEu Fields gksrh gSa A Ø Transaction Identifier:- ;g Transaction dk ,d vuks[kk Identifier gS tks Write Operation

Perform djrk gS A Ø Data Item Identifier:- ;g fy[ks x, Data Item dk ,d vuksa[kk Identifier gS] lkekU;r% ;g

Disk ij Data Item dh Location gS A Ø Old-Value:- ;g Data Item ds Write gksus ds igys dh Value gS A Ø New Value:-New Value ml Value dks dgk tkrk gS] tks fdlh Hkh Data ds Update gksus ds ckn izkIr gksrh gS A Transaction Processing ds nkSjku egRoiw.kZ xfrfof/k;ksa dks Record djus ds fy;s vU; fo'ks"k Log Records mifLFkr gSa tSls dh Transaction dk vkjEHk ;k bldk Commit ;k Abort ge vusd izdkj ds Log Records dks fuEu izdkj ls n'kkZrs gSa A

Ø <IF Start>Transaction Ti izkjEHk gks pqdk gS A Ø <ti, xj,v1,v2> Transaction Ti us Data Item xj ij Write Operations fd;k gS xj dh fiNyh

Value vi Fkh vkSj Write ds ckn bldh Value v2 gksxh A Ø <Ti commit > Transaction Ti Abort gks x;k gS A Ø <Ti Abort> Transaction Ti Abort gks x;k gS A

tc Hkh Transaction Write dks Perform djrk gS rks ;g t:jh gS fd Database ds Modify gksus ls igys ml Write ds fy, Log Record cuk;k tk,s A tc Log Record ekStwn gks rks vxj ge pkgsa rks Database ds Modification dks Output dj ldrs gSa lkFk gh ml Modification dks Undo dj ldrs gSa ftls igys gh Database dks Output fd;k tk pqdk gks A ge bls Log Records esa Old Value Field dh enn ls Undo djrs gS A Log Records ds System vkSj Disk Failure ls Recovery eas mi;ksxh gksus ds fy, ;g t:jh gS fd Log ,d Stable Storage esa jgas A bl le; ds fy;s ge ;s ekurs gSa fd gj Log, Stable Storage ij Log ds vUr esa mlds Create gksus ds rqjUr ckn fy[kk tkrk gS A BUFFER MANAGEMENT:- ge tkurs gSa fd Database fdlh Hardware ;k Software ds [kjkc gks tkus ij Data dks Crash djok nsrk gS Database ds [kjkc gksus ls cpkus ds fy, Buffer Management dk mi;ksx dkQh T;knk ykHknk;d gksrk gS vkSj Database ds Fail gks tkus dh laHkkoukvksa dks de djrk gS A Buffer Management ds fy, fuEu rduhd dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A

1. Log Record Buffering:- izR;sd Log Record ds Output dks Show djkus ds fy, Memory dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS vxj ge T;knk Log Record dk mi;ksx djsa rks Memory dk ,d Hkkx Reserve gks tkrk gS vkSj ftlls System ds Crash gksus dh laHkkouk de curh gS A bl



laHkkouk ls cpus ds fy, gh Log Record Buffering dk Use fd;k tkrk gS ;g Main Memory esa mi;ksx gksus okys izR;sd Log dks Count djrk gS vkSj vyx&vyx Log dks Single Log Operation esa cnydj Memory dks Hkh cpkrk gS A Log Buffering dk mi;ksx dj Output dks ns[kus ds fy, dsoy Main Memory dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ftlds dkj.k System Crash gksus dh laHkkouk u ds cjkcj gksrh gS A

2. DataBase Buffering:- tks Database Non Volatile esa Store fd, tkrs gS rc ge bUgsa Main Memory esa Hkh mi;ksx esa yk ldrs gSa A Main Memory Non-Volatile Storage ls dkQh NksVk gksrh gS A bl dkj.k Main Memory dks ckj&ckj Over Write djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSa oSls rks ,d Standard Operating System esa Over write djus dh Technique miyC/k gksrh gS vkSj bls gh ge Virtual Memory ds uke ls tkurs gSa vFkkZr Virtual Memory Main Memory dks Fail gksus ls cpkrh gS A

Shadow Paging: - Log Based Crash Recovery rduhd ds Alternative ds :i esa Shadow Paging rduhd dk Use fd;k tkrk gS ;g rduhd dkQh T;knk mi;ksxh gS ShadowPaging esa Log Based rduhd dk gh Use fd;k tkrk gS ysfdu blesa Disk Access djus ds dkQh T;knk Rights fn;s tkrs gS A yssfdu blesa Disadvantage Hkh gSa tSls bl rduhd esa ,d le; esa ,d ls T;knk User Transaction dks fdz;kfUor djk ldrs gSa A bl rduhd esa Database Recovery dh lqfo/kk Hkh gksrh gS D;ksafd blesa Hkh Non Volatile Storage dk Use fd;k tkrk gS fdlh Hkh Crash ds ckn ;gkWa Data dh Recovery izkIr gks tkrh gS Shadow Paging Log based rduhd ls User dks T;knk lqfo/kk,a feyrh gS ysfdu blesa Undo vkSj Redo Operation ughaa fd;s tk ldrs Sahdow Paging rduhd ds fuEufyf[kr Disadvantage gSaa A

1. Commit Over Had: - ,d Single Transactions Commit djus ds fy, Shadow Paging esa Multiple Block dh vko';drk gksrh gS NksVs Database ds fy, Multiple Block cukuk laHko ugha gks ikrk gS A

2. Data Fragmentation: - Shadow paging ds dkj.k Database Page dh Location ckj&ckj Change gksrh jgrh gS Location ds Change gksus ls Database Page dh Loss gksus dh laHkkouk c<+ tkrh gS A

3. Garbage Collection: - ftruh ckj Shadow Paging dh enn ls Database Update fd;s tkrs gS mruh ckj Shadow Paging Free Space esa Garbage dks Collect dj ysrk gS bl dkj.k ls Database dh Working dkQh Slow gks tkrh gS A

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Transcript of Database management system - cindia.org management system.pdf · Operationaln data, Purpose of...