There is a riuniber of tools and techniques to find uui wnar goes on in the teaching aiid learniiig practice. Language teachers should be aware that their own attitudes aiid beliefs as well as the observation techniques used will determine what aiid how to observe and tlie type of data to be collected. (see Appendix 2, Samples 3 - 14, 18)

It is also necessary to consider the educational setting including space and equipment arid the time and place where the observation will be carried out. Possible constraints imposed by the specific educational context will need to be taken into account as well.

When planning observation, it is important to consider five crucial aspects in order to get the most out of it: "Joint planning, focus, establishing criteria, observation skills and feedback" (Hopkins, 1993:77).

Joinr planning: A meeting between the observer and the observed must be planned to become familiar and trust each other, to agree on a worthy focus and criteria, to discuss the lesson plan, to establish shared knowledge and to decide other details they,Jeli,eve are ,important, ¡.e. frequency of observation, length, place to sit, and so on. ,,,- ,: Foctrs: There are two possible ways to decide on the focus for observation of the classroom process: open or global and structured or specific. In the global observation, everything is taken into account and commented. The observation on a specific focus centres on a very particular aspect or behaviour, ¡.e. asking questions, pacing, think-time, interaction, rapport, teacher talk, and so on.

Tlie more general the observation is, the more there is a tendency to make jiidgemeots that can be valid, but they are based on the observer's educational values wliicli do not say mucli about the teacher who is under observation.

Estnbli.shint( crilerio: The criteria should be discussed between the teacher researcher and tlie observed ir1 order to reach an agreernent before the observation begins so that it is not threatening.

,-

Ohsct~lcr/iorz skill.~: Obse~ation requires three important skills of tlie observer. First, avoiding, as miich as possible, making judgements. Second, being able to make the person under observation feel confident. Third, selecting, adapting or designing appropriate techniques to collect the right information according to the criteria established.

Feedback: It should be given as soon as possible (within twenty four hours). It must be the result of systematic well-recorded information analysed according to the

eitablished criteria. The observed must be the first one to give hisfier interpretation of the classroom events. The feedback should be the product of the discussion between the two. It should be motivating so that it is the basis for the development of strategies for professional growth.

~ccording to Hopkins (1993:80), "observation is a three phase cycle: planning meeting, classroom observation and feedback discussion." An outline of the cycle is given in the figure below:

Figure 3 THE THREE-PHASE OBSERVATION CYCLE.

Feedback discuss~on C l a s s m observatian

From Hopkins 1993: 81

I I

Regarding classroom observation, the data collected through this technique can ofien provide reliable information about the characteristics and behaviours of groups, individuals or events, interaction processes, and contents involved in different classrooms and contexts. . e 4

d. .... ., J' I L

The wav in which classroom data is classified or categorised depends on the researchers' personal preferentes and the kind of practice and careful considerations rnade by them beforehand: Many different types of categories have been devised for describing the kind of behaviour engaged in classroom practice. A system of interaction-process analysis was initially devised by Bales (Bell, 1993: 112) in which the observer could classiS, the behaviour of individuals in groups according to twelve categories. Examples of these categories are: "shows tension release" and "shows antagonism." 1 -,,II.!

, - I

5. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES IN ACTION RESEARCH

Since action research inust be based on valid, reliable data, accurate data collection techniques should be selected to generate change. Teachers and researchers cannot rely only on perception or personal feelings which can somehow distort the tmth

,

about the class. Careful thought has to be given on deciding exactly how the data for the research will be collected. A range of altematives can be handled by classroom researchers selecting those that will produce the kind of data on which understandings, findings, decisions and judgements can be based.

A rigorous reflection on the type of technique or techniques selected by the teacher researcher is needed regarding the leve1 of clarity of the picture of the process, event ,

or problem they want to tackle in order to make more informed judgements about I everyday classroom work and to reach better decisions about the future actions to be ,

implemented. The selection of data collection techniques is an imporbnt pan of ;

action research because they provide a variety of fírst hand sources of evidence , which needs to be systematically collected within the educational context where the 1 teachen work. 1 1

What techniques to use depends on what the purpose of the research ¡s. Each technique, in general, is useful by itself, but at the beginning of $e enquiry it is not easy to decide what the most suitable technique might be. However, it is important to bear in mind that things little by Iittle begin to clear up as the process goes on and then it is easier to detect which technique is the best for the case.

The techniques used in data collection for action yesearch vary a lot; some of them rely basically on elicitation techniques, others consist mainly in observation, while others rely on introspection.

Eüeitation techniques

surveys I

The purpose of a survey is to find out what is happening or how people think about a specific topic at a particular time. Nunan (1 992: 14 1) mentions the following steps in canying out a survey; ",..define objectives, identi@ target population, review

literature, determine sample, identi& survey instruinents, design survey procedures, identify analytical procedures and determine reporting procedures." 1 2 3

-1s; k - s u - Inlerviews , . , ndi + They can take place between teacher &&server, student and student, teacher and 1 student or observer and student. Interviews can take different directions according to the infomation being sought by the interviewers and the responses provided by the subiects. Even though they are time consuming, they provide useful infonation and immediate feedback. ( s ee~~~pend ix 2, Sample 17) , , , , i i , ,

Quesfionnaires i - , . A. , - A &

They are based on simple precise questions about values of broad aspects such as curriculum, teaching methods or aspects of the classroom. They are time consuming to be prepared and analysed; however, they are practica1 to gtzt specific information from students. (see Appendix 2, Sample 16)

Observation Techniques

Field Notes The teacher makes a written account of the class retrospectively or while it is taking place. In the first case, it is important to rnake the notes as soon as possible so that the information is not distoned. 1

Audio Recordings These ~rovide verv useful infomation about classroom interaction either between teachers and students or among students. However, the time spent transcribing the information recorded can be very long. The tape recorder is a tool favoured by teachers because besides being inexpensive,it is easy to use. 1 , . m ,

Video Recordings These are a more sophisticated way of recording a class. They can be used to observe different aspects of the class, ¡,e. think time, pacing, interaction and so ori. Their main advantage is that they can capture the total classroom context and at tlie same time focus on a specific aspect of it. - 1 -, , ' ,

d. m , , i 1

Classroorn Observation It involves reflection linked to collaborative work between pain of teachers. It is used to collect data on how learners use language in a variety of senings, to study language teaching and leaming processes in the classroom and to study teachers' and

S st~dents' behaviours. Observation aims at examining a phenomenon or behaviour while it is going on. ¤

S i.,,:

Later. Flanders' lnteraction Analysis C:ateyories were derived based on [he prev,ous open University proposed a much simpler system 0f six categories based oil

one. This systern proposed ten observation categories of teacher/studeIlt betiaiioi. and Flanders to study manapemenl ~kills and beliaviour? as f"llows: &kr . tn . .? . , . .

a basis for categorisi~lg what takes place in tlie classroorn, recordirlg inforinatiori everY three seconds under a specific Category number oii a prepared chart. Seven of tlle ten categories relate to vari0us aspects of teacher talk, [wo to pupil talk and FIGURE S OPEN UNIVERSITY'S SYSTEM to periods of silence and confusion:

. .' l . . ' , ; . .<: . ,.# ! , m

The first three are concerned with teacliers' responres: ihey are l~accep[illg feelings 1 PROPOSING A* " 1 A behaviout which puts forward a new ' - < '

!. 4:. ' or attit~ides ex~ressed by a pupil. praising or encouraging a pupil, accepting concept, suggestion or course 0f acti0n. using pupils' ideas".

. The fourtli category is concerned with "asking questions". 2. SUPPORTING A behaviour which involves a ~onscious and

T h e fifili. sixth and seventh categories are "lecturing, giving directions, direct declaration of suppon or agm3nent with

commands. etc. and criticising or justifying authority", another person or his concepts. The eighttl and nilith categories are uwd to classiS "pupjl-talk response alid pupil-talk initiatioii". A khaviour which involves a conscious

. las[ CategorY relates to "silence arid confusion" in [he class, and direct declaration of difference of opinion, or criticism of another ~erson's

Tllell, a com~leted tally sheet from Flanders' lnteraction Analysis Categories (FIAC) concepts. adapred by Wallace ( 199 1 :69), S I ~ O W S that reflecting on the number of tlie total tallies, observers niay draw sorne conclusions on a particular lesson. A behaviour which offers facts, opinions

clarification to another individual.

Figure 4 FLANDERS' FlAC SYSTEM: COMPLETED TALLY SHEET A behaviour which seeks facts, opinions or clarification from individual or individuals.

, Caregory Completed rally rnarks Total number made by an observer tallies Per cent A behaviour which extends or develops a

1 111 3 proposal which has been made by another

2 n u l 0.8

6 2.5 person. 3 W W I I 4 1 M W W I I From Bell 1993: 113

Teacher ~ M ~ W W ~ M W W 5 W M ~ M W W W 1 W 130 54.2

Using the above proposed numericai entries, categories could be recorded On a table plan. Maki~ig use of an abbreviated SYStem, 1 could be recorded for ~oposing, 2 for supporting and so on. The figure below represents h e individual

Pupils 8 W W W w II 22 9.2 contributions of a group of participants observed in a meeting On Open 9 W n u I I 12 5.0 University television programme.

Silence 10 W M 1111 14 5.8 . ' -

Total 24 1 100.0

3. DISAGREEING

4. GIVING INFORMATION

5 . SEEKING INFORMATION

6. BUILDING

Figure 6 TABLE PLAN RECORDING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR ACCORDING TO CATEGORIES

Fred ISecrerow) "endon> O ' '

3,3,1,2 2,3,1

v , Mick ion I 1 [Chairman)

I 1

Slephen Sondy

From Beil 1993: 1 14

Then. the recorded entries couid be plotted on a table, graph, chart or format illustrating the nature of the contributions observed as shown in the next chart.

Figure 7 CHART RECORDING TOTAL NUMBER OF ENTRIES FOR EACH BEHAVIOUR CATEGORY

Porlicipanls Cotegones

From Bell 1993: 115

".

! ~r would be necessary to make some comrnents on the most and the least significant and frequent entries and on the lack of entries in one or more of the categories. ~inally, inferences about individual contributions might be drawn.

When the focus of the observation is the analysis of the content of a lesson or the kind of topics covered, or the number of contributions and the time spent speaking, specifi~ categories might be devised, according to the researcher's main interest. In figure 8, a vertical line shows that the panicipant spoke for half a minute or less and the foilowing horizontal line indicates that the same participant continued speaiung for the same period of time. Another system of syrnbols could be used and memorised.

Figure 8 EXAMPLE OF A CHART RECORDING SPEAKING CONTRIBUTIONS BY INDWIDUALS

Porticipanh

Mick 1 1 1 =

Fred

Judith / 5 / /

Brendon / /

Siephen

I son* /z / /

Multiple speoking / / /

1

Introspective Techniques !

* .,, ! ?

Think Aloud Prorocol I

It consists in recording the verbalisation of what a person is thinking while 1 carrying out a task. This gives direct access to the thinking process that / goes on during the performance of the task. It avoids the interference of the I researcher .

h . - l 1 ! Refrospection j This teachnique consists in an account of [he thinking pracess that goes on 1

during the performance of the task after it has been carried out. The best I

. u n i r '

Keeping diaries is a refletive task in which teachers and trainees should be trained focusing on a particular language issue, classroom problem or classroom setting. Regarding this, an action research project carried out by Jirnénez, S. et al (1994) found out that:

L .L

. . . trainees are capable of reflecting once iliey become aware of how helpful ii is to go over whai has happened in a class and how much it can lead to improvement and change.While it was noticed that ai [he beginning tpinees only recorded in their diaries a description of their class. once they weqinstwte<L 10 wriie lheir feelings. their students' and their own reactions.what went wrong and what went right in the class, how ihey could improve lheir ieaching and ovemme certain problems. they made the first attempis to be reflective .

way to do it is immediately after the task has been finished. Sometimes Uie researcher asks questions to help the person recall the process.

1 Trainees as as teachers need t0 h 0 w verl clearl~ w b t Diaries pmfessional activities m going to be recorded. the reasons for doing ir and They are personal accounts about a specific topic of interest. They may 1 : the time agreed in arder to collect the infomiation required. Then* Patterns-

contain observations, feelings . reactions, interpretations, refiections. 1 evenB Specifr aspaB are identifiedd, inkrpreted and discussed by

hypotheses and explanations about new material learned, different ciassroom / diarists. activities, text books and other teaching materials, tests, exams, homework, and so on. They are importani 1001s io record infonnation and insights on i specific aspects of language teaching and learning. They can be used by ! , A five stage prwedure recommended for using diaries is outlined by Bailey teachers, learners, classroom observen and other researchers whose focus is i and Ochsner in Nunan (1989) in the f i p r e below: centred on classroom processes, interactions, experiences and reflections ; about a s~ecific topic with a clear purpose in rnind. According to Bailey (1990: 2: 15) a diary is "a first-person account of a language leaining or teaching experience. dacumented ihrough regular. candid rntries Ui a / Personal journal and then analysed for recurring patterns or salient eventsw. 1 Significant and honest diary entries, as evidence. can be kept during the i language learning and teaching process or immediately after it.

[ . i

-;,,':S .'\ I''. . a:& .:-

* .: - Figure 9 ACTIVI'I'IES INVOLVED IN SECOND-LANGUAGE DIARY STUDY

- -- -

I 'Ihe diarist should provide M lccount of his personal hwp lcaming or tawhing h h r y

1

1

I c o n f w and 1

DlARY STUDY

Language lcarning history

Rcwritun p b l i

Inurpretive analysis

2 Thc dwsr rhaild syshmaticaUy m r d everns, demils. and f#lg about &e

3 nK diarist revises rhe joumal for rhe piblic version of thc diary. In the process. maning is clarifd

4 'Ihe diarin mdies be jcumal ennies. lookifig for paterno and s i p i f k m C W ~ .

(Also other ruenrrhen may anaiyx be diay cntriu).

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES - .provides feedback from pupil's perspeaive .May not be m esiablished pmice in the

4 . 2 1 , &l

.Can be either focused on a specifc training .Difficult for yowiger childm to record their @IOI~C or related to the general classroom houghs and feelings climetc.

.Canbepartofa lessan .Pupils may be inhibitcd in discusing dieir feelings with UIC tcacher

.Can hdp in idaitifying individual pupil .Pupil's accouiieP are obviously subjective probtm

.involves pupil in improving thc quality of the nise &d dilemmas c l m

.Provides a basi for iriang*tion

From Hopkins 1993: 122

According to Progoff, mentioned by Alderson J.E(ed) (1985), the process involved in the shidy of a diary can be summarised as follows:

Buckground deriiils: Before beginning to write their diaries, participants are asked to give information about their previous language experience and learning. Thí information is hoped to be of help when analysing the diary, so that the researcher can uqerstand the diarists' perceptions of their learning process.

5 'Ihe famn idcntified as b e ¡ importam to thc language leaming or tcaching experience are intcrpretcd and dixussed in rhe firial diary sndy. Ideas for Uie pcdagogy liicraairc may be added at this smge.

I Daily record: The participant retrospectively writa the diary telling details on how he lives the learning experience day by day. - w-

1 1,' From Bailey and Ochsner 1983:lW in Nunan, D 1989: 59

E The following table shows the strengths and weaknesses of keeping diaries. However, since tríangulation (see page 33) is recommended in action research projects, other data collection techniques such as audio tape recordings and video tape recordings help overcome diaries' weaknesses.

P r h a r y editing procedure: The diarist should revise the diary when it is for public use. In general, narnes are chang€d and very possibly infomtion that can hann others is omitted. In this way diaria usually contain the most important information for the research, but with some very personal details deleted.

Prelimimry anulysis: First the reseashez g1Wtiw data a thorough r d i n g , then begins a ca~f i i l examination in de141 tó4pol h ~ ~ , t W o t We6; those which arise wi& frqwwcy OF that seem very mlkvmwSi~ o* wW ufiites the diary.

Selerriot~ of issues ro focits ori: Once ttie data have heen carehlly exarnined. the '

researcher goes on narrowirig tlie focus of [he enquiry. I t is irnponant to avoid predicting issues before tlie collectioii of ilie data hegiiis. so that the infomiation is no[ biased or distorted.

- 7 , k-4, l 1 -- Fitial atialysis: Wlien issues have been ideritified. the riext step is to look for evidence whicli refers exactly to tlie issiies ideritified. I f triangulation was used as a technique for gathering data the different points of view are contrasted and tlien cross-checked. , , .-.

Prepararioti of ,frheJnal report. The issues under study are then discussed using the data as a basis to exemplify the relevarit topics. At this stage it is very unportarit to m

protect confidentiality. (see Appendix 2 . Sarnple 20) ,

Triangulation

A relevarit concept related to data collection is that of triangulation. This nieans 1 that a variety of perspectives, at leas[ two, are necessary iii order to give a real j picture of [he situation being studied. In actiori research, the teacher's and the 1 learner's perspective can contribute to balance tlie level of t ~ t h of the data : gatliered. This could be irnproved if the teacher and two trainees, as observers, ; take data frorn a particular language classroom in order to have more than one single perspective of the issue focused. This type of triangulation is called by Denzin, rnentioned in Allwright and Bailey (1!291:73) "investigation triangulation". Other types can also be known as "data triangulation" in which a variev of 1 I sampling strategies are used to collect data, "rnethodological triangulation" that 1 refers to the use of different techniques such as diaries, observation or self-reports, and finally "theoretical triangulation" in which researchers face the data analysis with more than one perspective in mind. (see Appendix 2, Sarnple 19) 1

1

3- h, -2 a< . - 6 . ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Data analysis refers to sifting. organising, summarising. and synthesizing the data so as to arrive. at the resulis and conclusions of the research.

.f.&,;- d U d d r - Q ! - . i

i , ! 2 i i - hhc

(Seliger and Shohamy 1989:U)l)

In deciding which data to select, it is necessary to attempt to identify progressively the focus of the enquiry in the data being analysed until that arnount of information can be separated as relevant or irrelevant to the aims of the enquiry. However, irrelevant information should not be discarded as later it could be necessary. The analysis must try to give sense to the data by explaining what is happening in tht- real context of the classroom, and it should attempt to identify some patterns oi categories.

Guba, E G, rnentioned in Alderson (1985). describes the fundamental criteria to exclude any data that do not fulfil one of the requirements below. m

The data should: , tend to explain existing issues; exernplify the focus of the category; extend the issws of any category; identify or bring to h e surface new issws within a category. relate or bridge several issues within a category: reinforce or refuse existing issues within a category.

The kind of manipulation given to the data will depend on the research approach used and this will determine for example, the need for a qualitative or quantitative analysis.

The model presented by Miles and Huberman in Hopkins ( 1993: 159), describes th@l following s t q s in qualkttive data analysis: