Danish Dependency Treebank - Annotation guide: Verbs

8/4/2019 Danish Dependency Treebank - Annotation guide: Verbs

1/41

Danish Dependency Treebank

Annotation guide: Verbs

Matthias T. KromannDepartment of Computational Linguistics

Copenhagen Business SchoolLine Mikkelsen

Department of LinguisticsUniversity of California, Santa Cruz

Dependent Complement roles Adjunct roles

noun

subject (subj)direct object (dobj)indirect object (iobj)predicative (pred)

external topic (xtop)vocative (voc)parenthetical apposition (appa)

verbverbal object (vobj)predicative (pred)quotation object (qobj)

verbal relative (rel)subject-oriented modifier (mods)object-oriented modifier (modo)modifier (mod)

adjectivepredicative (pred)adjectival object (aobj)particle (part)

modifier (mod)

prepositionlocational-directional object (lobj)prepositional object (pobj)predicative (pred)

modifier (mod)

adverbial

locational-directional object (lobj)temporal-durational object (tobj)

adverbial object (avobj)predicative (pred)

modifier (mod)

othercoordinator (coord)conjunct (conj)punctuation (pnct)

Verbs

Forms

In imperatives, the subject is obligatorily absent (in the semantic interpretation, thesubject is retrieved by coreference with the intended listener; thus, a vocative within animperative always coincides with the subject, but only by coreference). All othercomplements of the verb are realized normally.
http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/http://www.id.cbs.dk/http://www.cbs.dk/http://people.ucsc.edu/~lmikkelshttp://ling.ucsc.edu/http://www.ucsc.edu/http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#_appaVhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_coordhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_conjhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_pncthttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_pncthttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_conjhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/miscT.html#_coordhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#_appaVhttp://www.ucsc.edu/http://ling.ucsc.edu/http://people.ucsc.edu/~lmikkelshttp://www.cbs.dk/http://www.id.cbs.dk/http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/


2/41

In infinitives, there is no primary subject dependency, but the logical subject is in somecases encoded with a subject filler dependency. See our analysis ofraising and control andour analysis of the special pronoun 'at'.

In present participles, the subject is obligatorily absent (in the semantic interpretation, itis retrieved from the noun or verb that the present participle modifies). When the participlemodifies a noun attributively, acts as a predicative, or modifies a verb while precedinganother of the verbs complements, all of its noun complements must be absent or berealized as morphological complements (as in "den syngende cowboy"). In all othersituations, noun complements are realized normally. Most other complements of theparticiple are realized normally in both cases. Only certain verbs allow the use of thepresent participle in predicative constructions.

Semantically, the present participle in "Hun fandt ham liggende" can modify either thesubject or the object. In this respect, present participles are just like adjectival modifiers(eg, "ngen" in "Lgen undersgte patienten ngen"). In the treebank analyses we have

chosen not to include information about which participant adjectives or present participlesmodify, since it would make the manual annotation too complicated, and there is not alwaysenough information in the corpus to decide this question.Gerunds behave like nouns in the external syntax and should be tagged as such. In theinternal syntax, they are still verbs and can take prepositional objects and (slightly moreunusually) nominal objects in accordance with the verb's valency frame. Subjects are neverrealized in gerunds, and even though the subject coincides with the possessor in apossessive, the gerund is still marked as a "possd" complement of the possessor, with noexplicit subject filler between the possessor and the verb.
http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#at-pronounhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#at-pronoun


3/41

In perfect participles, there is no primary subject dependency, but all other complementroles are realized as normal. Perfect participles can function as modifiers of nouns andverbs, as verbal objects if they are uninflected, and as predicatives if they appear withadjectival "-n" or "-e" inflection (eg, "skret"-->"skren"/"skrne").When the perfect participle acts as a predicative or as a modifier to a noun or a verb, thereis no filler (semantically, the missing subject is retrieved from the modified noun, or fromthe subject or direct object of the modified verb).

When the participle acts as a verbal object (eg, of the auxiliaries "vre" ("be"), "have"("have"), and "blive" ("become")), a subject filler is used to pass on the subject argumentto the possibly passivized perfect participle.

When acting as modifiers of verbs, perfect participles should be analyzed assubject-oriented (mods) or direct object-oriented (modo) modifiers, if possible.


4/41

Perfect participles have an active form and possibly one or more passive forms. Verbs canbe categorized with respect to whether the active or passive form of the participle isselected when the participle acts as verbal complement to the verbs "have", "vre", and"blive", or when it acts as modifier. This is illustrated by the following table:

verb classes and exampleshave

(have)vre(be)

blive(become)

modifier

accusatives: ane bede bo bre dele f flefre give gre have hbe hre koge kbelade lave lege leve lide love lyde lre lselbe mene mle nyde opn rive rre se sigesl sy sge tabe tage tale tro vide vise vreyde bneHun giver brnene en ballon

--> Hun har givet brnene en ballon (subj)

--> ?Brnene er givet en ballon (?iobj)

--> ?En ballon er givet brnene (?dobj)

--> Brnene bliver givet en ballon (iobj)

--> En ballon bliver givet brnene (dobj)

active passive passive passive

unaccusatives: blive d? falde forsvindeglde? komme lykkes ske stige synesKursen falder

--> *Kursen[subj] har faldet

--> Kursen[subj] er faldet

--> *Kursen[subj] bliver faldet

* active * active

neither: begynde foreg fortstte flge gkomme kre medvirke mde n optrderejse ske skynde slippe slutte sove springestandse starte stege stige st trde trngeundg vende virkeVi gr en tur i skoven

--> Vi[subj] har get en tur i skoven

--> Vi[subj] er get en tur i skoven

--> Ruten[dobj] er get af os mange gange fr

--> Ruten[dobj] bliver get af os i morgen

--> *Vi[subj] bliver get en tur i skoven

activeactive/passive

passive passive

vobj or pred? We have chosen to analyze uninflected perfect participles as verbal objects('vobj') rather than subject-oriented predicatives ('pred'). The intuition behind thepredicative analysis is that perfect participles are just like adjectives. The predicativeanalysis does have some advantages: it makes the analysis of perfect participles coherentwith the analysis of copula constructions, explains why perfect participles have '-e' and '-n'inflected forms that closely resemble adjectives, and explains why perfect participles are soeasily coordinated with adjectives (eg, "Han er vred og skuffet" ("He is angry anddisappointed")). However, the predicative analysis also has some disadvantages: it gives a

non-uniform analysis of perfect participles ('vobj' in "Han har spist" ("He has eaten"), but'pred' in "Den er spist" ("It is eaten")), and does not seem to obey the usual number- andgender-agreement between subjects and predicatives (eg, "Mange *lsladt/lsladte/*god/gode mnd" ("Many released/good men") vs. "Mange mnd er lsladt/?lsladte/*god/gode" ("Many men are released/good")).One possible explanation is that perfect participles are genuinely ambiguous between beingverbal objects and predicatives. However, we have been unable to find tests that wouldallow us to distinguish between these two alternative uses in practice. For this reason, we


5/41

have chosen to always prefer the 'vobj' analysis over the 'pred' analysis, except when theparticiple is explicitly marked with the adjectival '-e' or '-n' inflections.These considerations also apply to examples like "f den stjlet" ("have it stolen (fromyou)"). Such an example might be analysed as an example of a resultative construction. Butit is definately not resultative to the same degree as "gre nogen glad" ("make somebodyhappy"). Besides rewording the predicative-like part ("den er stjlet" ("it is stolen"), "nogen

er glad" ("somebody is happy")) reveals that following the considerations above, "stjlet" in"den er stjlet" should be analysed as a "vobj" to "er", not "pred", whereas "glad" in "nogener glad" should be analysed as "pred".

Dependents

Noun complements: subjects, direct objects, indirectobjects, and predicatives

Noun complements can be phrases headed by pronouns, common nouns, type-shiftedadjectives, and gerunds; infinitival and sentential constructions headed by the specialpronoun "at"; and embedded wh-questions headed by interrogative pronouns like "om","hvem", "hvornr", "hvorfor", etc.Verbs may license four different kinds of noun complements: subjects ('subj'), direct objects('dobj'), indirect objects ('iobj'), andpredicatives ('pred'). Verbs must license exactly onesubject ('subj') or expletive subject ('expl'), and never license more than one nouncomplement of each type -- in particular, expletives turn subjects into direct objects.Licensed noun complements are always optional, ie, they are not necessarily realized whenthe verb is actually used. For instance the following sentence licenses a subject, but doesnot realize it:

Noun complements should not be confused with the different kinds of noun adjuncts that averb may have: external topics ('xtop'), vocatives ('voc'), and parenthetical appositions('appa').Verbal complements of modal or auxiliary verbs share the subject via a subject fillerdependency (see our analysis ofraising):

Different noun complement roles can be disambiguated with the following linguistic tests: subj vs dobj: (1) question test, (2) modal verb test, (3) adverbial test, (4) case

marking test, (6) expletive test subj vs iobj: (1) question test, (2) modal verb test, (3) adverbial test, (4) case

marking test subj vs pred: (1) question test, (2) modal verb test, (3) adverbial test, (4) case

marking test dobj vs iobj: (1) question test, (6) expletive test, (8) PP-paraphrase dobj vs pred: (5) paradigm test, (6) expletive test, (7) agreement test
http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#_appaVhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#_appaV


6/41

iobj vs pred: (5) paradigm test, (6) expletive test, (7) agreement test, (8)PP-paraphrase

The linguistic tests are described in detail below: (1) question test: form the corresponding question, then the noun complements

must occur in the order subj/expl < iobj < dobj/pred, and all adverbials must occurafter the subject (eg, "At lse nsker hun ikke" --> "nsker hun ikke at lse?").

(2) modal verb test: insert a modal verb, then the subject either appears rightafter the finite verb, or in fronted position provided there is no noun complement orexpletive right after the finite verb (eg, "Bogen giver Marie til Jonas" --> "Bogen vilMarie give til Jonas").

(3) adverbial test: insert an adverbial like "not" after the verb, then the adverbialmust come after the subject, but can be inserted before any other nouncomplement (eg, "Fjolser var de" --> "Fjolser var de ikke").

(4) case marking test: replace the entire noun complement with a personalpronoun with nominative case-marking, then non-extracted subjects withoutrestrictive modifiers and coordinators should have nominative case, whereas allother noun complements should have accusative case (eg, "Peter og ham legedeofte" --> "De/*dem legede ofte").


7/41

(5) paradigm test: replace the noun complement with non-NPs; a noun

complement is a predicative if and only if it can be replaced with PPs and APs thatcan appear predicatively (other than type-shifted APs) (eg, "Han bliver en godbager" --> "Han bliver glad").

(6) expletive test: insert an expletive "der" in the sentence and change potentialdirect objects to indefinite noun phrases, then the result should be ungrammatical ifthe verb licenses a direct object or predicative, and grammatical otherwise (seeexpletives); notice that expletives turn subjects into direct objects (eg, "Pengenetilfalder hende" --> "Der tilfalder hende nogle penge" vs. "Pengene tiltrkkerhende" --> "*Der tiltrkker hende nogle penge").

(7) agreement test: change number and gender of adjectival predicatives;adjectival subject predicatives should agree with subjects in number and gender;adjectival object predicatives should agree with direct objects in number and gender(eg, "De kalder dem *god/*godt/gode", "Hun gjorde den god/*godt/*gode igen", .

(8) paraphrase: predicatives can usually be paraphrased by APs (cf. Hudson);indirect objects can usually be paraphrased as PPs (cf. Jennifer Herriman, 1995."The Indirect Object in Present-Day English". Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.Gteborg, Sweden.); direct objects usually cannot be paraphrased by PPs or APs.

De var venner=> De var venlige mod hinandenDirect objects ('dobj') also occur in constructions with object-control (see control).Non-subject complements headed by "at" are usually analyzed as direct objects, but canalso be predicatives (see our analysis ofat).

Note that the reflexive object of socalled "inherently reflexive" verbs as well as "measureobjects" are tagged as 'dobj', although these constructions do not allow passivization:

Han skyndte sig. De skammer sig.
http://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/explhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#at-pronounhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/nounsT.html#at-pronounhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/expl


8/41

Den vejer to kilo. Den koster en hel herregrd.

In the Dutch treebank (CGN) these two types of objects are tagged with separatedependency labels (SE for obligatorily reflexive complement and ME for measurecomplements). The motivation for distinguishing these constructions from regular transitiveconstructions (with direct objects) is that they do not passivize. For us, passivizability is not

a necessary criterion for being a direct object. Instead, we propose to tag reflexivecomplements and measure complements as 'dobj' and encode the lack of passivization (andthe restrictions on what can function as 'dobj' with these verbs) in the lexical entry for theverb.

Indirect objects

We use "iobj" for indirect objects of ditransitive verbs. Det har taget mig lang tid. Det blev forldrene for meget. Jeg kbte mig en ny cykel. Han er mig noget langsom.

Note that when this argument is expressed with a preposition ("Han viste den til hende") itis tagged as a prepositional object, and not as an indirect object.An alternative is to tag also the prepositional expression of the beneficiary as "iobj". Ourreason for not doing so is the principle that "iobj" and "dobj" are always nominal. Anotheralternative is to tag the prepositional expression as a modifier ("mod"). The main reason fornot doing this is that the "til"-expression behaves more like a complement than a modifier.It is (almost) obligatory, it is ordered before any modifiers (modulo extraposition), and itseems to express the same semantic role as the "iobj", which is definitely a complement.

Verb complements: vobj, pred, and qobj

Verbal objects

The label vobj is used for verbal complements. Bare infinitives occur as verbal complementsof modal verbs where they share the subject of their governor via a subject filler. Bareinfinitives also occur as complements to verbs of perception, and some object control verbs.

Past participles occur as vobj of auxiliary verbs, including the passive auxiliary "blive".


9/41

More complex verbal clusters form a chain of local vobj dependencies:

Predicatives

Verbal predicatives occur with present participles and with inflectet past participles:

Also verbal predicatives occur with object predicatives:

Quotational objects

The label "qobj" is used to indicate a connection bewteen a verb and a quotation. The labeldemands, that the sentence is clearly a quotation, and it demands that the verbsemantically allows a quotation, like for instance "sige" and "sprge". Here are some typical

verbs that take a quotational object: sige sprge svare mene tilfje rapportere konstatere fastsl


10/41

skrive oplyse forklare fortlle mumle grine

smileHere are some examples of analysis:

If the quotation is split in two, the analysis is unchanged: "Spis din mad, s du kan blive en stor dreng," sagde Carla. "Spis din mad," sagde Carla, "s du kan blive en stor dreng".


11/41

Adjective complements: pred, aobj, part

Predicatives

Predicative complement The dependency label "pred" is used for predicativecomplements. Semantically, these can be oriented towards the subject or the object. Apredicative complement can be (headed by) a preposition, noun, adverb, adjective, article(indefinite pronoun), or present participle. Subject-oriented predicative complements occurwith copula verbs like "vre", "synes", "blive":

Object-oriented predicative complements are found in resultative constructions: De drak ham fuld. Hun lb skoene i laser. De gjorde manden gal. Vi holder byen ren/bilen i gang.

and with verbs like "finde" and "kalde": Jeg finder ham stdig. De kaldte ham et fjols. Hun havde penge til_gode. Hun flte sig respekteret.

Fixed expressions: st parat/klar

There are also constructions that could be considered prepositional predicative complements

(at least this is what they are called in PFGA p. 77): De ans ham for utilregnelig. De regnede ham for idiot. Hun betragtede det som et uheld. Han opfattede det som en fornrmelse.

These could be analyzed in terms of pred as follows:


12/41

Predicative complements must be distinguished from predicative adjuncts/modifiers, which

describe some circumstance of the event denoted by the verb: Man br ikke kre bil fuld. (subject-oriented modifier) Hun kbte huset umbleret (object-oriented modifier)

An alternative is to analyse the preposition as a pobj to the verb and the adjective as adependent of the preposition. The problem with this analysis is that the preposition "for"does not normally allow adjectival complements.An alternative is to (more or less) follow the word class of the complement and tagprepositional complements as pobj, (pro)nominal complements as dobj, adverbialcomplements as part, adjectival complements as aobj, and present participle complementsas vobj. This, however, seems to miss the unity of these constructions.The lexical entry for "vre" (and other copula verbs) in STO seems to take a middleposition. Pred is used for nominal and adjectival complements, but prepositionalcomplements are listed as pobj (e.g. "Sim var over ham med det samme", "Nogen havde

vret efter ham i skolen", and "Hun var fra den egn"), and some adverbs (prepositionswithout a complement) are tagged as particles (e.g. "Bttens lg var p"). Til den sidstetype hrer muligvis ogs udtryk som "vre til", "vre p", og "vre med".Copula constructions: These are basically covered in the sections on 'pred' and 'expl'. Oneremaining question is whether we should distinguish between predicative and equative/specificational/identificational copula clauses, when both dependents are nominals:

Han er en strk svmmer. (predicative) Den strkeste svmmer p holdet er ham. (specificational) Han er Peter. (equative) Peter er ham. (equative) Det er Peter. (identificational)

Analysis of "som X"-constructions is done as follows: (1) Analyze "som X" as a relative, ifpossible:

(2) If you can insert "s vel" ("as well") in front of "som", then analyze "som X" as acoordination:

(3) If "som X" functions like a predication "er X" (ie, "historien som fortalt" ---> "historiener fortalt" / "story as told" ---> "story is told", then "som X" is analyzed just like "er X" ). --that is, "X" is a predicative "pred", unless "X" is a verb, in which case we choose "vobj"instead:


13/41

Moskva er ganske rigtigt en by i Rusland, som hvdet af Marie.If the verb is finite, the construction is analyzed as a relative clause; if the verb is perfect,"som" is analyzed as the head, and the verb as the "pred" complement of "som".The English Dependency Treebank distinguishes equative from predicational copularclauses, using an inversion test (equatives invert, predicational clauses do not) and anembedding test (predicational clauses embed as small clauses without "be", equatives donot). In predicational clauses the (head of the) post-copula phrase is the head of the clause,and the copula and the subject are its dependents. In equatives, the copula is the head, and

the post-copular clause is an object.The Penn Treebank treats all copular clauses as predicational, including ones with twonominals. The post-copular phrase is uniformly analyzed as XP-PRD.The Corpus Gesproken Nederlands does not discuss copula clauses explicitly. Somepredicational copula clauses are given under the discussion of the complement label'PREDC'.This leaves two options for the Danish Dependency Treebank: (1) Treat all copula clauses aspredicational -- tag all predicate complements as 'pred'. (2) Distinguish predicationalcopular clauses from equative/specificational/identificational copular clauses -- tag thecomplement of the former as 'pred' and the complement of the latter as 'dobj'.

Adjectival objects

Adjectival complements bear the dependency label aobj. Han krte trt. De for vild. Hunden gik amok.

An alternative is to treat these as predicative complements (pred). There are twoarguments against this analysis. First, these verbs do not accept the full range ofpredicative complements (PPs, NPs, adverbials, present participles etc). Second, the

semantics is not (always) predicative: "De for vild" ~/~> "De er vild(e)". Anotheralternative is to analyze the adjective as a particle (part).Some further examples:

tage noget alvorligt have det godt/drligt/vidunderligt

An alternative is here, too, to analyse "alvorligt" and "godt" as pred, but these constructionsare not truly predicative: "noget er alvorligt" is not the correct analysis (since you can takesomething funny seriously) and neither is "det er godt" the correct analysis.


14/41

Preposition complements: pobj

We use "pobj" for complements headed by a preposition. Some prepositional complementexpress a (physical) location or direction, others express more abstract relations, includingthe "af"-phrase in a passive construction.

Hun lagde den p bordet.(In this example, "p" would now be analysed as lobj to the verb (see theparagraph on lobj). Alternatively it should be analysed as a modifier, since there isno close connection between the verb and the preposition: "Hun lagde den pbordet/i spanden/under hovedpuden". Also "p bordet" goes with many other verbsas well).

Han ventede p dem. Sagen blev undersgt af politiet.

Further special examples: Det virkede/ld/s ud som_om hun var glad. Hun lader/opfrer sig som_om hun var hjemme. Hun stemte ja til forslaget. ("til" pobj til "stemme") Han sagde nej til tilbuddet. ("til" pobj til "sige")

The preposition "med"Usually "med" is analysed as mod to the verb, but fixed expressions are exceptions to thisrule.

vre med: "vre med": "med" is pred to "vre" "vre med til": "til" is pobj to "med".

g med: "g med nogen", "g med i byen": "med" mod to "g"

"g med hunden", "g med [bekldning]", "det gr [adjectiv phrase] mednoget", "[tiden] gr med noget": "med pobj to "g"

"g med til noget" ("accept"): "med" pobj to "g", "til" pobj to "med" komme med:

"komme med et sted hen": "med" mod to "komme" "komme med et udspil", "komme med [adjectiv phrase] ud af det med

nogen": "med" pobj to "komme" flge med:

"flge med (nogen)": "med" mod to "flge"; "med" can be analysed as part,only if "med" cannot take an object in the particular construction

"flge noget op med noget andet": "med" pobj to "flge" skulle med

"det skulle med i billedet": "med" mod to "skulle", "i" mod to "med" have med:

"have noget med": "med" mod to "have" "at have det med at grine": "med" pobj to "have" "have med noget at gre": "at" dobj to "have", "gre" vobj to "at", "med"

pobj " to "gre", "noget" nobj to "med" lbe med:

"lbe med nogen", "lbe med et sted hen": "med" mod to "lbe" "lbe med sladder": "med" pobj to "lbe"

synge med: "med" mod to "synge"


15/41

hre med: "med" mod to "hre" se med: "med" mod to "se" spille med: "med" mod to "spille"

To distinguish prepositional complements from prepositional modifiers, we use the followingdiagnostics (adapted from Philp (1999)).

generality: prepositional complements only apply to particular verbs, whereas

prepositional modifiers tend to apply to all verbs. fixed preposition: In prepositional complements that express abstract relationsthe preposition is fixed in the sense that it cannot be replaced with a semanticallysimilar preposition (without a non-proportional change in meaning). This is not truefor prepositional modifiers.

Han ventede p dem/??i dem (pobj) Han ventede p stationen/i grden (mod)

linear order: Prepositional complements tend to precede prepositional modifiers: Han venter p dem p stationen.

--> ??Han venter p stationen p dem. ("p dem" is pobj, "p stationen" ismod)

This really is only a tendency and cannot at all be used as an analysing guideline:Search in our tagged corpus reveals that a search for the construction verb +

prepositional modifier + prepositional complement comes out with about 50examples. A search for the construction verb + prepositional complement +prepositional modifier comes out with about 120 examples. The complement +modifier word order is clearly more frequent, but the word order modifier +complement is on the other hand quite common.

Adverbial complements: avobj

The label "avobj" applies to all adverbials analysed as complements (i. e. notdisplaying the optionality that characterize modifiers) and not interpretable as aparticle, a locative-directional object or a time-indicating object (the last two, whenapplying to adverbs, being subcategories to the category adverbial object. Here are

some examples: Han levede op til sit rygte. Foreningen gr ind for dyrevelfrd. Forhandlingerne stod p i 3 dage. Projektet gr ud p at beskytte sen. Hun ville gerne holde op med at ryge. Lad sovsen dampe lidt ind. De dukker aldrig op til tiden. Vi har god tid til at tnke tingene igennem.


16/41

The following principles can help distinguish adverbial objects from particles: Word class: Avobj applies onlyto adverbs, not to prepositions. Particles on

the other hand apply to both adverbs (e.g. "give op") and prepositions (e.g."skrive under").

Prefixes: Particles are separable prefixes, which together with the verbform a synonymous complex word form (skrive under -> underskrive, giveop -> opgive). Adverbial objects cannot do this (at least not with apreservation of meaning).

Objects: Particles do not take an object. If it takes an object, it is converted

into a pobj. Adverbial objects, on the other hand, often combine with apreposition (ind i, op p). This preposition is analysed as a modifier (mod)or a prepositional object (pobj) according to how close the connectionbetween the adverb and the preposition is in the particular phrase, i.e.whether the phrase is a fixed expression ("kre ind til/i/p/under" =modifier; "leve op til" = fixed expression that does not allow a change of thepreposition).

Adverbial objects differs from lobj, tobj and modifiers too: Lobj apply only if there is a distict locative-directional meaning involved. Tobj apply only if there is a distinct time-indicating meaning involved. Modifiers are caracterized by being optional and combining with most verbal

phrases.Lobj (locative-directional object) and tobj (time-indicating object) should be

understood as sub-categories to the category avobj. Again, these are complements,i. e. not optional. Below we give some examples and a list of typicallocative-directional and time-indicating adverbs and typical verbs/verbal phrasestaking a locative-directional or time-indicating object.Locative-directional:

Langsomt kravlede de op ad bjerget. Min datter bor stadig hjemme. De unge rejser ud i verden.

Time-indicating: Han blev fdt den 22 august 1917. Bogen udkommer p mandag.


17/41

Forestillingen varede 3 timer.

Particles

We use the label part for verbal particles. These are adverbs or prepositions withouta complement, which form a close semantic union with the verb.

Han skrev kontrakten under. De gav op. De gik sagen igennem. Giften slog hunden ihjel.

The particle is obligatory, in the sense that leaving it out or exchanging it for aregular prepositional phrase results in a different semantics of the verb:

Han skrev kontrakten [= He wrote the contract] Han skrev kontrakten under [= He signed the contract; "under" is part]

Han skrev kontrakten under bordet [= He wrote the contract under thetable; "under" is mod]Some, but not all,particles are separable prefixes, which together with the verb form a synonymouscomplex word form:

skrive under ~ underskrive give op ~ opgive melde sig til ~ tilmelde sig [though "til" might be a 'pobj', since it can

occur with a 'nobj' "melde sig til kurset"]The following principles can help distinguish particles from adverbial objects (avobj)and prepositional objects (pobj):

Word class: Avobj applys onlyto adverbs, not to prepositions. Pobj applysonlyto prepositions. Particles on the other hand apply to both adverbs (e.g.

"give op") and prepositions (e.g. "skrive under". Prefixes: Particles are separable prefixes, which together with the verbform a synonymous complex word form (skrive under -> underskrive, giveop -> opgive). Adverbial objects cannot do this (at least not with thepreservation of meaning). Prepositional objects cannot do this either.

Objects: Particles do not take an object. If it takes an object it is convertedinto a prepositional object. Prepositional objects always carry the possibilityof an object ("melde sig til" -> "melde sig til kurset"). Adverbial objects


18/41

often combine with a preposition (ind i, op p), which is tagged as eithermod or pobj. See above under Avobj.

For particles that are prepositions by word class an alternative analysis is to tagthem as pobj, with the requirement that they be used without a complement. Thiscomplicates the analysis of prepositions, which are normally required to take acomplement. For particles that are adverbs, an alternative analysis is to tag them as

modifiers.Some difficult cases from the set of sample analyses (see also the section onadverbial + PP in the chapter on preposition):

De var med. [ex. 29, "med" is probably 'part' and not 'pred', since "med"is not used with the other copula verbs with this meaning (??synes med,*blive med), but it is used with non-copula verbs with the same meaning(komme med, g med, etc.)]"Vre med" is analysed as pred, since "vre"always takes a pred. See under prepositional objects above.

Jeg har svrt ved at flge med. [ex. 52, "med" is probably 'part', eventhough "med" can occur with an nobj ("flge med dem"). These could beconsidered two different constructions. In the first "med" is `part', in theother it is `pobj'] "Flge med" is usually analysed as mod. See underprepositional objects above.

Lnmodtagerne har mulighed for at mde op p generalforsamlingen.[ex. 65, should be tagged as tagged as 'part', and not `pobj' as in the

sample analysis of ex. 65] "Op" in "mde op" would be analysed as avobj. lgge sin stemme om til heltetenor [ex. 61 -- "om" should be tagged as

'part', cf. the existence of "omlgge"]In a limited number of cases adjectives can play the part of a particle. Here aresome examples:

fritstille - stille frit fastholde - holde fast fastsl - sl fast

Locative-directional objects

Lobj applies to adverbs ("rejse ud i verden"), prepositions ("rejse til Frankring"),pronouns ("kre en tur"), nouns ("g tur") and adjectives ("ligge forrest"). Lobjcan be seen as a sub-category to avobj, if headed by an adverb, to pobj if headedby a preposition, to nobj if headed by a noun or pronoun. The same demarcatingprinciples, that apply to avobj, pobj and the rest, apply to lobj. Special principles forthe use of lobj are that it indicates a locational-directional meaning. Also it shouldbe possible to replace a locative-directional phrase with other locative-directionalphrases.Locative-directional objects:

Min datter bor stadig hjemme. De unge rejser ud i verden. Det samme vil ske i Danmark. De krte gennem Europa. Han gr tur med hunden hver dag. Det ligger et helt andet sted. Hun stillede posen allerinderst. Vi er get for langt.


19/41

List (unfinished) of verbs taking a lobj: arbejde ("Han arbejder i et kontorvarefirma.") befinde sig ("Manden befandt sig i sin lejlighed.") begynde ("Jeg begyndte p den nye skole i august.") bevge sig ("De bevger sig rundt mellem hinanden.") bo ("Hun bor i Gren.") dreje ("Bilen drejede vk fra vejen.") dukke op ("Den dukkede op hos en af hans kammerater.") fare ("Hunden fr ud p gaden.") finde (uden dobj) ("Brevduerne finder selv hjem.") finde sted ("Arrangementet finder sted i London.") flakke ("Journalister flakker verden rundt.") flytte ("Brnene er flyttet til hovedstaden.") foreg ("Filmen foregik i det gamle Kbenhavn.") fragte ("Han fragter udstyret rundt i byen.") fdes ("Marie er fdt p Tsinge.") f ("Kartl fik strke smerter i benene.") gemme sig ("Katten gemte sig under sengen.") g ("Hun gik ind gennem dren.") havne ("Nogle flygtninge havnede i et fjernt land.") hente ("Brandmndene hentede deres ejendele ud.") hjlpe ("Mange blev hjulpet vk fra slagmarken.") hlde ("Hld blandingen i en skl.") jage ("Fuglene skaljages vk fra frugttret.") komme ("Han kom ud fra skuret med spindelvv overalt.")

kigge ("Hun kiggede ned p gaden.") kravle ("Barnet kravlede ud p grsplnen.") kre ("Vi krte til Svendborg.") lande ("Landsholdet lander i Kbenhavn i aften.") ligge ("Huset ligger p en bakketop.") lbe ("Alle lb ud p gaden og rbte og hujede.") n ("Mette nede endelig frem til udkigspunktet.") opvokse ("Pigerne er opvokset p landet.") rejse ("De gamle hippier rejste til Indien.")


20/41

rende ("Drengen rendte op p sit vrelse og smkkede dren.") rykke ("De fredsbevarende styrker rykker ind i morgen.") se ("Han s ud p mig gennem ruden.") sejle ("Kongeskibet sejler gennem Lilleblt i dag.") sende ("De gamle blev sendt afsted p ferie.") sidde ("Malkepigen sidder p en lille skammel.")

skal ("Nu skal de til Polen i stedet for Bulgarien.") ske ("Denne udviklen vil ogs ske i Danmark.") skynde sig ("Efter festen skyndte de sig hjem.") slippe ("Fangerne slap ud af fngslet om natten.") smutte ("Hesten smuttede gennem bningen i hegnet.") spille ("Michael Laudrup spillede ogs i Italien.") stige ("Clara steg ind i bilen.") stille sig ("Hun stillede sig foran ham med hnderne i siden.") st ("De stod lnge p banegrdspladsen og ventede.") tage ("De unge tog i byen, da festen ebbede ud.") tilbringe (tid) ("llet tilbringer mange mneder i de store tnder.") trisse ("Bedstmor trissede ud i haven og satte sig.") trkke ("Varerne er nu trukket tilbage fra butikkerne.")

tumle ("Han tumlede ud af sengen.") tffe ("Den gamle bil tffede hen ad vejen.") vandre ("S begyndte de at vandre op i bjergene.") vende ("Nete vendte hjem fra udlandet i sidste uge.")

Time-indicating objects

Tobj applies to adverbs, prepositions, pronouns and nouns. Tobj can, as lobj, beseen as a sub-category to avobj, if headed by an adverb, to pobj if headed by apreposition, to nobj if headed by a noun or pronoun. The same demarcatingprinciples, that apply to avobj, pobj and the rest, apply to tobj. Special principles forthe use of tobj are that it the phrase expresses a time-indicating meaning and could

be replaced by other time-indicating phrases.Time-indicating objects:

Koncerten vil finde sted i_dag. Bogen udkommer p mandag. Han blev fdt den 22 august 1917. Forestillingen varede 3 timer.

List (unfinished) of verbs taking a tobj: arbejde ("Han arbejder kun et par timer om dagen.")


21/41

begynde ("Afstemningen begynder mandag klokken 12.") dukke op ("Den ukendte indspilning dukkede op i 1988.") finde sted ("Koncerten vil finde sted i_dag.") foreg ("Filmen foregr i trediverne.") ske ("Det sker hver eneste dag.") slutte ("Konferencen slutter klokken 5.")

tage ("Turen derop tager nsten 10 timer.") udkomme ("Bogen udkommer om to dage.") vare ("Kurset varer 2 uger.")

Modifiers

Most verbal modifiers are annotated as mod (the three exceptions to this arerelative clauses, vocatives, and external topics). The modifers tagged as modinclude:

locative and temporal expressions: mandag, i haven, tidligt, altid,aldrig, mens vi venter, efter de gik, imens, ofte, da vi kom hjem, allerede,nu, inden det bliver mrkt, her, lnge, hidtil, nr, p femte r

manner adverbials: med tryk p, langsomt, aggressivt, godt(?), hvordan (discourse) particles: dog, nok, jo, vel, nu(?), alligevel, nemlig,imidlertid(?), faktisk(?)

expressions of modality: mske, muligvis, sikkert, faktisk negation: ikke focus particles: kun(? - jvf. ex 6), ogs, igen(?), purpose clauses: for at trkke penge til, hvorfor conditional clauses: hvis det trkker, gr du det en gang til absolutives: med/uden hende p holdet others: i mit tilflde, til gengld, sagt p en anden mde, ligeledes, klart,

-mssigt, foruden ham, bl.a., for femte gang, derfor, idet at vi erforberedte p det, selv,

In some cases it is not clear from the syntax which element the modifier modifies

(e.g. when a PP can modify either the direct object or the verb). In these cases, wefollow the principle of low attachment: attach the modifier as low as possible (e.g.to the direct object rather than to its governor). This should not be interpreted as aclaim about what speakers/language users do, but simply as a way of choosing ananalysis in cases where the syntax allows more than one.

Series of modifiers

When several modifiers follow each other and they are more tied to each other thanto the verb, the first modifier should be made the head of the entire modifyingphrase:


22/41

Special modifiers

Modo and ModsModifiers attached to the verb can sometimes be directed very specifically towardsthe subject of the verb or the object of the verb. In that case the more specificlabels "modo" (object modifier) and "mods" (subject modifier) can be used. A test

for whether a modifier is directed towards the subject or object is that modo's andmods's can function also as a modifier in the nominal phrase, thus:

Lad dejen hvile tildkket i en time -> Lad den tildkkede dej hvile i en time Brnene sider vandkmmede og trtte ved bordet -> De vandkmmede

og trtte brn sidder ved bordetHere are some examples of analysis:Examples of modo:

Examples of mods:

ModpAnother sub-category to the class of modifiers are parenthetical modifiers (modp).Some examples follow here:

Nu er det jo ikke ministeren, der finder p dette (sknt han for_tiden er

temmelig opfindsom). Sledes har jeg personligt, op til flere gange, set Dronningen g tur pStrget.

Her ser vi - overraskende - at kabinen er krympet en anelse.


23/41

Constructions

Passives

Passivization converts the subject of an active verb into an "af"-complement(tagged as pobj), and converts either a direct object, an indirect object, or (morelimited) the nominal object of a prepositional object into a new subject (subj).Passivization can be expressed morphologically (verb stem + -"s") or syntactically("blive" + past participle).

Sagen undersges af politiet. [dobj -> subj] Sagen bliver undersgt af politiet. [dobj -> subj] Peter blev givet en stor gave. [iobj -> subj] Sagen bliver set p af politiet. [nobj of pobj -> subj]

Almost all verbs in Danish have a passive infinitive, present, past and past participleform. The passivization converts the subject into an "af"-complement of the verb,and converts either a direct object, and indirect object, or the nominal object of aprepositional object into a new subject.Passive verb forms occur as complements (vobj) to modals and "be":

Han skal undersges. Han er blevet undersgt.

Alternatively, one could analyze "af"+nominal as a modifier to the verb.

Expletive subjects

Expletive subjects (labeled "expl") mostly occur with the word "der", but locativePPs and the place adverbial "her" is sometimes used as expletive subject as well.Any verb that does not have a direct object can undergo expletive shift -- that is,the subject of the verb is converted into a direct object (labeled "dobj") with therestriction that the new direct object must be indefinite, and a locative or temporaladverbial (usually "der") becomes the expletive subject (labeled "expl").

Der mangler en gaffel. Her er tale om et klokkeklart mord. Der er tilfaldet den ldste datter en stor pengesum. I en drm vil benbares Guds forml med dig, Johannes.

Verbal complements of the finite verb share the expletive subject via a [expl] filler.


24/41

It is important to distinguish expletive subjects from fronted adverbials. In clauseswith a complex verbal form, this is done by the position of the logical subject: if thelogical subject immediately follows the finite verb (below left), the initial constituentis a modifier (mod) and the logical subject is subj. If the logical subject follows theright-most verbal form (below right), the adverbial is expl and the logical subject is

dobj.

If there is only one verb, try inserting an auxiliary "vil". Alternatively, use thedefiniteness of the post-verbal nominal as a guide: if the post-copular nominal isdefinite (below left), it is the subject of a non-expletive construction (and the initial"der" is a modifier). If the post-copular nominal is indefinite (below right), it is adirect object of an expletive construction (and "der" is an expletive subject).

An alternative analysis is to tag the expletive as a regular subject (subj), but thisanalysis obscures the fact that the presence of the expletive subject affects thevalency of the verb: it is only with expletive subjects that these verbs allow directobjects.Another alternative is to analyze the transformed subject as a subject rather than adirect object. However, this fails to capture the fact that the post-verbal nominal inmost respects behaves as a direct object and not as a subject: it is accusative (notnominative), it appears exactly in the position of direct objects, and it does not

allow the presence of another direct object.

Vocatives

The adjunct label voc is used for nominals that refer to the intended listener, butserve no complement function with respect to the verb.

Luk s den dr, Marie! Marie, vil du/I godt lukke den dr?


25/41


26/41

the main sentence is V1 ("interrogative"), then normal word order is preserved, andthe resumptive pronoun does not have to immediately succeed the external topic.The construction "nr X, s Y" is analyzed as an external topic construction as well:

External topics are sentence-initial phrases that are duplicated by a pronoun withinthe sentence. If the main sentence is V2 ("declarative"), then there is a strongpreference for the resumptive pronoun to immediately succeed the external topic bytopicalization. If the main sentence is V1 ("interrogative"), then normal word orderis preserved, and the resumptive pronoun does not have to immediately succeedthe external topic.

Marie, hun er da lidt underlig idag. Marie, er hun ikke lidt underlig idag.

Marie, hende har jeg ikke set meget til p det seneste. ??Marie, jeg har ikke set meget til hende p det seneste. Og brnene, har du hrt noget til dem for nylig? ??Og brnene, du har vel ikke hrt meget til dem for nylig? Grn, det er nu ikke nogen pn farve. Grn, synes du virkelig det er en pn farve? Skrive opgave i dag, det kan jeg ikke forestille mig at han vil. Skrive opgave, tror du han vil det? Nr han er sulten, s spiser han altid for meget.

Raising and control

In raising and subject control structures, the infinitive shares the subject of theraising/control verb via a subject filler:

In object control structures, the subject filler for the infinitive is the direct object ofthe control verb:

Note that some control verbs take a bare infinitival complement (without "at"):


27/41


28/41

Relatives

Relative clauses that modify a clause are analyzed as adjuncts of the finite verb. Forthese we use the special adjunct edge rel, which is also used for relative clausesthat modify nominals.

Jeg har lavet kage, som du bad mig om. De har restaureret kirken, hvilket har pyntet en hel del.

Relatives are constructions where a clause (called the relative clause) attaches itselfas a "rel"-adjunct to its governor (ie, the relativized phrase). The relativized phrasemust satisfy a secondary role within the relativized clause, either by having a

secondary filler dependency to some governor within the relative clause, or by beingthe antecedent of some relative or interrogative pronoun within the first phrase inthe relative clause. The verb in the relative clause must either have V2 word order,or V3 verb order where the first

Relatives can be quite confusing, when there is more than one and it is combined

with it-clefts and and expletives:

The relative pronoun is analyzed as a dependent of some head inside the relativeclause. In the case of subject and object relatives, the governor is a verb. In othercases the relative pronoun is a dependent of a preposition:

kvinden til hvem han sendte brevet ham p hvem vi ser

ham som vi ser p det tidspunkt p hvilket han mente vi var skre


29/41

Note that whether the preposition is pied-piped with the relative pronoun to thefront of the clause or not makes no difference for the dependency structure (withoutpied-piping we simply have a discontinuous PP). It does make a difference for thechoice of relative pronoun: "hv"-pronoun for pied-piping and "som" when thepreposition is not pied-piped. This correlation is captured in the lexicon.The relative pronoun is anaphorically dependent on the element that the relative

clause modifies, which we indicate with a secondary dependency edge labelled ref.The relative pronoun may itself have dependents, as in the case of the genitiverelative pronoun "hvis":

Some terminology: relativized word= word that has been extracted from below therelative verb; relative verb = verb that heads the relative clause; relativizer=

optional relative pronoun or prepositional phrase with embedded relative pronoun.In relative clauses without a relative pronoun, the function of the modified elementwith respect to the internal syntax of the relative clause is indicated via a fillerdependency:

Relative clauses that modify a clause are analyzed as adjuncts of the finite verb. Forthese we use the special adjunct edge rel, which is also used for relative clauses

that modify nominals. Jeg har lavet kage, som du bad mig om. De har restaureret kirken, hvilket har pyntet en hel del.

The relative pronoun does not always pick up the reference from the last phrase ofthe relativized sentence. Especially in constructions with "det + vre + pred", therelativized phrase is "det", if "det" does not refer to something previouslymentioned.


30/41


31/41

An alternative would be to follow the intuition that "hvor" must be the headof the relative clause. Such an analysis would look like this:

The problem with this analysis is, that it conflicts with the understanding of"hvor" as a modifier to "svrt" and of "svrt" being the head of thepredicative frase. We would not like to say that "hvor" is the [pred] of"vre", and the consequence is that the analysis points out to heads of thefrase "hvor svrt".In German (PJ, "Tysk Grammatik"):

Es gab Wirtshuser, die zu betreten den Studenten verboten war.(Bll) Der junge Beisem, dem die Regeln der Bruchrechnung beizubringen

ich mich verpflichtet hat. (Bll) Ich wei nur ein Gesicht, dessen veredelte Wirklichkeit durch mein

Einbildungskraft korrigieren zu wollen sndhaft wre. (Mann) Die den Sinn des Martyrium leugneten, [die] gerieten am leichtesten

in Verfolgung und Folter. Du zahlst jetzt [das], was du getrunken hast. Wem Gott Kinder gibt, dem gibt er auch sorgen.

Han spurgte hvem der kom" and "Han spurgte hvem. A class of moreproblematic examples are listed below:

Vi opdagede til hvem han sendte brevene.

Han redegjorde for p hvilket tidspunkt og under hvilkeomstndigheder han kbte maleriet.

Han redegjorde for p hvilket tidspunkt han kbte maleriet?(og) under hvilke omstndigheder.

Sprgsmlet om hvor stor (en) andel af forskningsmidlerneforskerne frit kan rde over.

Han gav noget til nogen. Jeg ved ikke hvem/hvad/hvor/hvorfor/hvordan/hvornr/med hvem/til hvem/af hvilken rsag/phvilket grundlag.


32/41

Jeg kan ikke forklare hvor/hvorfor/hvordan/hvornr/medhvem/til hvem.

Han gav kuverten til nogen. Jeg s ikke til hvem. Vi havde uforholdsmssigt mange rverier , uden at jeg kan

forklare hvorfor. Det er derfor at han siger det.

Hvorfor det er han siger det. hvorfor det er at han siger den slags.These are sometimes called head-less relative clause (with reference to thefact that they do not modify an external head), but we prefer the term'independent relative clause', since, on our analysis, they do have a head,namely the relative pronoun. What is special about this construction is thatthe relative clause functions as a complement in its own right, and not as amodifier of a complement. This is reflected in our analysis by having therelative pronoun function as a complement to the external governor:Independent relatives have the same form as embedded interrogatives, butthe two can be distinguished by their semantics, as reflected by thesubcategorization properties of their governor:

Han spiste {hvad de havde} [independent relative]

Han spurgte {hvad de havde/*den} [embedded interrogative]Embedded interrogatives. Interrogatives can occur as dependents to anexternal governor. Embedded wh-interrogatives are analyzed like relativeclauses.VPs and APs as relativized phrases. Relative clause typically modifynouns, but (non-restrictive) relative clauses can also modify a verb oradjective:

Jeg har lavet kage, som du bad mig om. Huset er grnt, hvilket er en dejlig farve.

Reduced relatives. vin kbt specielt til lejligheden (cf. vin som er kbt specielt til

lejligheden) huer strikket i ren uld (cf. huer som er strikket i ren uld) en maskine konstrueret efter srlige principper (cf. en maskine

som er konstrueret efter srlige principper)vin kbt til lejligheden

German data (judgements by Sabine Kirchmeier-Andersen):

Wer/*wen die Schler verachtet, is ein schlechter Lehrer. Wen/*wer die Schler verachten, ist ein schlechter Lehrer. Ich verachte wer/*wen die Schler hat. Ich verachte wen/*wer die Schler hassen. Ich frage wer/*wen die Schler verachtet. Ich frage wen/*wer die Schler verachten.


33/41


34/41

vraagzinnen'), and give some tests for how to distinguish them in thecorpus (e.g. whether one can insert a personal pronoun in front of therelative pronoun - if yes, it is a relative clause, if no, it is an embeddedinterrogative.)Penn Treebank (1995 Bracketing Guidelines pp. 169-170)) alsodistinguishes independent relatives ('head-less relatives' in their

terminology) from embedded interrogatives ('indirect questions' in theirterminology). They give semantic criteria for distinguishing the two.In the DG analysis, we always assume that the relativizing phrase lands onthe relativized phrase with a "relz" landing edge. This is not shown in thetreebank analyses, but corresponds to the following graphs:

Hudson analyzes relative pronouns as heads of the relative clause, whichallows him to avoid the use of anaphoric references (he does not deal withrelative prepositional phrases, eg, "til hvem") and give a more uniformaccount of relative clauses with and without relative pronouns. This analyzesmay have great advantages during parsing as well, because the relativepronoun can be attached right away.Another (perhaps even more attractive) analysis is to: (1) in subjectrelatives, the relative pronoun lands on the relative verb and has therelativized word as its antecedent, giving V2 order in the verb; (2) inrelatives with any other relative phrase, the relative phrase lands on therelativized word and has the relativized word as its antecedent, giving V2order in the relative verb; (3) in all other relatives (ie, those without arelative phrase), the relative verb creates a filler node that has therelativized word as its antecedent, also resulting in V2 order.Post-nominal modifiers headed by a perfect participle could be analyzed asreduced subject relative clauses:

Alternatively, this construction can be analyzed as a regular mod adjunct,headed by the perfect participle. The internal structure of the modifier is thesame under this analysis. The only difference is that `mod' replaces `rel'.


35/41

As discussed in Gerhard Helbig, "Studien zur deutschen Syntax", thetraditional distinction between relatives, embedded wh-questions, andclauses headed by a complementizer is somewhat ad-hoc, since it definesthe three classes in terms of mutually inconsistent morphological, syntactic,semantic and pragmatic criteria, and many examples are extremely hard toclassify in a consistent way.

Prepositional phrase as relativized phrase

Usually the relativized phrase is a nominal phrase of some kind or asentence, that is, the relativized phrase is a verbal phrase. In a few casesthe relativized phrase can be a prepositional phrase - a phrase headed by apreposition. This preposition then is the governor of the relative clause.In the corpus we have only come across a few examples, 9 examples of thefollowing 6 expressions:

i den udstrkning i det omfang i hvilket omfang

i hvilken grad i hvilken kategori for hvem

Examples of analysis follow below:

"Ligesom" and "som"

"Ligesom" and "som" (meaning "ligesom") often marks a relativeconstruction, but not always. To determine whether the construction is infact a relative clause, we have used the following criteria:

If the sentence is not complete on its own, the construction isanalysed as a relative clause with a filler dependency.

If the sentence is complete on its own, the construction is analysedas a non-relative construction, that attaches itself to its governor asa verbal object (vobj).

Here are some examples of the different analyses:


36/41


37/41


38/41

Note that "hvad" is also used to question verbal complements, but is stilltagged as "dobj" in this case:

Hvad ville/kunne/m de? (De ville/kunne/m synge)Embedded polar questions are headed by "om", which we analyze as apreposition that takes a verbal complement

Tag questions are adjuncts (mod) to the finite verb of the tagged clause.Note that the verb in the tag bears a filler dependency to an element of thematrix clause.

As an alternative one can analyze "om" as a conjunction, which is linked tothe external governor (the finite verb of the matrix clause) by a specialcomplement edge (or possibly as a dobj). Two facts speak in favor of thepreposition analysis:

"sprge" can take other pobj's (eg, "Han spurgte efter/til kokken.") "om" can also take nominal complements after "sprge" (eg, "Han

spurgte om tilladelse").


39/41

If "om" in embedded polar questions is analyzed as a preposition the twoconstructions would receive a unified analysis.A comment on the analysis of "hjem" as a modifier to "gik": alternatively"hjem" could be analyzed as a complement, either part or alocative-directional complement, if we decide to include such a dependency.This has no bearing on the analysis of interrogatives.

VP ellipsis

VP ellipsis is typically realized as VP anaphora, with the proform "det". Theproform is tagged as a dobj to the verb:

An alternative is to analyze "det" as a (special type of) vobj. The dobjanalysis seems better in so far as it is compatible with "det" being simply apersonal pronoun. On the other hand, the vobj analysis reflects the fact thatthe antecedent for the proform is verbal.VPE constructions without proforms are analyzed in terms of [vobj] fillersalso needs to be compatible with the existence of VPE without proforms:

Marie kan synge rent, men Susan kan ikke. Vi besgte de byer (som) I gjorde.

The last example involves antecedent contained deletion, and that here theproform is impossible: *Vi besgte de byer (som) I gjorde det.

Clefts

Clefts are analysed as copula clauses, where the relative clause is anextraposed dependent of the subject (below left). This analysis is supportedby the fact that exactly this dependency structure found withoutextraposition (below right). These correspond to wh-clefts in English, alsoknown as pseudo-clefts.

Det var pnt af ham at komme. Det var pnt af ham at han kom. Det at komme var pnt af ham.


40/41

Det at han kom, var pnt af ham. At komme var pnt af ham. At han kom, var pnt af ham. Det siges/forlyder/foresls at han kommer. Det sagdes/forld at han kom. Det var/blev klart at han ville komme.

Det forskrkkede/overraskede os at hun skreg.

Progressive

Progressive aspect is expressed syntactically, either by coordination(analyzed as standard coordination) or by "vre" plus prepositionalconstruction (analyzed as a predicative):

Alternatively, the preposition can be analyzed as a pobj to "vre". The factthat we analyze other prepositional complements to copula verbs as pred,speaks in favor of the pred analysis. On the other hand, this is aconstruction where "vre" would be said to be be used as an auxiliary verb,under theories that make such a distinction, whereas in predicativeconstructions "vre" is used a main verb.How do we capture that this is a specialized construction, including:

the prepositions cannot be exchanged for others? the nobj for "i" must be one of the nouns "gang" or "frd"? "ved" and "med" must take an "at" + infinitive complement?

Also, should the inifinitive share the subject of "vre"? (Probably not)

Other phenomena

Hypothetical statements and conditionals: Vandt jeg bare i Lotto i morgen, kunne jeg kbe et nyt hus. Vinder jeg i Lotto i morgen, kan jeg kbe et nyt hus. Havde han ikke vret s uforsigtig, var det aldrig get s galt.

Other: S lille hun er!

Parenthetical sentences: De kom halvanden time for sent, (hvad der|hvilket) ikke

overraskede os. Den var god, hva'? Har du hrt hvem der kommer i aften? Som X skriver: "Jeg er optimist". Bogen er ikke, som man kunne tro, negativ og hadefuld. et sagt udsagn


41/41

A main clause may be modified by another following main clause. Stolen er da smuk, er den ikke? Stolen er smuk, ja. Stolen er smuk, ja den er. Stolen er da smuk. Er den ikke?

Hypothetical statements and conditionals:

Vandt jeg bare i Lotto i morgen, kunne jeg kbe et nyt hus. Vinder jeg i Lotto i morgen, kan jeg kbe et nyt hus. Havde han ikke vret s uforsigtig, var det aldrig get s galt. De gav hunden gift, hvad han ikke vidste. Han s glad ud, rolig ud, ...

Quotation: Jeg er et dejligt menneske, synes Marie. Hvorfor gr de s den slags

imod mig? (At) vi bliver inviteret til Firenze, fortalte Marie os i gr.

Ergatives: Han knkker grenen --> Grenen knkkede

References Mller, Stefan (2002) Complex Predicates: Verbal Complexes,

Resultative Constructions, and Particle Verbs in German, CSLIPublications, Studies in Constraint-Based Lexicalism.

http://www.id.cbs.dk/~mtk/dtag/ddt/verbs.html last updated by Matthias T. Kromann at2004-09-23 11:57
http://www.id.cbs.dk/~mtk/dtag/ddt/verbs.htmlhttp://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/mailto:[email protected]://export/hdk3/borgletdata/dirs/2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/logs.2.prince.server.writely.5663923076/tmp/1210751672433-0/mailto:[email protected]://www.id.cbs.dk/~mtk/dtag/ddt/verbs.html

Danish Dependency Treebank - Annotation guide: Verbs

Documents

Transcript of Danish Dependency Treebank - Annotation guide: Verbs