Dangers for Journalists in Iraq

8/13/2019 Dangers for Journalists in Iraq

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Under Fire: A Survey of Iraqi Journalists Perception of Physical Danger

In Covering e!s after the Fall of Sadda" #ussein

Hun Shik Kim, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor

School of Journalism and Mass Communication

University of Colorado at oulder

!mail" hunshik.kim#colorado.edu


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A*stract

+rai -ournalists o$erate in one of the deadliest nes%atherin% environments in the orld, here

nes orkers routinely face $hysical threats in the form of murders, kidna$$in%s and death

threats that affect the uality of nes, and $revent -ournalists from re$ortin% on im$ortant

stories. /his study, *ased on a survey ith 0(0 +rai -ournalists, e1amines the varia*les

influencin% +rai -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er in coverin% nes after the fall of

Saddam Hussein. 3atekee$in% theory $rovides a $rism to identify and e1$licate the different

levels of influence" individual, routines of ork, or%ani4ational, and social5institutional. 6es

or%ani4ation si4e, source of financial su$$ort 7state, $artisan, or $rivate8, %ender, -ournalism

e1$erience, -ournalists2 $erce$tion of their im$act on $olitical affairs, -ournalists2 outlook on the

future of the +rai nes media, and si4e of cities in hich -ournalists o$erate are found to *e

si%nificant varia*les sha$in% -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er in coverin% the nes.

/heoretical and $rofessional im$lications are discussed.

Keyords" Perce$tion, Physical Dan%er, +ra, Journalists


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Under fire: A survey of Iraqi $ournalists perception of physical danger in covering ne!s

after the fall of Sadda" #ussein

Physical threats and Iraqi $ournalists

+n Decem*er '((9, the 6e :ork5*ased Committee to Protect Journalists 7CPJ8 listed

+ra as the deadliest country for -ournalists for si1 consecutive years since '((;. S$ecifically, the

num*er of -ournalists killed in +ra over the si15year5$eriod since the U.S.5led invasion in March

'((; u$ until March '(() is


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includin% fi1ers and translators8 sur%ed as the Sunni5Shiite sectarian violence escalated *eteen

'((= and '((&, and as Bestern nes media in +ra, ith their rotatin% corres$ondents una*le to

s$eak Ara*ic, hired more and more +rai freelance -ournalists, strin%ers, and translators to cover

nes stories on their *ehalf 7lake, '((@ Palmer Eontan, '((& /um*er Be*ster, '((=8.

Althou%h *oth Sunni and Shiite sectarian %rou$s are Muslims, the minority Sunnis ho

constitute rou%hly '(F of the $o$ulation led the central %overnment in a%hdad durin% the

Hussein era. After the fall of the Hussein re%ime in '((;, Shiites overtook most of the country2s

$oerful $ositions, in the %overnment administrative *ranches, national security forces, and

national $olice, thus alienatin% and mar%inali4in% the Sunnis. Shiite militias, in $articular,

infiltrated all levels of the $olice and other security forces and turned them into instruments of

Shiite ven%eance a%ainst their former Sunni o$$ressors 73hosh, '((=8. /he %roin% num*er of

+rai nes media outlets also e1hi*ited either $ro5Sunni or $ro5Shiite characteristics, and shoed

increasin%ly divisive $atterns in their nes covera%e of sectarian issues 7Al5Marashi, '((&8. As a

result, many -ournalists *ecame tar%ets of re$risal assaults, kidna$$in%, and murders over their

nes re$ortin% on various $olitical issues.


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/y$ical death threats are delivered via email, cell $hones or letters to arn -ournalists to

cease their orkin% relationshi$ ith s$ecific media or to sto$ coverin% $articular nes stories

7!l5Gika*i, '((&8. /o avoid a*ductions or murders, +rai -ournalists choose to don strai%ht-ackets

of self5censorshi$ *y ithholdin% controversial stories that involve $olitical corru$tions, and

alle%ed violence and murders *y sectarian $aramilitary %rou$s or +rai security forces. Some

-ournalists decide to omit *ylines in their nes stories and others even hide their -ournalist

$rofession from their family mem*ers and relatives 7Kim Hama5Saeed, '((98.

Althou%h an o$inion $oll conducted *y forei%n *roadcasters 7AC, C, AGD, 6HK,

'((98 ith more than ','(( +rai civilians indicated im$roved security situation in and around

a%hdad and the surroundin% An*ar $rovince $artly due to the sur%e in U.S. armed forces in the

re%ion, security still remained as one of the most serious $ro*lems at the time of this study. Eifty

seven $ercent of the res$ondents in the '((9 $oll said thin%s ere >%oin% *adly? for +ra. /he

$oll also re$orted that violence such as car *om*s and suicide attacks remains common,

$articularly in *i% cities.

%iterature &evie!


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im$act of stress on re$orters under fire 73haffar Eeinstein, '((@ Eeinstein, '((' Eeinstein

6icolson, '((@8. Eeinstein and 6icholson 7'((@8, ho com$ared the $sycholo%ical risk

e1$erienced *y em*edded and unilateral -ournalists coverin% the +ra Bar, did not find

differences *eteen the to %rou$s. Hoever, as yet fe scholarly studies have e1amined the

+rai nes media in the conte1t of $hysical threats faced *y +rai -ournalists after the fall of

Saddam Hussein.

/he Committee to Protect Journalists 7'(()a8 has documented annual casualties of +rai

-ournalists since '((;. /he num*er of annual casualties of +rai -ournalists to$$ed in '((& ith

;' killed. f the ;', the hi%hest death tolls came from +rai Media 6etork ith


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Prior to '((;, there ere not more than si1 daily nes$a$ers, a do4en eeklies, and one

national television service in +ra. All nes$a$ers, radio and television stations ere ti%htly

controlled *y the rulin% aath Party. After the colla$se of the Saddam Hussein re%ime, hoever,

there emer%ed more than '@ radio and television stations and free? and >$artisan? $resses. Kim and Hama5Saeed 7'((98 classified the +rai nes media

into three cate%ories" state5run, $olitical $arty5affiliated, and inde$endent. Sin-ari2s classification


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survive due to insufficient financial su$$ort and a fled%lin% advertisin% market 7Carroll, '((0

Kim Hama5Saeed, '((98.

Theoretical Framework: Gatekeeping Theory

Pioneered *y Iein 7


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7'((


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level force, is e1cluded from analysis *ecause this study focuses only on +rai -ournalists ithout

any intercultural com$arisons.

ased on %atekee$in% theory and the current literature on the +rai nes media, the

folloin% research uestion as $osed"

RQ: What are the aria!les shaping "ra#i journalists$ perception of physical danger%

A total of eleven hy$otheses ere tested to identify and e1$licate the %atekee$in% forces

that influence +rai -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er.

&t the "ndiidual leel

'(: There is a gender difference !etween female and male journalists in their perception of

physical danger)

'*: +unni ,uslim journalists tend to hae a higher leel of perception of physical danger than

+hiite ,uslim journalists)

'-: .ournalists with longer years of journalism e/perience tend to hae a higher leel of

perception of physical danger)

'0: .ournalists with higher monthly income tend to hae a higher leel of perception of physical


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&t the 6rgani7ational leel

'8: .ournalists who work for larger news organi7ations tend to hae a higher leel of

perception of physical danger)

'9: .ournalists who rate higher on their news media$s impact on politics tend to hae a higher

leel of perception of physical danger)

'(: There are differences in the leels of perception of physical danger among journalists who

work for state5run; partisan; and priate media)

&t the +ocial institutional leel

'((: .ournalists who work in !ig cities


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Physical >anger "nde/

/he de$endent varia*le in this study is the +rai -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er in

their daily nes%atherin% activities. /o measure this de$endent varia*le, a Physical Dan%er

+nde1 7PD+8 as created *y com*inin% si1 uestions that intended to measure levels of $erceived

$hysical dan%er u$on the +rai -ournalists in the survey. /he si1 uestions reflected various

forms of $hysical dan%er that ere re$orted as the most $revalent u$on the +rai -ournalists

accordin% to various nes stories and scholarly articles 7Carroll, '((0 Committee to Protect

Journalists, '(() Ereedom House, n.d. 3hosh, '((= McIeary, '((= McDonnell, '((@ Palmer

Eontan, '((& Kim Hama5Saeed, '((98. /he uestions include direct or indirect

e1$eriences such as death threats, kidna$$in%s, and murders. A relia*ility analysis shoed that

the si1 items used to create the Physical Dan%er +nde1 have a %ood internal consistency

7Cron*ach2s al$haN.&0@8. Iisted *elo are the si1 uestions used to create the Physical Dan%er

+nde1.

Ho dan%erous do you think it is to travel in your re%ion to cover nes storiesO

Have you ever *een threatened *y any $erson or %rou$ *ecause of your -ournalistic orkO


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7


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7MN0.=&8, folloed *y insur%ent %rou$s 7MN0.'@8, reli%ious %rou$s 7MN;.908, +rai %overnment

7MN;.()8, U.S. military 7MN;.(;8, and +rai $olice 7MN;.(threats from militant %rou$s? 7'( -ournalists or


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Male -ournalists tend to have a hi%her $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er than female -ournalists

7tN5'.@


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Q/a*le < a*out hereR

H0" Monthly income

Monthly income has a $ositive correlation ith $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er 7rN.'9=,

$Q.(


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Althou%h the continued killin%s of +rai -ournalists have had a definite chillin% effect on

the entire +rai -ournalists, several or%ani4ational5level forces of %atekee$in% may influence the

+rai -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er differently.

H9" Si4e of nes media

/here is a $ositive correlation *eteen the si4e of nes media and $erce$tion of $hysical

dan%er 7rN.


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$hysical dan%er. /he results shoed that there is a si%nificant relationshi$ amon% the -ournalists

orkin% at $rivate, $artisan, and state5run nes media and their $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er, as

shon in /a*le ' 7EN0.(0=, $Q.(@8. ased on the A6A results, +rai -ournalists orkin% at

$rivate media tend to $erceive the most $hysical dan%er, folloed *y $artisan media and state5

run media. H) is su$$orted.

Q/a*le ' a*out hereR

Social5institutional5level forces

H


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a*ductions, and other $hysical threats from various militant %rou$s, the +rai %overnment,

$olitical $arties, and reli%ious %rou$s.

/o investi%ate hat forces influence formulatin% $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er u$on

+rai -ournalists, this study em$loyed Shoemaker and Geese2s 7


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of $hysical dan%er. /he fact that +rai -ournalists orkin% at *i%%er nes or%ani4ations tend to

have hi%her $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er su%%ests the -ournalists at influential nes

or%ani4ations are more likely to *ecome ma-or tar%ets for various forms of $hysical attacks *y

militant %rou$s in +ra. Similarly, that -ournalists orkin% at $rivate media tend to $erceive most

$hysical dan%er, as com$ared to -ournalists at $artisan and state5run media, su%%est that there is

little *reathin% %round for $olitically5un*iased, editorially5inde$endent media in +ra.

/he inte%ral influence of social institutional level of %atekee$in% forces such as market

si4e in e1$lainin% the varyin% de%rees of +rai -ournalists2 $erce$tion of $hysical dan%er is

orthy of s$ecial note. Several studies have found that market or community characteristics

influence %atekee$ers2 nes decisions 7See Donahue, /ichenor, lien,


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strive to include more varia*les of %atekee$in% forces that ill measure ho +rai -ournalists

$erceive other com$le1 -ournalistic conce$ts such as $rofessional role conce$tions or $erce$tion

of $ress freedom. /his ill $ermit us to further understand the dynamics of %atekee$in% forces in

the nes $roduction and o$eration in a country at ar under%oin% massive $olitical and social

transformations.


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&eferences

AC, AGD, C, 6HK 7'((98. +ra five years later" Bhere thin%s stand. Getrieved March


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Cohen, . C. 7


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Eeinstein, A., 6icolson, D. 7'((@8. !m*edded -ournalists in the +ra Bar" Are they at %reater

$sycholo%ical riskO.ournal of Traumatic +tress,


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Io%an, G. A., 3arrison, . 7


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$ress. +n&ra! media in the information age 7$$. 0&&50)&8. A*u Dha*i, UA!" !mirates

Center for Strate%ic Studies and Gesearch.

Snider, P. 7


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iel*auer, P. 7'((=, ') Se$tem*er8. +rai -ournalists add las to list of dan%ers. The New Dork

Times, A


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/AI!

Dangers for Journalists in Iraq

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