Montana State University –Billings

Billings, MT

Graduate Studies

The Effect of Right View Pro©

on Bat Velocity and Batted-Ball Exit Velocity in College Baseball Players

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master

of Science in Interdisciplinary Studies: Exercise and Sport Leadership

Dan McKinney

Montana State University – Billings

April 23, 2015

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Abstract

McKinney, Daniel K. The effect of Right View Pro© on bat speed in Miles Community

College Male Baseball Athletes. Published Masters of Science Thesis, Montana State

University Billings, 2015.

The effects of Right View Pro© Video Analysis on bat speed and batted-ball exit

velocity were evaluated in 29 male collegiate student-athletes. The 29 athletes were

divided into three groups and evaluated on both dependent variables (bat speed and

batted-ball exit velocity). Group A participated in weight training only, Group B

participated in weight training and video analysis, and Group C participated in weight

training, video analysis, and Right View Pro© video analysis. The Pocket Radar© was

used to measure bat speed of each individual, while the Stalker Radar Sport 2 Radar

Gun© was used to measure the speed of the batted-ball exit velocity. On the initial day of

testing (September 3rd, 2013), participants completed their baseline bat speed and batted-

ball exit velocity. After two semesters of the academic year (until May 6th, 2014),

participants completed their post-test on bat speed and batted-ball exit velocity. A one

way analysis of variance with post-hoc Tukey was used to analyze the data. The analysis

of variance showed no significant difference between the three groups, p=0.18. The

batted-ball exit velocity was significantly different (p=0.02), between Group A and

Group B only. The Tukey post hoc criteria for significance indicated that a significant

difference existed between Group A (Weight Training only) and Group B (Weight

Training and Video Analysis), HSD (0.5) =5.44; HSD (.01) =6.97; and M1 vs. M2 P<.05.

All other groups and dependent variables were found to be non-significant. From the

results, one can conclude that Right View Pro© has no significant effect on bat speed or

batted-ball exit velocity.

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Table of Contents

Chapter

I. Introduction…………………………………………………………… 4

a. Bat Speed and Definition of Successful Hitters…………………... 4

b. Mirror Neurons and Macaque Monkeys………………………….. 4

c. Visual Learning…………………………………………………… 5

d. Right View Pro Video Analysis©………………………………… 5

e. Problem Statement………………………………………………... 6

f. Research Purpose…………………………………………………. 7

g. Hypothesis………………………………………………………… 7

h. Operational Definitions…………………………………………… 7

II. Review of Literature…………………………………………………... 8

III. Methodology………………………………………………………….. 30

IV. Results……………………………………………………………….... 32

V. Discussion…………………………………………………………….. 36

a. Limitations………………………………………………………... 38

VI. Conclusions and Recommendations………………………………….. 39

VII. References…………………………………………………………….. 42

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Introduction

Research has shown that in the game of baseball, bat swing velocity (bat speed) is

an important characteristic of successful hitters (Szymanski, 2009). The ability to hit

professional major league pitchers whose fastball velocity can exceed 95 miles per hour

requires good bat speed. A hitter that can move the bat in a quick manner is able to gather

more information from the flight of the ball, letting the ball travel farther and creates the

possibility of making a more informed decision. With an increase in decision time, the

time it takes to move the bat is decreased. With great bat speed, comes the reality of an

increase in batted-ball exit velocity. With higher exit velocities translating into hitting the

ball farther (more homeruns) and harder (less reaction time for the defenders), possessing

one or both of the qualities of swing speed and decision making is important to a hitter’s

success.

This particular study focuses on using a visual training aide called Right View

Pro© (RVP) as a way to increase bat speed by observing what the best hitters in baseball

do. The ability for a person to watch someone else perform a task and then repeat or try

to replicate that movement was first seen in macaque monkeys. A visuomotor neuron

system in the monkey’s premotor cortex responds both when a particular action is

performed by the monkey and when the same action performed by another individual is

observed. The mirror neurons located in the monkeys appear to form a cortical system

matching observation and execution of goal-related motor actions (Gallese & Goldman,

1998). Furthermore, several experiments in humans and monkeys found mirror neurons

in frontal and parietal lobes in tasks involving manual action observation and that the

neurons have been associated with various forms of human behaviors such as: imitation,

mind theory, and new skill learning. Specifically, imitation is involved in learning

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through the transformation of visual inputs encoded into action by the observer (Carvalho

et al, 2013). The observation and critiquing of elite hitters was portrayed to the collegiate

players in this study. Regardless of their interpretation of what they were observing,

mirror neurons were being fired as some sort of picture or mental image was presented to

the participants.

Visual learning is just one of four fundamental ways that a person may learn. The

VARK learning style model is an acronym that classifies students into (1) visual, (2)

aural, (3) read/write, and (4) kinesthetic types of learners. This model was first introduced

by Neil Fleming in 2006, in which he categorized each mode based on different preferred

senses used in information gathering amongst students (Prithishkumar & Michael, 2014).

In baseball specifically, hitters may use one or all of these attributes to gather the

appropriate information needed to be successful. The visual learning style is the main

focus throughout this study. While RVP might benefit hitters through other components,

such as bat path, hand path, mechanical efficiency, and bat plane, it does not cover one of

the most crucial aspects of the swing, bat velocity.

Studies show bat velocity can be increased through specific resistance weight

training and mechanical efficiency. However, no research has been found to determine

the effect a visual training program has on bat velocity. Presently, baseball players from

high school to the professional ranks use RVP to help young aspiring baseball players

focus on how current and past major league baseball player’s swing. It defines the

principles that make these players the most efficient and the most successful while

communicating it in an easily understood fashion (Slaught, 2009). Additionally, the video

system is a tool designed for players and coaches to compare and contrast the major

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differences between nonprofessional athletes (amateurs) and professional athletes. The

video is designed to accelerate learning by improving communication between students

and coaches to optimize each learning experience. According to the Cone of Learning

developed by Edgar Dale, students retain about 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they

see, 50% of what they hear and see, 70% of what they say and write, and 90% of what

they do as they perform a task (Dale, 1969). Before any player can improve, he/she needs

a clear mental picture of what success looks like. With RVP, a coach can instruct a

student through a hitting motion indicating what is expected at each phase of the motion.

The key dialogue in enhancing the learning experience for the performer is in how the

instruction and feedback in regards to the learner’s focus of attention is portrayed by the

coach. Studies show that directing performers’ attention to the effects of their movements

(external focus of attention) appears to be more beneficial than directing their attention to

their own movements (internal focus of attention) when learning a motor skill (W &

Prinz, 2001). This is a critical point of communication and where the coach and player

get on the same page. A player is able to match what they think they are doing to what

they are actually doing (Slaught, 2009). In using RVP, amateurs are able to see what the

professionals do from a biomechanical and physical standpoint. With the visual aide,

hitters can compare and contrast their own swing mechanics to that of professionals by

using the tools available on RVP to make the necessary corrections.

Problem Statement

Over the years, baseball players and coaches have worked to find a way to

improve bat velocity and ball exit speed. Several studies have used resistance weight

training and weighted implement training to increase both attributes. To date, no study

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could be found that has attempted to use a visual aid, such as RVP, to help increase bat

speed and or bat velocity. The effects of this study will show if a visual aide can improve

mechanical efficiency of a collegiate baseball player so much that his bat velocity and

batted-ball exit speed increase.

Research Purpose

The overall purpose of this study is to determine if hitters can increase bat velocity and

batted-ball exit velocity through the use of a visual hitting module (Right View Pro©)

and more specifically, by watching skilled professionals perform the same task.

The specific purposes are:

1) To assess the effect that Right View Pro Training Model has on bat velocity and

batted-ball exit velocity in male collegiate baseball players.

2) To assess if there is more than one specific way that a hitter may increase their bat

velocity.

3) To assess if a significant difference in bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity

exists between RVP users, Non RVP users, and Pitchers.

Hypothesis

Ho: No difference in bat velocity will exist between RVP users, Non RVP users,

and Pitchers.

Ho: No difference in batted-ball exit velocity will exist between RVP users, Non

RVP users, and Pitchers.

Operational Definitions

Simples Reaction Time: Simple Reaction Time (SRT) is a test which measures

simple reaction time through delivery of a known stimulus to a known location to elicit a

known response. Measured in milliseconds.

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Decision Time – the time that the hitter has to evaluate the pitched ball and decide

whether to swing.

Kinematics: Branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points,

bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the

causes of motion.

Bio-Mechanical Efficiency: Whole body system working as one in a constant

dynamically balanced state in the best possible time, order, and place.

Dynamic Balance: The motion of the balance point (called the center of gravity)

through the swing.

Kinetic Link Principle: The ideal Kinetic Link produces high bat velocity by the

sequential transfer of energy from the stronger and heavier body segments (legs and

trunks) to the arms and finally to the bat.

Bat Speed or Bat Swing Velocity: The highest speed of the bat head (peak

velocity) through the hitting zone. Bat speed is measured in miles per hour (MPH).

Batted-Ball Velocity: The speed at which the ball exits the bat measured in miles

per hour.

Bat Quickness: The time it takes to move the bat head from launch position to

contact with the ball, measured in seconds.

Literature Review

The success of a hitter has been classified as a professional hitter with a batting

average greater than .300 (Breen, 1967). Others have defined a successful hitter as one

who had a minimum batting average of .275 for more than 220 times at bat and/- or

superior skills shown through other hitting statistics, such as home runs, total bases, or

slugging percentage (Race, 1961). Breen determined that former Major League Baseball

Players; Ernie Banks, Ted Williams, Stan Musial, Henry Aaron, Willie Mays, and

Mickey Mantle shared no less than five central mechanical characteristics. Those five

attributes include but are not limited to: 1) The center of gravity (belly button, core) flows

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in a fairly straight plane throughout the completion of the swing. 2) The hitter is able to

change the position of their head from pitch to pitch in order to obtain the longest and

best possible look at the flight of the baseball. 3) The bottom hand on the bat begins to

straighten immediately at the start of the swing movement. The result of this factor shows

an increase in bat speed. 4) The stride length of the hitter is almost always the same on

every pitch. 5) After the conclusion of contact with the ball, the upper body (torso)

follows the same direction as the flight of the ball. This attribute puts weight on the

leading foot and leg (Breen, 1967).

Although many hitters share the same characteristics and the definition of what

constitutes a successful hitter can be altered, experts and non-expert batters can be

separated in greater detail. The basis of this research focuses on bat velocity, batted-ball

exit velocity, and the vital role that it can have in determining the success of a hitter.

However, the success of a hitter isn’t solely defined by bat speed or exit velocity. Success

is dependent on many attributes that include; cognitive processing, reaction time,

movement time, visual cues, making sound decisions, mechanical efficiency, and

physical (resistance training, weighted implement training) training. The ability to access

and process information from one’s environment is the foundation on which a hitter can

build.

What does the pitcher throw? Can they locate? Where have they been throwing

me? What are their tendencies, patterns and sequence? Does their ball move? What is the

count? These are all questions that involve cognitive processing, a mental process of

thinking and obtaining knowledge. Cognitive processing (e.g., expectations about the

upcoming pitch) plays an important role in successful baseball batting. Previous research

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on baseball hitting has focused mostly on perceptual judgments and biomechanical

aspects. Experimental evidence through a two-state Markov model has shown that prior

expectations expressively affect the timing of a baseball swing, most notably on the

premise of a pitcher’s body language, the previous history of pitches (sequences), and the

pitch count (2-0, 0-2). Using cognitive cues can carry significant positive benefits when

correct and imposes significant penalties on reaction time when incorrect. Cognitive

processing of the aforementioned attributes are primarily used when the hitter has

inadequate perceptual information in the hitting situation, lack of processing time (<300

milliseconds), and issues tracking the ball with his eyes. The model shows shifts between

anticipation situations and helps explain why hitters get fooled on a certain pitch after a

sequence, and the pattern has been altered by the pitcher. In addition, the model also

helps explain the distinctive advantage hitters have when they are ahead in the count (2-0,

3-1) and alternatively, the disadvantage when they are behind in the count (1-2, 0-2)

(Gray, 2002). Cognitive processing and gaining knowledge can give the hitter an

advantage before he steps into the batter’s box. Once cognitive processing takes place, a

decision and reaction must occur to complete a baseball swing. As humans, we are all

processers of information. How we use, react, and respond to that information is a key

concept in helping predict the success of a hitter.

As previously mentioned, perceptual judgments play a critical role in a baseball at

bat. Through visual cues and anticipatory movements, the hitter has the ability to

accurately decipher between a fastball and change-up. Using one’s senses (sight,

hearing), and becoming cognitively aware of their environment, humans perceive and use

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relevant information that is presented to help direct their movements. Baseball is no

different than any other activity that involves fast moving objects.

In a recent study conducted in a virtual environment, expert hitters were found to

be more capable of using visual information of the ball (type of pitch), rather than the

movement pattern of the pitcher. Ten expert and ten novice hitters were given the task of

discerning a fastball from a change-up through two different response models: a) an

uncoupled response in which the hitters made a verbal statement trying to accurately

predict the pitch and (b) a coupled response in which the batters swung a baseball bat at a

virtual baseball. The ability to do so is separated by two neurophysiological streams

involved in visuomotor responding. It involves a ventral stream which is in control of

identifying and classifying visual stimuli (environmental stimuli), and a dorsal stream

that controls motor actions based on the given visual stimulus (movement or action). In

this study, hitters were more accurate in determining the pitch when the response was

uncoupled. Furthermore, in coupled responses, experts were more accurate when using

the first 100 milliseconds of ball flight independently of the pitcher’s body movements

(kinematics). Therefore, predictions of the pitch by experts are more accurate with visual

information than when just having the movement of the pitcher (Ranganathan & Carlton,

2007).

After combining previous research on perceptual, cognitive, and indirect

information available for hitting a baseball, specific behavior of college baseball players

in a virtual batting task has been studied and examined by Professor Rob Gray at Arizona

State University. Prior to Gray’s explorations, available perceptual information examined

the science behind necessary means of moving a bat or hand to the right place at the right

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time. The margin of error found in top sports players has been minimal. Less than 5 cm in

positional errors and less than 2 or 3 milliseconds in temporal errors were found and

reliably maintained through each assignment. The task is predominantly achieved

through three different types of actions. The actions are predictive visual information

about when and where the ball will be, correlation between visual information and the

required movement to move the bat to the correct position, and use of prior knowledge to

aid in the effort when little visual information readily available (Regan, 1997). In earlier

research, the discovery of the single determinant that the hitter must know in order to

accomplish the task of contact, is the position of the baseball when it crosses the plate

and the time in which it will arrive to that area (Bahill & Karnavas, 1993). Two primary

sources of information about when the ball will cross the plate are provided by a change

in the angular size of the ball’s retinal image. Particularly, when an object (baseball) is

approaching at a constant speed directly at the observer’s eye, the distance at which the

observer judges the object to be hittable increases with ball size (Hoyle, 1957). However,

very few studies have examined how a hitter uses the perceptual information present to

help direct a motor response. It is evident there is more complexity in hitting a pitched

ball than simply judging the pitch location at time of contact. Hitters must learn to use

perceptual information to simplify the intricacies of the swing. Limitations, particularly

eye movements, hamper certain actions and limit the type of information a hitter can use

(Gray, 2002). Due to the combination of senses and response attributes often divided for

individual analysis, the hitter’s step (stride) and movement (response) must be in process

during the sensory perceptual phase. If the two processes don’t occur simultaneously, the

hitter may be off time with the pitch (Hubbard & Seng, 1954). Perception, previous

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knowledge of pitches, and certain pitch counts can help aid in the process of a hitter

being more successful when faced with the difficulty of hitting.

Aforementioned research on cognitive information states that hitters use past

history such as previous pitches and pitch count to accurately calculate the location and

speed of the upcoming pitch (Gray, 2002). In this particular study, Professor Gray used a

baseball batting simulation to further investigate perceptual and cognitive information

used in hitting a baseball. Specifically, he used temporal and spatial swing accuracy to

test whether batters (a) use speed to estimate pitch height, (b) initiate a constant swing

duration at a fixed time to contact, (c) are influenced by the history of previous pitches

and pitch count, and (d) use rotation direction (Gray, 2002). In conclusion, this study

indicated that by varying the speed of each pitch, an increase in error in the height of the

swing occurred. Hitters primarily use the history of previous pitches, knowledge of the

pitch count, and ball rotation to move and direct their swing. These findings combine the

correlations between perception and action in controlling one’s swing (Gray, 2002). Once

the cognitive and perceptual phases are in process, a reaction to the information gathered

by those processes must be initiated. Being able to react quickly, efficiently, and

accurately is an important skill for any expert hitter.

Reaction Time

Simple reaction time is the time from detection of stimulus until first, initial

movement. In this instance, and for the purpose of this study, the potential stimulus for a

hitter could be the pitcher and or ball. For over 120 years, research figures for simple

reaction time in college aged individuals has been about 190 milliseconds (0.19) for a

light stimulus and about 160 milliseconds (0.16) for a sound stimulus (Kosinski, 2014).

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Furthermore, Hick’s Law refers to the increased amount of time it takes for a person to

make a decision as the number of choices increases. As the number of choices increase,

the time to react to those given choices also increases. In turn, the time it takes to make

that decision is the reaction time measured in bits (Hick, 1952).

In their first study, Hammel & Stumpner surveyed the batting reaction-time in

twenty-five physical education students at Indiana University. They examined the batting

reaction-time under two experimental conditions and found that the average starting

reaction-time was around .21 seconds and the average movement reaction-time to be

approximately .27 seconds (Hammel & Stumpner, 1950). They followed their initial

study with an examination that added two more specific conditions, choice starting

reaction-time and choice movement reaction time.

In baseball, there is only one choice that a hitter must make in order to be

successful; swing at a pitch or not swing at a pitch. However, the single choice a hitter is

given involves a variety of cues that are embedded into the process in making that

decision. The type, location, speed, curve and spin of pitch are all examples of visual

cues that a hitter might use to make an informed decision. In the first condition, starting

reaction time, researchers measured the speed when a batter starts moving the bat based

on a visual stimulus. In the second condition, the measured speed a hitter could start to

change direction of the moving bat upon the presentation of a stimulus. Twenty five

physical education majors were measured and the results showed the average choice

starting reaction time to move the bat was 0.29 seconds and the average choice

movement reaction-time in the same students was 0.34 seconds (Hammel & Stumpner,

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1951). In addition, coaches and players have long been concerned with reaction time as a

determinant of categorizing a hitter to be successful.

Those same coaches and players have stated that a successful batter must learn to

start the swing late and delay their swing until the last possible moment when the ball is a

few feet from home plate. By allowing the ball to travel farther, the hitter is able to gain

relevant knowledge of the pitch, location, and speed. The contact between bat and ball is

potentially more accurate the closer the ball is to the plate. However, if the reaction time

of a simple hand response is between .150-.225 seconds and a fastball traveling from the

mound to home plate arrives between .43-.58 seconds, it is evident that the ball must be

more than a few feet from home plate if the hitter is to have enough time to react, start the

swing, and move the bat in the direction of the baseball (Hammel & Stumpner, 1950).

Therefore, knowing when to start the swing (reaction time) and be on time with the pitch

(movement time) is critical to the success of a hitter.

Interestingly, an increase or decrease in reaction and movement time does not

accurately predict the offensive ability of a hitter. In a study correlating reaction time

(RT) and movement time (MT) with batting average, slugging percentage, and total

averages; 40 varsity baseball players from Colorado State University, University of

Wyoming, University of Utah, and Brigham Young University were found to have no

significant relationship (Nielsen & McGown, 1985). In contrast, vision reaction time

(VRT) has been found to be linked with an increase in batting average. The vision

reaction time of 213 professional baseball players in the Southern Baseball League were

tested and 92 players who had at least 100 at bats, was found to be significantly

correlated with batting average (p=0.017) (Classé, 1997). In another study, 82 university

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students (22 baseball, 22 tennis players, and 38 non-athletes) and 17 professional baseball

players were assessed to see if a significant difference existed between baseball

experience and skill levels in simple reaction time and the Go/No Go reaction time. The

Go/No Go is a recognition test that involves decision making and requires a subject to

press a button when a given stimulus is presented, while not pressing the button when

another stimulus appears. There was no significant difference in simple reaction time in

regards to experience or level. However, there was a significant difference in the Go/No

Go reaction time for baseball players, and the difference was the shortest for the

professional baseball players (Kida, Oda, & Matsumura, 2005). This research has

significant implications in the ability to make a quick and accurate decision as a

professional/expert hitter. Go/No Go Reaction time seems to be an attribute than can

separate experts from novices. Perceptual judgments, and more importantly, visual cues

and visual search patterns have also been found to aid in the development of professional

hitters.

Visual Research & Feature Integration Theory

While visual cues have been shown to show a significant difference between a

novice and an expert, a majority of the research presented to date has focused mainly on

perceptual and biomechanical elements of the swing. One of the most important

perceptual attributes in determining the potential success of a hitter is whether or not they

can see the baseball coming from the pitcher. It is important to understand what experts

and non-experts focus their attention on, their particular eye movements, and what cues

they use to their advantage. The basis of most visual research and the role of focused

attention have come from the Feature Integration Theory that was introduced by Anne

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Treisman and Garry Gelade in 1980. The theory states that one’s attention must be

focused on each particular stimulus in a display whenever combinations of more than one

distinguishable piece are needed to depict or separate all of the potential objects

displayed (Treisman & Gelade, 1980). The first stage of this paradigm is known as the

Preattentive Stage in which a person perceives an object and analyzes that object. This

analysis occurs early in the perceptual process, happening automatically or

unconsciously, and has no attention limitations. Features include color, shape,

orientation, and movement. The second stage is known as the focused attention stage in

which the individual attributes of the perceived object are combined in order to recognize

the object as whole. This conjunction requires attention and when disrupted or other

features are present, the combination can be lost and the attributes of unattended objects

may be spatially misplaced. Identifying important elements and obtaining their location is

critical during this stage. An unattended stimulus is only recorded at a fundamental level

and if not critical to the comprised features, should not affect one from discerning the

conjunctions needed (Treisman & Gelade, 1980). While standing in the batter’s box,

hitters are presented with an array of visual objects (pitchers, fielders, grass, dirt, etc.)

and must be able to discern and focus on what is important and what isn’t in the pitchers

pre-movement phase. At this moment in time, hitters usually unconsciously and

automatically see color and movement as they widen their focus on the pitcher. As the

pitcher begins his motion, the focus moves from acutely fixated to the object as a whole.

While the process of throwing the pitch continues, a hitter’s attention must focus solely

on the next movement in sequence when the visual objects in the hitters view are

unlimited. With unlimited objects to view, hitters must learn to focus on each movement

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and move their eyes to the next available position to get the earliest and best possible

view of the baseball leaving the pitchers hand.

Visual

In baseball hitting, visual search strategies and decision making play a vital role in

a batter’s success. Experts tend to focus solely on the important features of the pitcher.

An expert hitter’s eye movement patterns, accuracy, and timing of their swing judgments

are significantly different from non-experts. Using the correct visual cues prior to and

during the pitching delivery separates the two groups. Experts (college baseball team)

tend to shift their observational point of focus from the head, chest, or trunk of the pitcher

to the pitching arm and the release point before the ball is released. Non-experts

(graduate and college students) observed the head and face of the pitcher. With the focus

on specific visual cues, the experts outperformed the non-experts in the aforementioned

categories and were more accurate and quicker in their decisions (Takeuchi & Inomata,

2009).

Furthermore, a hitter’s eye movements and visual search patterns while viewing a

baseball pitch is important in distinguishing experts from novices. An information-

processing theory has been used to predict that performers obtain information from

stimuli and their environment through particular eye movements and fixations. Experts

tend to fixate their vision on the predictable release point during the wind-up.

Approximately 150 milliseconds after release, they move their eyes to the ball. After

release, the hitter must then gather relevant cues to make a decision about the motor

response within the first 9.1 meters (30 ft.) of the ball’s flight, or the initial 200

milliseconds. Novices were found to move their eyes prior to release and focused their

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attention away from the release point, such as the head of the pitcher (Shank & Haywood,

1987). Additionally, similar research has been conducted in cricket batsman where the

eyes are originally on the point of delivery or the release point. Following the release;

cricket, baseball, and table tennis players use a saccade or a fast movement to bring the

central fovea of the eye close to the anticipated location of the object (Land & McLeod,

2000).

Moreover, visual, auditory, and tactile information are all examples of sensory

feedback batters can use to determine the success of a swing and assess their performance

from pitch to pitch. Visual information can be separated into two sources: (a) the location

of the contact point between ball and bat, and (b) the flight (speed and direction) of the

ball exiting the bat. Research on eye movements suggest that because the ball is so far

away from fovea at the point of contact with the bat, batters most likely could not

perceive this information accurately enough for it to have any value (Gray, 2009).

A probable smooth-pursuit eye movement is used to track the flight of the ball out

of the pitcher’s hand. Smooth pursuit movements are much slower tracking movements

of the eyes designed to keep a moving stimulus on the fovea. Such movements are under

voluntary control in the sense that the observer can choose whether or not to track a

moving stimulus (Purves et al, 2001).

However, this movement is not fast enough to monitor the ball from release point

to the plate. A pitch traveling 100-mph travels at approximately 500 ° /s and the fastest

recorded smooth-pursuit eye movement has been recorded at 100 ° /s. Subsequently, it is

not physiologically possible that experts can track a pitch but must judge the point of

contact by following the ball with a smooth-pursuit eye movement, followed by saccadic

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eye movement to calculate the location of contact. If this strategy is used, it is likely that

the hitter can use foveal vision (area of most acute vision) at the point of contact (Gray,

2009). In conjunction, batters use the flight of the ball to adjust and increase performance

in between pitches and at-bats.

Four attributes can be used to make these adjustments: 1) movement of hands, 2)

movement of bat, 3) pitch of an auditory tone, and 4) direction of the ball. Experts exude

low temporal errors in the fourth attribute, which indicates the importance of the ball

exiting the bat as a measure of success. An external focus of attention effects ideal

performance. In addition, hitters can use tactile information to assess and diagnosis

quality contact. The amount of vibration that is felt by a hitter is directly related to the

point of contact. When contact occurs near the sweet spot (the widest part of the bat) very

little vibration is felt. In contrast, strong vibration occurs when contact is away from the

widest part. Lastly, auditory information can be used to make adjustments in a

subsequent swing. The sound that is produced by a well struck ball hit on the sweet spot

is typically distinct. Contrary, a ball that is hit on the handle or at the end of the barrel

produces a low frequency radiation and or sound (Gray, 2009). After a hitter swings and

makes contact, they are provided instant feedback as to where they hit the ball on the bat,

direction of the ball, and the sound that the bat-ball collision makes. Experts are able to

use that feedback as a learning tool in order to make the necessary adjustments to be

successful during their next swing or at bat.

Consequently, a batter has approximately 0.13 seconds to make a decision to

swing or not following the release of the baseball. The ability of a hitter to discern the

type of pitch (ex: curve ball, fast ball, change-up, knuckleball), location of the pitch (ex:

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in, out, up, down), and speed of the pitch is critical to their success. One predictor is the

spin of the baseball. The previously mentioned pitches all depend on different

characteristics in terms of spin and rate of rotation. Explicitly, a curveball spins in a

downward direction. The direction and spin on a curveball directly affect the lateral

direction (curve) of the baseball. The faster the spin of the baseball, the more movement

on the ball. Highlighted seams (marked balls) of the baseball were investigated to

differentiate the rate of rotation in order to improve the hitting of curveballs. In this

study, the mean overall increase in a well-hit marked ball compared to an unmarked ball

was found to be significantly different. Therefore the addition of visual cues (marked

balls) appears to increase a batter’s performance. However, further research is suggested

regarding the training procedures, effect of feedback, rate of fading cues, generalization

to live pitching, and generalization to other types of pitches (Osborne, Rudrud, &

Zezoney, 1990). Using these cues, a batter can learn to differentiate pitches by marking

the seams of a baseball in order to pick up the different rotations of each pitch and

therefore become a more successful hitter. Although there are many critical attributes that

contribute to the success of a hitter, the focus of this study is on bat velocity.

Bat Speed

Bat velocity, bat speed & bat quickness is a result of two primary attributes, Bio-

Mechanical Efficiency & Torque (Rotational Force). Strength is one variable that

contributes to the goal of high bat velocity. Bob Keyes, the owner and operator of Bio

Kinetics: Research and Development has spent years working with major league

organizations in which he applies the latest computer and video technology with the laws

of Biomechanics, exercise physiology, and motor learning to improve baseball

22

performance. His team of experts at Bio-Kinetics Research and Development describe

biomechanical efficiency as the whole body system working as one in a constant

dynamically balanced state in the best possible time, order, and place (Keyes, 2005). The

concept of dynamic balance has been confirmed through the work of DeRenne and his

thirty plus years of research and video analysis. All great hitters work through a range or

state of motion in their swing from stance to follow through, and remain balanced while

moving. The center of gravity, which is mainly comprised of the core, is the hitter’s

balance point and foundation of support (DeRenne, 2011).

The success of a hitter is dependent on many variables. Bat velocity is considered

a characteristic that is essential to a batter’s success. Bat velocity is defined as, the speed

at which the bat head (barrel) is traveling at the point of contact between bat and ball

(Lund & Heefner, 2005). Additionally, only the best hitters in the game reach their

highest bat speed just before contact is made with the ball (Keyes, 2005).

Furthermore, bat velocity in the game of baseball is important for several reasons.

According to the equation, force equals mass times acceleration, the greater the velocity

of the bat at contact- other variables held constant, the greater the force that can be

imparted to the ball and the farther the ball will travel once hit. In addition, since energy

equals one-half mass times velocity squared, a bat swung with more velocity will result

in greater energy imparted to the ball. Essentially, the higher the velocity of the moving

bat at contact, the higher the velocity of the batted ball. This is true for both wooden bats

and aluminum bats since physics applies equally to both materials (Lund & Heefner,

2005).

23

Bat quickness is defined as the time it takes to move the bat head from launch

position to contact with the ball, measured in seconds. However, the correlation between

bat velocity and bat quickness is opposite in the overall result and effect. Hitters who

display high bat velocities, tend to demonstrate poor bat quickness and longer swing

times. Bat quickness of major league hitters has been calculated to be 0.14 to 0.15 of a

second in contact hitters, and 0.17 to 0.18 in power hitters, demonstrating the inverse

relationship between the two swing variables. This relationship shows the importance of

making an informed decision to swing or not to swing. Decision time is defined as the

amount of time the hitter has to read the pitch and decide if, and when to swing the bat

with the information given. As bat quickness improves, decision time also improves.

Ultimately, the opportunity for the hitter to make a more informed decision also advances

(Lund & Heefner, 2005). Bat quickness is critical to the contact batter who wants to put

the ball in play more because they have a shorter swing to the ball which translates to less

velocity. In contrast, the power hitter has a longer time to contact, thus creating more bat

velocity and ultimately producing more power.

Moreover, ESPN’s Sports Science states that, bat speed is the most key

component in equating and hitting for distance. For example, a bat moving 65 miles per

hour (mph) at a 60 mile per hour pitch can send a ball flying 400 feet. Hitting a ball

pitched 5 mph faster (65 mph) with the same bat speed, only propels the ball 5 feet

farther. However, if you increase the swing speed 5 mph on a 60 mph pitch, the ball will

travel about 25 feet farther or roughly around 5 times farther (Brenkus, "Sport Science-

The physics of hitting a baseball"). This shows how truly important bat speed is to a

power hitter. It is important to know and understand how to increase bat speed in order to

24

become a more efficient hitter. Two main factors contribute to an increase in bat speed

are: mechanical efficiency and specific resistance training programs, e.g. overweight

training, overweight and underweight integral training and progressive overload

resistance training. A majority of hitters produce high velocity bat speeds through their

mechanical efficiency (Dynamic Balance, Kinetic Link Principle). However, a hitter can

also produce bat speed equal to or greater than with more strength (specific resistance

training program) (Keyes, 2005).

In 1979, Dr. Coop DeRenne began his research by asking two specific questions.

How do you pitch and throw the baseball faster; and how do the best hitters hit and

increase their bat velocities? These two questions guided him to the scientific areas of

biomechanics, exercise science and visual training (DeRenne, 2013). At that time, very

little was known in regards to how bat velocity could be increased. With his first initial

research project, DeRenne and his team concluded that hitters traditionally train with

overload exercises when beginning to improve and increase their bat velocity.

Furthermore, the majority of baseball overload exercises consist of isotonic weight

training exercises and the use of overloaded hitting implements (i.e. Weighted

Doughnut). However, little was known of the effect an overload weight training exercise

program would have on hitter’s and their normal bat velocity (DeRenne & Okasaki,

1983). Ultimately, DeRenne defined the effect of specific resistance training programs,

and what over-loading/under-loading hitting implements have on bat velocity. Primarily,

it is important to discuss how resistance training improves bat velocity and the

importance of flexibility within the confines of the elite hitter’s swing.

25

Research shows that bat velocity can be increased through a specific resistance

training program. A player cannot strengthen one muscle group and expect to see a

dramatic increase in bat speed. A player must build a good balance of functional as well

as absolute strength from the lower torso up through the core, into the upper torso and

arms to see an improvement. Strength is only the foundation. The key components are

torque, force, and kinetic energy. Furthermore, a player who engages in resistance

training and training muscles to fire faster must also maintain good flexibility throughout

the entire body. The more inflexible the player is, the smaller displacement between

segments and the slower the transfer of energy from one segment to another. Therefore, a

player must not only add strength but must also maintain or add flexibility (Keyes, 2005).

Under-loading and overloading principles during warm-up swings have also been

found to have a vast effect on bat velocity. Since 1980, DeRenne has conducted six

warm-up hitting projects using high school and collegiate players that support the

principles of Specificity of Training and Weighted Implement Training. In study one,

twenty-three players were used to help determine the effect that a weighted object had on

a normal game bat velocity after warm-up. The results showed a significant increase in

bat velocity when the players swung a normal game bat after warming up with a wooden

overloaded bat (34 oz.) and a 27 oz. under- loaded bat (DeRenne, 1982). One year later,

60 college players were tested in the same exact manner. The results showed a significant

difference and increase in bat velocity in the 34 oz. overloaded bat, as well as a 29 oz.

and 27 oz. under-loaded bat (DeRenne & Okasaki, 1983).This was confirmed in a repeat

study in 1984. In study four (1987), the effects of overloaded and under loaded weighted

implements on bat velocity after warm-up (dry swings) were tested. Once again, the

26

results showed a significant difference and increase in bat velocity using the 27 oz. bat.

Heavy implements had the opposite effect, slowing bat velocity down. In his fifth study

(1988), the effects of bat velocity in under loaded and overloaded bats were tested during

batting practice following a warm-up. The results showed that the best results came from

the under-loaded bats (27 oz., 28 oz., and 29 oz.). In contrast, the Top Hand Bat, donut

ring, 34 oz. bat, and the fungo bat all had negative effects on bat velocities. In the final

warm-up research (1992), DeRenne determined which of the 13 weighted implements

would produce the highest bat velocity in succeeding trials. The results showed that

warming up with a bat that is 10% + or – the weight of a standard bat (30 oz.) produced

the greatest bat velocity. A distinct pattern in decreased velocity was shown the further

the weight was from the original bat weight. The most commonly used donut ring

produced the lowest bat velocity. In conclusion, DeRenne recommends high school and

collegiate players’ warm-up using a bat that is two ounces less than their normal

weighted bat. The original assumption that a heavier bat will increase velocity proved to

be wrong and is not recommended (DeRenne, 2011).

In addition, DeRenne has produced three separate hitting exercise studies with

weighted implements since 1981-82. In study one (1982), participants ranging from ten

ex-college players to current professional players were given a ten-week training program

and then divided into two groups. Group 1 used the power swing while Group 2 used a

wooden lead bat. Each participant had approximately 60 cuts per day for four days a

week and were limited to ten sets of six repetitions to account for fatigue in the swings.

The results displayed a significant increase in bat velocity after the ten-week training

program, while the wood leaded bat and the Power Swing also enhanced bat velocities. In

27

study two (1985-86), the effects of selected under-loaded and overloaded implements on

normal game bat velocity after two prescribed exercise programs were examined. Three

college players and three research groups were divided into three groups that included;

Group 1- Batting practice program, Group 2- Dry swings program, and Group 3-

Controlled group-no program. Participants engaged a 12-week training period, which

included four workouts per week, and began with a weighted bat being swung with 15

warm-up dry swings or 15 batting practice swings, followed by 50 dry or batting practice

swings with heavy-light-standard bats (150 total swings). Every three weeks participants

swung with heavy and light required bats, eventually moving up to the next heaviest bat

and next lightest bat until the conclusion of the 12 week period. The results showed that

Groups 1 and 2 increased their respective bat velocities and that Group 1 (Batting

practice group) improved greater than Group 2 (Dry swing group). It was recommended

that the interchangeable weighted bat concept be done in the weight room and batting

practice and therefore, the principles of specificity and weighted implement training are

confirmed. This study was reproduced in 1987 using 30 high school hitters and 20

university students with similar results. Through certain hitting exercise and specific

weighted implements, hitters are able to increase their bat velocity. Research has shown

that some hitters decrease their bat velocity if these programs are not done properly

(DeRenne, 2011).

Furthermore, DeRenne and others have performed several additional weighted bat

training studies, specifically identifying factors for increasing bat swing velocity. The

importance and benefits gained from an increase in one’s bat speed and bat velocity can

be categorized into three specific areas of significance: 1) increased decision time, 2)

28

decreased swing time, and 3) increased batted-ball velocity. The first benefit, decision

time, has three specific variables that must be determined by the hitter prior to making a

decision on whether to swing at a certain pitch. The hitter must first identify the type of

pitch that has been thrown (i.e. fastball, change-up, curve ball). Secondly, the velocity at

which the pitch has been thrown. Fastballs and breaking balls will be thrown at speeds

that differ by as much as 10 miles per hour or more. Lastly, the hitter must determine

where the location of the pitch will be and discern if it is a ball or strike. In a short

amount of time, hitters must process all of this information in deciding whether to swing.

The longer the hitter can wait before swinging, the more likely they will swing at a ball in

the strike zone (allowing them to be more accurate at contact) and arrive on time. The

player’s ability to wait longer to swing should increase his or her accuracy and time, and

should lead to an overall better performance (Szymanski, 2009). With an increase in bat

speed, a hitter can decrease the time it actually takes to swing the bat, and can therefore

make a more informed decision while hitting and selecting strikes.

An increase in one’s bat speed leads to the second benefit of decreasing a hitter’s

swing time. Swing time is defined as the time it takes for the distinct change (from the

launch position of the barrel) of the bat’s path to travel in the opposite direction to

contact. The less time it takes to swing the bat, the longer the hitter’s decision time is,

assuming the velocity of the pitched ball stays the same. If a hitter can decrease their

swing time, he or she would have a longer decision time, which would allow him or her

to be more selective in the batter’s box and swing at more strikes and less balls. This

concept directly affects the hitter’s ability to identify the type of pitch thrown, the

velocity of the pitch, and the location of the pitch, thus increasing the possibility of being

29

more accurate at bat-ball contact. If a hitter does not swing at balls outside of the strike

zone, he or she has a greater chance of getting on base because of a possible walk, or it

might allow him or her to select a better pitch to hit (Szymanski, 2009). As bat speed

increases, decision time decreases and ultimately decision time to make a more informed

decision increases. In part, these two concepts lead to the possibility of an increase in the

batted-ball velocity. With an increase in exit velocity, the defense in turn has less reaction

time to make a play.

The third benefit of increased bat speed is an increase in batted-ball velocity. If a

hitter could swing a heavier bat than their standard bat at the same speed, or swing his or

her standard game bat faster because of increased bat swing velocity (through

biomechanical efficiency and specific resistance training), the batted ball would differ

two important ways. 1) It would travel farther, and 2) be hit harder, or both, because of

the larger transfer of energy and momentum placed into the ball (Szymanski, 2009). An

increase in batted-ball velocity carries with it the opportunity for more home runs, more

hits due to less reaction time for the fielders, a higher batting average, and an increase in

slugging percentage.

Researchers and coaches have not, however, adequately addressed whether or not

video analysis training increases bat speed. Right View Pro©, a hitting analysis system,

captures video clips of Major League Baseball Players and allows an amateur player to

visually compare his or her swing to the professionals’ swings. The system allows a

player to visualize what they are doing correctly or incorrectly, in comparison to the

professional. It defines the principles that make these players most efficient and most

30

successful, while communicating it in an easily understood fashion. This system is used

by high school, college and professional programs worldwide.

Methodology

Three different groups were used to test the effects Right View Pro© has on bat

velocity and batted-ball exit velocity in male collegiate baseball players (n=29). The 29

subjects were broken into Group A (weight training), Group B (weight training and video

analysis) and Group C (weight training, video analysis, and Right View Pro© video

analysis). The study started with 38 total participants but due to injuries and students

transferring, only 29 athletes completed both the baseline and post-test.

The bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocities were tested with participants

taking swings with brand new Rawlings R100HS Official League ABCA Baseballs© off

a standard Tanner Tee©. Each participant used the same exact Easton S1 CXN advanced

composite handled baseball bat. The Easton bat was BBCOR certified and 33 inches in

length, 30 ounces in weight, and had a 2 5/8 inch barrel. Each participant was given one

practice swing using the tee, baseball, and bat prior to being recorded. The subjects were

given specific instructions to hit the ball off the tee directly into a square net placed

straight in front of the tee and in the path of the flight of the ball. The participants were

given 10 swings each, with their bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity recorded after

each swing. A portable plate was placed six feet in front of the screen while the tee was

placed six inches in front of the front edge of the plate. Depending on whether the hitter

was right-handed or left-handed, the hitters were instructed to place their lead foot

perpendicular to the corner of the plate, and that both hands were to be placed on the bat

with the bottom hand near the knob of the bat.

31

Participants were tested on bat speed using the Pocket Radar©. The bat speed was

calculated for each participant’s swing in which the recorder was stationed approximately

30 feet directly in line behind the hitter’s back shoulder. As the hitter began his initial

movement (load of the swing), the recorder pressed down on the pocket radar button to

emit the radio waves and let go of the button immediately preceding the bat-ball

collision. The Pocket Radar products are Doppler speed radar systems. They work as a

speed detector by emitting a small pulse of radio waves in an invisible focused beam,

similar in shape to a flashlight beam. When the radio wave hits an object that is moving

towards or away from any of the Pocket Radar’s, a small amount of the wave reflects

back. The moving object modifies the reflected radio wave based upon how fast it is

moving directly towards or away from the Pocket Radar unit. The unit then receives the

reflected radio wave and compares it to the original transmitted radio wave. It then

calculates the speed of the moving object based upon the difference between the two

radio waves (Pocket Radar, 2015).

Participants were tested on batted-ball exit velocity using the Stalker Radar Sport

2 Radar Gun©. The batted-ball exit velocity for each participant’s swing was recorded by

the Stalker Radar that was placed approximately five to six feet directly on the other side

of the screen the ball was being hit into.

During the course of two semesters the athletes were assigned to either Group A,

Group B, or Group C. The conditions included weight training, video analysis, and Right

View Pro© video analysis. The first condition, Group A, participated in weight training

using a baseball specific functional program. The second condition, Group B, participated

in the same baseball functional weight lifting program as well as received video analysis

32

breakdown with the coaching staff where they saw only their swings. The third condition,

Group C, participated in the functional weight training program, used video analysis

where they only saw their swings and additionally received five 30 minute sessions with

the coaching staff using RVP© where they could compare their swings to professionals.

Results

The data obtained on the bat velocity baseline and post-test are summarized in

Table 1.0. The results show that Group C acquired the highest average bat velocity in the

baseline test, followed by Groups B and A, respectively. The averages in the post-test

collection show that Group C had the highest bat velocity once again, followed by Group

A and B. Group A was the only group that improved their bat velocity between baseline

and post testing. Further results show that the average difference (±) of total swings,

improved in Group A, while Group C and Group B actually decreased. Group C

decreased the least, while group B decreased the most. These results are summarized in

Table 1.1. A one way analysis of variance was used to analyze bat velocity. Results

showed no significant difference in bat velocities between Groups A, B, and C. F=1.84,

P=0.17. See Table 1.2

Table 1.0-Average bat velocity (mph) of Groups A, B, and C in the baseline and

post-test

Groups Group A (Weight

Training) N=9

Group B (Weight

Training, Video Analysis

N=8

Group C (Weight

Training, Video Analysis, RVP

N=12

Baseline 73.93549383

(MPH)

77.47633929

(MPH)

82.76087963

(MPH)

Post-Test 75.34757496 (MPH)

74.75833333 (MPH)

81.40277778 (MPH)

Table 1.1- Differences between baseline and post-test bat velocity (mph) of Group A,

B, and C and standard error

33

Groups A B C

Baseline Test 73.93549383 (MPH)

77.47633929 (MPH) 82.76087963 (MPH)

Post-Test 75.34757496 (MPH)

74.75833333 (MPH) 81.40277778 (MPH)

Average

Difference (±)

1.412222 -2.72 -1.356667

Standard

Deviation (±)

5.816882 3.818313 3.941556

Table 1.2- Results of Bat Velocity Anova

Source (Bat

Velocity)

SS Df MS F P

Treatment [between

groups]

77.098633 2 38.549316 1.84 0.178905

Error [within group]

543.640022 26 20.909232

SS/Bl

Total 620.738655 28

For the second measure, batted-ball exit velocity in baseline and post-test is

summarized in Table 2.0.The results show that Group C acquired the highest average

batted-ball exit velocity in the baseline test, followed by Groups B and A. The averages

in the post-test collection show that Group C had the highest bat velocity once again,

followed by Group A and B, respectively. Group A was the only group that improved

their batted-ball exit velocity between baseline and post testing. Further results show that,

for the average velocity difference (±), Group A improved while Group C and Group B

actually decreased. Group C decreased the least, while Group B decreased the most.

34

These results are summarized in Table 2.1. A one way analysis of variance of

independent samples was used to analyze the batted-ball exit velocities. Results show that

there was a significant difference in bat velocities (F=4.93, p=0.015301, <.05) See Table

2.2. A post hoc Tukey test showed that batted-ball exit velocity differed significantly

between Group A and B. See Table 3.0

Table 2.0-Average batted-ball exit velocity (mph) of Group A, B, and C in the

baseline test

Groups Group A (Weight Training)

N=9

Group B (Weight Training, Video

Analysis N=8

Group C (Weight Training, Video

Analysis, RVP N=12

Baseline 70.96790123 (MPH)

76.69146825 (MPH)

82.27314815 (MPH)

Post-Test 75.11014109 (MPH)

73.87931548 (MPH)

81.64444444 (MPH)

Table 2.1- Differences between baseline and post-test batted-ball exit velocity (mph)

of Group A, B, and C and standard error

Groups A B C

Baseline Test 70.96790123

(MPH)

76.69146825

(MPH)

82.27314815

(MPH)

Post-Test 75.11014109

(MPH)

73.87931548

(MPH)

81.64444444

(MPH)

Average Difference (±)

4.142222 -2.8125 -0.628333

Standard Deviation (±)

7.10226 3.264881 3.071469

Table 2.2- Results of Batted-Ball Exit Velocity Anova

Source SS df MS F P

Treatment [between groups]

220.633424 2 110.316712 4.93 0.015301

Error 581.926072 26 22.381772

35

Ss/Bl

Total 802.559497 28

Table 3.0- Post Hoc Tukey HSD Results for Batted-Ball Exit Velocities

Tukey

HSD Test

HSD (.05) HSD (0.1) M1 vs M2 M1 vs M3 M2 vs M3

5.44 6.97 P<.05 Non-

significant

Non-

significant

Present results show that the use of RVP does not increase bat velocity or batted-

ball exit velocity at a significant level. In fact, both the overall average between baseline

and posttest bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity in Group C (RVP Group) had a

small decrease. The overall mean difference in batted-ball exit velocity between Group A

(37.28015873) and Group B (-22.50) was the only combination of two different samples

that were found to obtain a significant difference at the P<.05 .

Bat velocity increased from most improved to least improved between baseline

and post-test with Group A (∑x = 12.71 mph, SE = ± 1.94) the most, Group C (∑x = -

16.28 mph, SE = ± 1.14), and Group B (∑x = -21.76 mph, SE = ± 1.35) the least.

Moreover, batted-ball exit velocity increased from most improved to least improved

between baseline and post-test with Group A (∑x = 37.28 mph, SE = ± 2.37) the most,

Group C (∑x = -7.54 mph, SE = ± 0.89), and Group B (∑x = -22.5 mph, SE = ± 1.15) the

least.

Although Right View Pro© did not increase bat velocity or batted-ball exit

velocity overall, there was a significant difference (P>.05) between Group A and Group

B in batted-ball exit velocity. The HSD showed at the .05 level, the absolute [unsigned]

36

difference between sample 1 (Group A Mean= 4.142222) and sample 2 (Group B Mean=

-2.8125) was found to be significant. Specifically, the HSD (.05) = 5.44 and the HSD

(.01) =6.97.

Discussion

In this study, Right View Pro© was used to determine if visual aids could

increase bat and exit velocities in college aged baseball players. Perhaps the main

difference between bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity in this present study was due

to the relationship between the bat and ball. That relationship can be related to the

baseball-bat collision and the coefficient of restitution between the two. In regards to bat

velocity, a swing typically lasts 0.2 seconds during which the rate of energy transferred to

the bat increases from 0 to about 9 horsepower during the first 0.15 seconds and then

decreases to 0 as the bat crosses the plate immediately before contact with the ball. Due

to smaller muscles (hands & wrists) only contributing to about 1 horsepower per 10

pounds, the power from a swing generally comes from the large muscles (legs & thorax)

in a hitter. This only occurs if the hitter stores translational and rotational kinetic energy

early in the swing process and then transfers and imparts that energy to the bat right

before contact (Adair, 2008). The difference in bat velocities and most likely batted-ball

exit velocities is due to a lack of energy, the kinetic link chain/principle being disrupted

sequentially, and the lack of use of the larger muscles. Another explanation of the

differences in the groups is the coefficient of restitution (COR) and batted-ball collision.

For example, a ball that is dropped on concrete from 10 feet high will bounce

about three feet after impact. The COR in this scenario would be √3/10=0.55. At

increased velocities the ball is considered to be less elastic. A home run that sends a 90

mile per hour pitch back with a velocity of 110 miles per hour generates the reversal in a

37

very short time. This leads to the question of why aluminum bats produce farther

distances of ball flight than that of wooden bats. In a solid wooden bat, the bat

compresses approximately 2% at impact and therefore stores 2% of the collision energy.

A standard game ball has a COR of 0.45 at high velocities and returns about 20% of the

98% stored energy. The bat returns about the same proportion. In contrast, a hollow

aluminum bat becomes distorts around 10% at impact and stores 10% of the collision

energy. Approximately 80% of the energy is returned. Adding the ball and bat

contributions, 26% of the collision energy is returned and the ball off an aluminum bat

leaves at a higher velocity and carries a farther distance (Adair, 2008).

In this study, no energy was provided from the ball due to its stationary position

on the tee. The explanation of the low batted-ball exit velocities and differences could be

in part to vibrational nodes felt in each hitter’s hands and the bat-ball (sweet spot) contact

point. A model was developed by Nathan (2000) to further investigate the collision

between the bat and ball, taking into consideration the transverse bending vibrations of

the bat. The effect of vibrations on exit speed of the ball was found to be significant and

compares closely with previously established experimental data within low impact

velocities, similar to this study. Also examined was the exit speed of the ball by relating

the initial speed of the ball and the initial speed of the bat at the impact point. In contrast

to this study, vibrations in the bat at higher velocities play a vital role in determining the

ball exit speed. It is most likely that vibrations in the aluminum bat used for this study

had little to no effect on the exit speed of the 29 participants. Due to the use of a

stationary ball, a greater bat and exit velocity was not found even though an aluminum

bat was used which has more vend than a wood bat causing the ball to exit faster.

38

Limitations

Several uncontrollable variables could have contributed to the results of this

study. One variable is the amount of time each group spent hitting outside the video

analysis and practice sessions throughout the season. It is likely, though unknown, if

Group A spent time hitting ground balls to position players or could have easily had

access to hit on their own time outside of practice. Although the same bat was used in the

baseline and post-test, the status of the bat could have deteriorated over the course of time

by being used while hitting during practices and games.

The health of the athletes could also be a factor in the results. During baseline

testing in September, the athletes had just taken a long break from baseball. This could

have been beneficial and detrimental at the same time. It is beneficial because they have

been away from the game for a while and should have a better range of motion along

with a relaxed body. The disadvantage is being away from baseball for an extended

period of time. It is possible their mechanical efficiency was decreased due to lack of

practice. Their attitudes towards the study at the beginning of the year and at the end of

the year could have changed the effort that they put into their swings. The attitude of the

players during sit down video analysis, expectations of what they would get out of the

video analysis breakdown, and perceived interpretation of the breakdown of their swings

compared to professionals could have also affected the results.

Players in all three groups either improved or decreased their bat velocity or

batted-ball exit velocity. As the groups were tested, they did not go in a particular order

of groups or individuals within those groups. They were tested based on availability and

39

convenience during practice hours. Some players hit before they tested, while others

waited several minutes to get tested.

The radar gun and pocket radar do not yield exceptionally precise data, more so

with the Pocket Radar (PR) than the radar gun. A button on the PR must be pushed at a

certain time in order to send the radio waves out to get the best possible swing velocity. If

the recorder pressed the button too early or too late, the results and velocities could have

been from the actual ball. A typical Stalker Radar Gun and Pocket Radar gun are usually

pretty close in their accuracy when compared side by side. When the PR did not pick up a

speed, the number was omitted in the data analysis. Some of the participants were able to

be recorded with 10 fairly accurate swings while others had several low numbers or

zeroes omitted from their averages. The accuracy, reliability, and skill of the radar

systems/recorder could all be significant factors in the results of this study.

One of the most important variables in getting the best possible batted-ball exit

velocity is that the ball be hit directly into to the middle of this screen right in front of the

Stalker Radar Gun which proved hard to accomplish for most hitters. Often swings would

produce hits at the top or bottom of the net.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Results of this study show that the use of a visual training aid such as RVP did not

make a significant difference in terms of increasing or decreasing bat velocity and batted-

ball exit velocity. RVP serves a purpose in allowing a novice to compare their swing with

an experts. Other potential benefits of RVP in regards to bat velocity and or batted-ball

exit velocity would need to be analyzed in another series of studies.

40

This study solely used aluminum bats. A study with wood bats with a lower

coefficient of restitution would provide additional data. It is recommended that an

aluminum and wood bat be used in the same study, replicating one of DeRenne’s studies

with RVP as one of the groups.

Considering the dynamics of the bat-ball collision, it is recommended that a

baseball moving at a standard speed be used in a follow-up study. While this could create

some difficulty, it also would add to the quality of research in determining exit velocity.

Furthermore, a study involving the “sweet spot” could be more clearly defined on the bat

and contact area, perhaps only recording swings that contact the ball in a certain location

on the bat (sweet spot or slightly larger). Also, this study may have obtained different

results if only swings that produced baseballs hit within the confines of a smaller area

into the net had been recorded.

It is possible that a more defined study using RVP could test for bat velocity

and batted-ball exit velocity within the confines of testing certain swing characteristics,

separate from the ones Breen described in 1967, and the four biomechanical absolutes of

the elite hitters swing described by DeRenne. Using the transformation from standard

film and video to a three-dimensional analysis, several studies performed by DeRenne

developed an elaborate method of assessing a hitter’s mechanical efficiency (Welch,

Banks, Cooks, and Draovitch, 1995). More specifically, DeRenne along with the aid of

hitters and coaches have defined six swing components: (1) stance, (2) load & stride, (3)

launch, (4) bat approach, (5) contact, and (6) follow-through. Within the six components

mentioned above, lie the four biomechanical absolutes: (1) Balance, (2) Kinetic Link, (3)

Bat Lag, and (4) Axis of Rotation. The absolutes are based on the implementation of the

41

laws of physics and motion with the common dynamic performance ideas of successful

hitters (DeRenne, 2011).

In conclusion, possessing great bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity are just

two of the many critical characteristics that defined the successful hitter. Specific

resistance training, overloaded, and under-loaded weight training techniques have been

shown to increase one’s bat and exit velocity. The two benefits can help attribute to

hitting baseballs farther and fielders having less time to react. It is recommended that if

coaches and or players desire to increase their bat speed they keep their training methods

within the parameters set forth by DeRenne. Training with a baseball bat that is only two

to three ounces greater than or less than the normal game bat is the optimal training tool

to increase bat velocity and in turn has the potential to increase one’s exit velocity. The

use of a weighted doughnut in the on-deck circle slows bat speed down.

Conducting more elaborate bat velocity and/or batted-ball exit velocity studies

with DeRenne’s principles and absolutes, as previously mentioned, could potentially

contribute to the crucial benefit of elite bat velocity and batted-ball exit velocity.

42

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