hr. 1. Educatio~l Dwclopment, Vol. 5. No. 3, pp. IS165.1985 Printed in Gnat Britain

0?3e-os93&?3 s3.00 + OBO Pergamon Ren Ltd

CURRENT AND RECENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH WITH AND IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES BY U.K. RESEARCHERS

KEITH WATSON

University of Reading School of Education, London Road, Reading RGI 5AQ, U.K.

Abstract - This paper examines some of the major areas of educational research in devefoping countries undertaken by British researchers during the past decade. It does so, on the basis of research themes, rather than of specific research projects, since these highlight both areas of need and of interest amongst British academics. It highlights the loneliness and isolation of many researchers and urges closer collaboration and. team work in different facets of educational development.

INTRODUCTION

interest in education in developing countries by academics and administrators from the United Kingdom has a long and distinguished history. Numerous official reports on educa- tion in individual colonial territories date back well into the nineteenth century, while policy documents and memoranda for discussion in the Colonial Office began to appear in the 1920s and 1930s (Whitehead, 1982; Watson 1982a). MO% detailed discussion papers for individual countries appeared prior to the independence of these countries from the late 1950s onwards. Since the foundation in 1927 of what is now known as the Department of Education in Developing Countries (EDC) at the University of London Institute of Educa- tion, many creditable and important pieces of research have emanated from the staff of that department over the years. Individuals in other university departments up and down the coun- try have likewise made valuable ~nt~butions. Those educational researchers of the 1970s and 1980s who have an interest in the countries of the South thus have a long pedigree. But whereas in the past much research was under- taken with a ‘from us to them’ approach, more recently there have been far more collabora- tive ventures aimed at producing something of lasting value for the developing country con- cerned rather than necessarily at enhancing the

individual career of the researcher. Most of the research referred to in this paper, though not all, therefore will refer to the collaborative type.

To produce a survey, however general, of the recent and current educational research being undertaken by U.K. researchers in, or with, developing countries is fraught with difficulties. For one thing, much of the re- search is individual and is thus, by its very nature, diffuse. For another it is impossible to track down all those engaged in research projects, since some of these, while having a specifically educational bearing, may not necessarily be working in education depart- ments. Inevitably, therefore, there will be omissions, for which this author, at least, apologises. In any case the selection of re; search studies is bound to be selective and, possibly, also subjective, depending on this author’s own interests. Another problem is that a survey can be little more than a superficial account, pointing readers in the direction of where they might find more detailed reports of the work being undertaken.

In order to provide a degree of coherence, therefore, this paper seeks to examine selected themes or areas of research and related re- search, rather than to list indi~dual depart- ments and researchers and to report on their activities.

156 KEITH WATSON

AREAS OF RESEARCH

Examination reform, qualifications and job selection and the linkages between them

These themes have for more than a decade exercised the attention of a number of U.K. researchers, especially those from the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) at Sussex Uni- versity. Amongst the earliest collaborative work was that of Dore, Jolly and others in conjunction, with the International Labor Organisation work in Sri Lanka in the early 1970s. While Dore’s book The Diploma Dis- ease (Dore, 1976) made the general public aware of the problem, and the more recent film of the same name produced by Angela Little, Ron Dore and others has argued the same case from a visual point of view, the place of examinations and qualifications for success in the employment market has attracted different researchers at Sussex who have looked at the issue from different standpoints in different locations. The general thesis is quite simple. Too much basic education (i.e. schooling) is geared towards examination success. Examina- tions in turn influence the teaching and reg- ulate the curriculum. Because employers in the modern sector select potential employees on the basis of their qualifications obtained in the examinations there is diploma escalation. The better -the qualification attained, the higher is likely to be the salary earned. This was certainly the finding of Lewin in the context of Malaysia some years ago (Lewin, 1980), and of Brooke, Oxenham and Little in the context of Mexico (Brooke et al., 1978)

Studies have been undertaken in eight African countries, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania and Zambia, into the use of examinations and qualifications for selection purposes (Ox- enham, 1980a, b; 1982). Oxenham has also edited a series of papers on this theme, some of which are theoretical, some of which are based on case studies (Oxenham, 1983). He has also recently been involved in formulating an inter- national collaborative research project on education and trainability, the main aim of which is to indicate whether, in circumstances of great scarcity, educational resources are better spent on high quality primary education

for majorities of a given population rather than on high quality secondary/tertiary education for a minority. This is an important issue, especially in times of financial crisis, and has long been one of the educational dilemmas facing developing countries (Simmons, 1980). Mark Blaug has on many occasions argued in favour of universal primary education as opposed to expensive secondary and tertiary education on economic and cost effective grounds (e.g. Blaug, 1979). Oxenham’s project is still tentative, and has to be funded, but its potential for influencing policy decisions could be profound.

At a different level, Angela.Little has been involved in developing a research project on the qualification, selection and training of elite civil servants in Bangladesh. This has been undertaken with the Civil Officers Training Academy in Dhaka, but it still needs to be written up.

While much of Lewin’s and Little’s research has concentrated on Sri Lanka (Little and Lewin, 1982a, b; 1984; Lewin, 1975; Little, 1980; 1982), and Lewin has also examined the situation in Malaysia, Oxenham and others have carried out work in Mexico and elsewhere (Oxenham 1980a, b). More recently, a Stu- dents Learning Orientation Group research project has been established by Little at IDS in conjunction with researchers from Japan, Nigeria, India, Malaysia and England. The purpose of the study, which is nearing the end of the first stage, is to explore secondary school students’ motivations for learning and their long term implications for adult work motiva- tion in six countries. How far do examination structures have a backwash effect on the cur- ricula, on student attitudes and on their long term attitudes to work? Do they in effect lead to distorted expectations and to the acquisition of unusable skills? Little (1978) has argued that they do. So has Somerset in the context of his survey of secondary school examinations in Indonesia (Somerset, 1983).

A study of examination reform in Sri Lanka by Little and Lewin (1982a) looked into the policy discussions and the arguments for and against reform in the light of dependency theory and modernization theory. Interestingly enough they found no evidence of external

CURRENT AND RECENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 157

influence or control over internal decisions to reform and then to revert to the more familiar ex~ination system. Inevitably, examinations and qualifications both as a regulator of the curriculum and as a means of selection for employment remain a fruitful area of investiga- tion. The question is, however, will any or all of the research studies lead to policy changes? Closely associated with examinations is the whole area of preparation for the labour market and several studies have been under- taken into training and employment and the adequacy or otherwise of the curriculum for job opportunities in both urban and rural sectors (Colclough, 1977; 1978; Godfrey, 1977; Little, 1977; 1978)

Community education and the teacher’s role in rural and community development

This is another fruitful area of research that has long fascinated British academics as well as colonial officials, community development officers and politicians. There has been a wealth of reports on this aspect of educational development carried out since the 1920s. Some of these were outlined by this author in his study of teachers as community developers in Thailand and Iran (Watson, 1982b, 1983). One of the most substantial and valuable surveys of recent times, however, was that undertaken by Kevin Lillis and Margaret Sinclair from IDS, and funded by the Overseas Development Administration. It covers a large number of countries and individual projects and gives a sound theoretical underpinning to this topical, but nevertheless controversial, area of de- velopment (Sinclair and Lillis, 1980). Sinclair has also been at pains to analyse productive work in the community school curriculum (Sinclair, 1976).

The EDC Department at the University of London Institute of Education has also had an interest in community education for many years since Batten first wrote his School and Community in the Tropics (Batten, 1959) and Houghton and Tregear produced their theore- tical study (Houghton and Tregear, 1969). This has recently been updated by Linda Dove on behalf of the UNESCO Institute of Education in Hamburg. Dove has also made a special study of rural teachers in Banglasdesh (Dove,

1980a) and while working for the UNESCO Regional Centre in Dhaka she has made a number of studies of overall educational per- formance in Bangladesh (Dove, 198Oc; 1983b). Lauglo has also been involved in studying rural teachers in community education from a histor- ical perspective (Lauglo, 1982), Oxenham (1979) has surveyed the place of community schools in developing countries while Thomp- son has recently surveyed the scene in order to see what lessons can be learnt from the experiences of the past decade (Thompson, 1983).

More specific geographical surveys of com- munity education have also been undertaken. Staff at Reading University and in the Agri- cultural Extension and Rural Development Centre especially have made recent studies of developments in South-East Asia, especially in Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines (Mar- tin, 1984; Watson, 1983). Funding for these studies has come from the Overseas Develop- ment Administration and the University. Ken- neth King’s (Edinburgh) survey of community education in Africa (King, 1976) is still a classic on that part of the developing world and Graham Vuliiamy’s work (University of York) on community education in Papua New Guinea was part of a collaborative venture with the University of Papua New Guinea, the PNG Ministry of Education, the British Council and the Nuffield Foundation (Vulliamy, 1983). Greenland’s work at IPAR-Buea in Cameroon was part of a much larger international aid programme to update the rural curriculum in the Cameroon and highlights some of the probiems of international collaborative effort (Greenland, 1981).

One of the most recent surveys of the school and the community has been Beatrice Avalos’ (Cardiff) collaborative study in Latin America. Funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in Ottawa from 1981 to 1983, and coordinated by Beatrice Avalos, the project involved individuals and centres in Chile, Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela. The purpose of the study was to examine those characteristics, especially of and within a com- munity, that might be linked with school success or failure in the first four years of

158 KEITH WATSON

primary school in poor urban and poor rural contexts. Although it is hoped that a final report on the whole project will be published by IDRC in late 1984, an account of the Colombian developments is already available (Tezanos et al., 1983). There have, however, been a number of interesting side effects. The research methodology was unknown in the participant centres, so that a part of the project became a training exercise in research metho- dology in the four Latin American countries involved. The long term effects, however, have been to establish a qualitative research net- work in Latin America, sponsored by IRDC. Already an ethnography of Colombian teacher training institutions has been produced.

Rural migration patterns Closely associated with the effects of poverty

in rural communities and the place of schooling in encouraging rural-urban migration has been the work undertaken by Rosemary and David Preston (Leeds) in Highland Ecuador. The project, funded by the Overseas Development Administration and the Ministries of Agricul- ture and Education in Ecuador, was a col- laborative British - Ecuadorian venture. It was designed to analyse the social and economic consequences of emigration from rural com- munities. A related piece of work, funded jointly by the former Social Science Research Council and the International Project for the Development of the South in Loja, Ecuador, and the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education, sought to examine popular attitudes to educa- tion, the mismatch between curriculum and rural needs and the impact of a small amount of primary schooling in rural migration. Since the purpose of schooling in Highland Ecuador is to prepare pupils for life in the modern, urban, capitalist sector, the educational pro- cess keeps peasant families at the periphery in a state of subservience and dependence (Pre- ston, 1979; 1981; 1984). A new collaborative project is designed to examine the impact of the expansion and diversification of educa- tional provision on the livelihood strategies of farming households in both Ecuador and Indonesia. The time scale has yet to be resolved.

Rural-urban migration has also been studied by Godfrey (1979) and the impact of popula-

tion migration on access to education and school mapping, especially in rural Africa, has been a research interest of Gould (Liverpool) for much of the past decade. A geographer by training, Gould has frequently collaborated with the World Bank and his work has had a profound impact on much educational policy making in Africa and on the more important issues of distance-decay and the location of schools. The influence of his thinking is evident in the World Bank Education Sector Policy Paper of 1980 (e.g. Gould, 1978).

Education’s impact on rural development, as opposed to rural migration, has been part of the ongoing work and training of the Agri- cultural Extension and Rural Development Centre (AERDC) at Reading University for almost twenty years, long before rural develop- ment became fashionable in international aid fora. Reports on these programmes are too numerous to mention but can be obtained from the AERDC Documentation Centre. It has attracted the attention of researchers from IDS, Sussex over a number of years (Chambers and Oxenham, 1978; Colclough, 1976; 1980), and two recent collaborative ventures which have emanated from IDS have been the Badulla Integrated Rural Development Prog- ramme in Sri Lanka, involving Little and officials from the Sri Lankan Ministries of Education, Health and Plan Implementation, and Oxenham’s basic education programme in Zambia. The former, sponsored by SIDA and IFAD, is concerned with improving basic education amongst rural Sinhalese living in the remote parts of Sri Lanka and amongst Indian Tamils working in the tea estates. Oxenham’s project, funded by FINNIDA, is more con- cerned with improving basic primary and lower secondary education in Zambia through the better provision of school textbooks.

Education innovation and transfer The study of education innovation, especial-

ly in the area of curriculum development, is also an ongoing area of research. In the case of the University of London Institute of Educa- tion (Comparative Education Department) the concern has been for a more theoretical discus- sion about the place of educational depen- dency, especially in the context of East Africa (McLean) and Latin America, most notably

CURRENT AND RECENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 159

Brazil (Cowan). McLean has offered several critiques on educational dependency (e.g. 1983; 1984) the most recent appearing in the proceedings of the British Comparative and International Education Society’s Conference on Dependence and Interdependence. in Education (Watson, 1984). In this same volume Lewin and Little reject the application of dependency theory to examination reform in Sri Lanka as a result of their joint study in that country (Little and Lewin, 1982; 1984). They hope to examine a number of other case study examples to see how similar they are to Sri Lanka. Neelu Sancheti has reached similar conclusions in her study of the development of Indian Institutes of Management, funded by the Ford Foundation and undertaken in col- laboration with the Boards of the IIMs (San- cheti, 1984). Cowan is about to embark on a large, twelve nation collaborative study, in- volving writers from both the North and the South, in assessing how far the problems of educational transfer lead to dependency on other nations. This piece of research is still in its early stages and the funding and time scale have yet to be worked out. Kenneth King (Edinburgh) has examined the question of educational transfer from the North to South in the context of Kenya and Tanzania (King, 1983) while Dore has raised the issue in reverse! What can be learnt from China? (Dore, 1978). Perhaps the most thorough review of the literature on educational innova- tion and transfer has, however, been produced by Paul Hurst (EDC Department, ULIE) (Hurst, 1983).

The most important aspect of educational change which has exercised the minds of British researchers is that of curriculum development as this affects individual countries. Lillis (EDC Department, ULIE) has made a special study of curriculum innovation in Kenya (Lillis, 1983). Lewin’s work on science curriculum development in Sri Lanka and Malaysia has been very well d~umented (Lewin, 1975; 1980; 1981; 1983a). He is currently trying to gain funding for an exploratory study of science education and science teacher training in China as an extension of these studies. Watson’s concern was for the pressures and policies of

introducing the Scottish Integrated Science programme in modified form into lower secondary schools in Malaysia (Watson, 1980). Hawes’ (EDC Department, ULIE) work on curriculum development and planning curriculum change in the African context has been an ongoing, and frequently collaborative, area of research for more than a decade (Hawes, 1976; 1979) while Dove has, on behalf of the Commonwealth Secretariat, made a study of curriculum development projects in the New Commonwealth countries (Dove, 198Ob; 1983a). Comment has already been made of Greenland’s co-operative work in the Cameroon, but this fits as much under curriculum development as under community education.

The most pressing aspects of curriculum innovation and educational innovation that are currently being analysed are (1) the implications of financial and economic recehsion, and (2) the development of educational courses with a direct bearing on vocational or technical training. In the first category are studies undertaken by Lewin et al. (1983a, b) and Colclough et al. (1983). These have all looked at the implications of economic recession for educational expenditure in general terms. Lewin, however, looked at the planning implications of economic recession in_ four specific countries, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, when he presented a paper at the annual conference of the Develop- ment Studies Association in 1983 (Lewin, 1983b). The curriculum impli~tions of economic recession and financial stringency are examined in a paper delivered at the Asso- ciation of Teachers of Overseas Education in Birmingham in April 1984 (Lewin, 1984).

Kenneth King (Edinburgh) has been concerned with similar implications in Tanzania. O~~nally funded by CIDA and working in collaboration with colleagues from the Department of Education at the University of Dar-es-Salaam (most notably Professor I. Omari and Mr. M. Mosha), King has been exploring the implications of economic constraints on educational quality, particularly in Tanzanian primary schools. As yet there are few tangible pieces of written evidence, though King has produced a short paper on ‘The end

160 KEITH WATSON

of education for self-reliance in Tanzania?‘. Roy Carr-Hill (York) has also been involved in evaluating Tanzanian primary education in collaboration with the University of Dar-es- Salaam and SIDA (Carr-Hill, 1984). He has also just begun a collaborative programme with a number of Kenyan academics, funded by IDRC, the Rockefeller Foundation, the University of Edinburgh Centre of African Studies and the Hayter Foundation, looking into secondary school quality in Kenya and the implications for the employment market.

The castings of different secondary school streams in relation to the learning outcomes and initial earnings of school leavers in Tanzania and Colombia have been the purpose of a joint World Bank/Tanzanian/Colombian project recently completed, but not yet published. Entitled the DISCUS project - Diversified Secondary Curricula Study project - it is mentioned here because of the involvement of a key British researcher in the field, Keith Hinchcliffe (East Anglia).

The second area of ongoing research, concerned with introducing technical/ vocational type courses into schools could prove to be a very fruitful field of research. Already Lillis (EDC Department, ULIE) and Hogan (University of Sussex) have collaborated and written about vocational education and training Sri Lanka and Kenya and both have written a wider review of the literature (Lillis and Hogan, 1981; 1983).

Jon Lauglo (EDC Department, ULIE) is currently directing a project on behalf of SIDA, evaluating the Swedish assistance to the development of industrial education in Kenyan general secondary schools. The study is truly collaborative in so far as it involves Swedes, Kenyans, and other British researchers (e.g. Lillis and Chris Cumming [Moray House]). It is unlikely to be completed before the spring of 1986. While the initiative for the project originated in Sweden, so that insights gained from the Kenyan experience might be usefully applied in other countries, the project should benefit the Kenyan government in its future policies over curriculum diversification. The purpose of the study is to analyse the implementation of industrial education in schools, the aims and objectives of the

exercise, the examination results, learning outcomes and the employment possibilities. Similar analyses of the impact of Swedish assistance in different sub-Saharan African countries have been undertaken by Carr-Hill (York). His main concerns have been the effects of transfer on educational development in Guinea-Bissau (1982/83) and Tanzania (1984).

At a different level, and in a different context, Kenneth King has recently embarked upon an ODA funded project, to analyse the needs of Kenya for scientific and technological manpower, and the educational and training implications of these needs. As the project is still in its infancy, the expected time scale and levels of collaboration with individuals and ministries in Kenya are as yet uncertain.

Reversing the North-South trend, David Knox (Cardiff) has written several papers on linking education with production and has tried to show what can be learnt from developments in Botswana (e.g. Knox and Castles, 1982). Colclough (1976) has also studied what lessons can be learnt from Botswana and a recent DSA/EDC Study Group meeting held at Bristol was concerned with what could be learnt from the South (Mebrahtu, 1984).

In-service education of teachers Inevitably one of the most crucial aspedts of

any educational development, possibly the most crucial aspect, is that of the education of teachers. With the rapid expansion of school systems throughout most of the developing countries during the 1960s and 1970s it proved impossible to provide sufficient trained teachers to operate the system. Concern has been to improve the quality of the teaching force through in-service training. How effective some of this. in-service training has been is of great interest to a number of British academics, who, by the very enormity of the task, have had to work in teams.

The Commonwealth Secretariat in the early 1980s commissioned a survey of the in-service education of teachers in the Commonwealth. While Bob Thompson (Bristol) co-ordinated the iesearch survey, which involved a study of the relevant literature, a number of specific visits and some directed inquiries, and took

CURRENT AND RECENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 161

Asia as his field, others, e.g. Ray Bolam (Australia, Canada and New Zealand), Jeremy Greenland (Africa), Roy Parker (small island communities) and Peter Taylor (U.K.) divided up the globe between them. The findings of this study appeared in 1982 (Thompson, 1982).

A more specifically collaborative and .reserch-based study was the enormous INSET Africa Project, a study of the in-service training of primary school teachers in 13 African countries during 1980/81. Jeremy Greenland (then of Bristol, now of EDC Department, ULIE) directed the project, which was funded by ODA, and which linked the Bristol Centre for Overseas Studies with 13 African Ministries of Education and 15 African universities. The results of the study have been published (Greenland, 1983) as has the report of one of the dissemination conferences which was funded by the German Foundation for Education Research (DSE) (Bude and Greenland, 1983). This was held in Zimbabwe in April 1982 and covered developments in East, Central and Southern Africa. The report of the second conference, held in Gambia in September 1983, and covering West Africa, has yet to be published.

There have been a number of other smaller scale researches into the effectiveness of teacher education. Avalos undertook a pilot study of in-service teacher education in Thailand during 1983, which was undertaken with Dr Malee Nitsaisook of the Thai Ministry of Education, Department of Teacher Education, and which was funded jointly by IDRC an the Thai Ministry of Education; Eraut (Sussex) has been involved in developing in-service teacher education programmes in Singapore; and Taylor (Manchester) has explored the cost effectiveness of upgrading teachers in Southern Africa through the use of distance teaching (Taylor, . 1983). The importance of the media on influencing people’s attitudes has also been explored by Cruise O’Brien (1977; 1978; 1980) and Watson (1982~).

Adult education Adult education has been at the forefront of

much work done at Manchester, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Southampton Universities.

Green (1976a, b) and Oxenham (1977) at IDS have also undertaken research in this area and as a result of a visit to the Indian Institute of Education at Pune, where he studied aspects of training in the National Adult Education Prog- ramme in the states of Maharashtra, Kerala and Andrha Pradesh, Oxenham is currently embarking upon a comparative study of how universities in the Commonwealth have de- veloped programmes of adult education since becoming independent. This collaborative pro- ject is still in its infancy, however, and neither the funding nor the time scale has been agreed upon.

Small countries On the periphery of much of the mainstream

of educational research, but of vital import- ance to many of the smaller countries of the Commonwealth, is the study of the mismatch between education and the labour market in small island communities. Work in this field is of great interest to the Commonwealth Secre- tariat, since so many countries of the Common- wealth are small island communities in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Region, and a number of small scale projects have been funded by the Secretariat. Of those British scholars most active in this field are Colin Brock (Hull), Susan Durston (Leeds) and Roy Parker (Bristol). Tony Hopkin (Car- diff) has been mainly concerned with the scheme of co-operation between New Zealand and Fiji and has undertaken collaborative research with the University of the South Pacific and the New Zealand Council for Educational Research. This remains a part of his ongoing research interests (Hopkin, 1980; 1982).

Evaluation of projects Evaluation should be built into any educa-

tional development programme. As is well known this is not always the case. Increasingly, however, aid agencies in the North are wishing to evaluate their aid programmes. The work being undertaken by Lauglo and his colleagues in Kenya and Carr-Hill in Mozambique, Tan- zania and Guinea-Bissau on behalf of SIDA, already alluded to earlier, fits into this categ- ory. For the past four years, Peter Williams (Commonwealth Secretariat) has been evaluat-

162 KEITH WATSON

ing ODA’s Technical Co-operation Training Programme on behalf of ODA. The report was published during 1984. Kenneth King is co-ordinating and Beatrice Avalos and others are involved in the IDRC’s Research Review and Advisory Group. This is a small body designed to bring together scholars in both the North and the South to assist in reviewing and analysing educational research and conditions affecting this research. One aspect of the review body is that of evaluating projects. As concerns grow that technical assistance money should be wisely spent project evaluation is likely to become an area of increasing interest for acadamic researchers.

Training administrators The 1980 World Bank Education Sector

Policy Paper referred to maladministration and poor planning and management as major constraints on educational development in all countries, but particularly in countries of the South. While there are a number of national, regional and international initiayves that have been, or are being, developed to help alleviate the shortage of trained personnel, concern has been expressed about training methods and strategies, and about the training materials being used. As a result of discussions with ODA, Paul Hurst (EDC Department, ULIE) is being funded to co-ordinate a three-year research and development project on Training Third World Educational Administrators - Methods and Materials. Based at the London Institute of Education, this is a collaborative venture in so far as a network of institutions (42) and individuals in 21 different countries has been formed to assess the nature of existing training provision, its future potential and the training materials likely to be needed. The initial research phase is now completed. The long term implications of this piece of research could have a profound impact on future educa- tional development and planning and the project has already aroused considerable in- terest in many countries of the South.

CONCLUSIONS

Inevitably it must be recognised that this cursory overview has omitted both individuals and areas of research (e.g. planning, develop-

ments in Socialist societies, though mention has been made of Roy Carr-Hill’s work in Guinea-Bissau, funded by SIDA and the Guinea-Bissau Government, the politics of education and multicultural societies). How- ever, sufficient research has been touched upon to highlight several interesting points.

(1) Education, especially within the context of the Third World countries, is far more than formal schooling and higher education. Even within the formal sector there are enormous areas to be studied - curriculum content, examinations, teaching methods, costs, etc. - but none can be studied in isolation from their particular political or socio-economic context or even from the different cultural milieux within individual countries. Some scholars have therefore felt happier concentrating on individual countries or case studies; others have looked thematically, cross-culturally. Drawing conclusions from either case studies or cross-cultural studies is not easy and the scope for further and related research in many of the areas outlined above is therefore enor- mous.

(2) Another point is that some researchers become identified specifically with one country or geographical region, e.g. Avalos (Latin America), Preston (also Latin America), Dove (Bangladesh), King (Kenya and Tanzania), Lewin and Little (Sri Lanka), Lewin (Malaysia), Carr-Hill (Mozambique, Guinea- Bissau). This may or may not be a good thing. It does mean that key individuals have great insights into certain countries or regions and should be called upon to help in any interdisci- plinary or international developments that may take place. It also means, however, that it is sometimes very difficult to break away from an image or mould and enter into new pastures as Thompson found when he tried to break away from his ‘Africa’ image and to develop an interest in South East Asia.

(3) There are a small number of dedicated and key researchers scattered around the U.K. Only in London and Sussex can it be truly said that there are teams of co-operating resear- chers, though there are groups of individuals at Bristol, Cardiff and Leeds who could work collaboratively. Elsewhere research work can be lonely and may be going on in isolation from

CURRENT AND RECENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 163

similar work elsewhere. Opportunities such as Development Studies Association meetings which bring together research workers in this way are therefore to be greatly welcomed as are meetings which allow for greater collabora- tion with academics from the North and from the LDCs of the South.

(4) One final observation is how few inter- disiciplinary teams are in operation, not just within the field of education, but in which educationists work in conjunction with resear- chers from other disciplines. Since the early 1970s it has been widely acknowledged that education’s role in development is only viable if it is within an integrated development framework. Comparative educationists have for long argued that comparative education can only be adequately undertaken with an inter- disciplinary team, as the IEA surveys high- lighted. It is not surprising, therefore, that some of the most successful research projects have been interdisciplinary ones.

My concluding plea, therefore, is this. By all means let there be greater collaboration be- tween researchers, and between researchers in different countries, but above all let education- ists work more closely alongside economists, social anthropologists, political scientists, etc. In this way their small contributions might be of much greater significance and might have a much greater impact than appears to be the case at present.

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Blaug, M. (1973) Education and the Employment Problem in Developing Countries. ILO, Geneva.

Blaug, M. (1979) The case for universal primary educa- tion. In Universal Primary Education (edited by Smith, R. L.). University of London Institute of Education.

Brooke, N., Oxenham, J. and Little, A. (1978) QuaMica- tions and Employment in Mexico. Research Report, IDS, Sussex.

Bude, U. and Greenland, J. (ed.) (1983) In-service Education and Training of Primary School Teachers in Anglophone Africa. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, Baden Baden.

Carr-Hill, R. A. (1982) Education in Guinea-Bissau 1978-81: the Impact of Swedish Assistance. SIDA Education Division Document No. 5.

Carr-Hill. R. A. (1984) Primary Education in Tanzania. SIDA Education Division Document No. 16.

Chambers, R. and Oxenham, J. (1978) Organising Educa- tion and Training for Rural Development Problems and Challenges. Working Paper, IIEP, Paris.

Colclough, C. (1976) Some lessons from Botswana’s experience with manpower planning. Bouwano Notes and Records 8, 129-155.

G&lough, C. (1977) Formal education systems and poverty - focused planning. Journal of Modern African Studies 15, 569-89.

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Dore, R. (1976) The Diploma Disease. Allen & Unwin, London.

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Dove, L. (1980a) The role of the community school in rural transformation in developing countries. Compara- tive Education 16, 67-79.

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