Curieux;IssueIII

C|U|R|I|E|U|X

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ACADEMICJOURNAL

IssueIII

January2019

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Curieux;IssueIII

TableofContents

Page3:SolitaryConKinementandtheBrain

Page8:WhyaSynthesizedModelofCapitalismandCommunismMayWorkBest

Page14:WhatisEarth’sFinalDestiny:ResourceDepletionorSustainability?

Page21:TheImpactofPre-SocraticPhilosophyonPrimitiveScience

Page28:UbiquitousComputing;AStepForwardinTechnology,butaStepBackwardsfor

Society

Page34:That’sWhatSheSaid:HowTheOfKiceCanProvideInvaluableInsight

intoNPIIllusionsandLanguageComprehension

Page41:GrowingPains:ApophysitisinJuvenileAthletes

Page47:PartisanGerrymandering

Page56:RepresentingWarThroughTensionintheVietnamVeteransMemorial

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Curieux;IssueIII

SolitaryConKinementBy:NayaQuartey

“Prisoners[whoareconvictedtosolitaryconKinement]areisolatedfromhumancontact

andactivityinacellusuallysmallerthanthesizeofaparkingspaceforanaverageof23

hoursperday”(NewMexicoCenteronLawandPoverty).Theseconditionspreventthe

stimulationofthefrontallobeofthebrain,whichinducesapsychologicalbreak.Itcauses

thereleaseofstresshormonesthatresultindramaticchangestothehippocampusand

rewiresthebrain.Thehormonaleffectsonthehippocampuschangespaceperceptionand

directionalpositioning.Thosewhoattempttoreintegrateintosocietyexperiencespace

perceptionchangeandmoreoftenthannotendupbackinprison.Frequently,theKinancial

gainofprisonsisprioritizedthementalhealthofprisoners.The“problematic”prisoners

areplacedinsolitarysothattheguardsdonothavetodealwiththem.Thelackofbrain

stimulationthatresultsfromextendedperiodsofprisonisolationcancauseinmatesto

sufferpsychologicalbreakdowns.Thus,impedingtheirabilitytofunctionwhentheyare

reintroducedtotheoutsideworld.SolitaryconKinementisaformofpunishmentinprison

systemswhereaninmateisisolatedinaseparatecellforsubstantiallengthsoftimewith

littletonotimespentoutside.

SolitaryconKinementwas“adaptedfromanoldQuakermethodthatisolatedprisonersin

stonecellswithonlyaBibleinthehopesthatitwouldinspirethemtorepent,prayandKind

introspection”(Conover).Inthosedays,"theybelievedthatisolationherewasgoingto

bringaboutthebestoftheseinmates.Changethemforlife.Makethempenitent"(Solitary

ConKinement:PunishmentOrCruelty,par.3).ThisrehabilitationmethodwasKirst

implemented“in1829attheEasternStatePenitentiaryinPhiladelphiatoreform

inmates”(Conover).AfteritsinitialimplementationintotheEasternStatePenitentiaryin

Philadelphia,thispracticebegantospreadacrossthecountry.Nowthereareeven

supermaxprisons,aprisonmadeupofsolitaryconKinementcells,acrossthecountry.“Itis

shockingtoseethatwe'vegonebacktoit.Therearetensofthousands—theysay80,000

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Curieux;IssueIII

peopleongivenday—livinginsolitaryconKinementintheUnitedStates”(HowSolitary

ConKinementBecameHardwiredInU.S.Prisons,par.12)

Currently,twotypesofsolitaryconKinementexistinprisons,andtheyare;disciplinary

segregationandadministrativesegregation.“Disciplinarysegregationisusedtopunishan

inmatewhobreakstherulesbyseparatingthemfromotherinmatesforaspeciKiedperiod

oftime”(AloneintheHole,par.1).Administrativesegregationisusedwhen“prisonersare

deemedarisktothesafetyofotherinmatesorprisonstaffbyplacingthemintoisolation

unitsformonthsoryears”(AloneintheHole,par.2).Atthebeginning,“correctionsofKicials

Kirstturnedtothisstrategyinresponsetogrowinggangviolenceinsideprisons...though

criticscontendthatadministrativesegregationhasneverbeenproventomakeprisons

safer,useofthistypeofconKinementhascontinuedtorise.”(Alonein‘thehole’,par7).

Ratherthandealingwiththeproblemshead-on,prisonheadsopttocastthemintocells.

Dealingwiththeseprisonerswouldtakemoremanpowerandeffortthateithertheprisons

ortheguardsarepreparedtogivetheseinmates.

Doublingupinmatesinonecellisaspreadingpracticeduetobudgetcutsor

misconceptionsthatitwillallowinmatestoreformmorequickly.Thoseinmatesareoften

keptina4-foot-8-inchby10-foot-8-inchcellandKight,attackand,sometimes,kill.More

oftenthannotthereisa“unrelentingpressureoflivingwithanother,potentiallymentally

illordangerousperson—apressurethatcanfesterintoparanoiaandrage”(Doublingup

Prisonersin‘Solitary'CreatesDeadlyConsequences,par.6).Inoneinstance,aninmate

killedanotherafternomorethansixhoursofsolitaryconKinementbecausehedidnotwant

tosharethesmallcell.Thisprovidesanexampleoftheguardsdisregardoftheinmatesas

wellashowtheconditionstheinmateswerekeptinaffectedtheinmate.

InrelationtosolitaryconKinement,therehavebeenexperimentsconductedtodetermine

itseffects.OneexampleoftheseexperimentsistheHarryHarlowexperiment.Harry

HarlowwasaprofessorofpsychologyattheUniversityofWisconsinatMadison.While

conductinganexperimentonthetheoryofnaturev.nurtureonrhesusmonkeys,Harlow

discoveredsomething.Monkeysthatwerekeptinisolationbeganto“mutilate,isolate

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Curieux;IssueIII

themselvesandshowsignsofdeteriorationoftheirsocialabilities”(Breslow,par.3)during

andafterrelease.Throughthisexperiment,itwasdiscoveredthatthefrontallobesofthe

monkeyshaddiminished.Thelongertheywerekeptinisolation,theharderitwasforthem

toreintegrateintotheirsociety.Thisexperimentprovidedproofofhowdisastroussolitary

conKinementcouldbeforthehumanbrain,asitistheclosesttothatofamonkey.

“JournalistTerryAnderson...extraordinarymemoir,“DenofLions,”recountshisseven

yearsasahostageofHezbollahinLebanon”(Hellhole,par.6).Andersonwaskeptin

isolationwithonly5-10minutetriptousethebathroomandwashwithwater.Aftera

monthhebegantofeeltiredanddepressedandcravedactivity.Sometimes,whenhewas

movedandplacedwithotherpeople;heobservedthatthiswoulddramaticallyimprovehis

psyche.Afterthreeyearsinisolation,hehadacompletepsychologicalbreakdownand

begansmashinghisheadintothewallseveraltimesbeforetheguardscouldstophim.After

beingreleased,hecouldnotgetbacktohisregularsleepingandeatingscheduleforseveral

weeksandcouldnotstoptalkingtootherpeople.Thisisanexampleofhowsolitary

conKinement,thoughnotinaformalsettingcanaffectsomeonewhoissaneofmind.

ThepsychologicalphysicaleffectsofsolitaryconKinementarepresentinthefrontallobe;

thesechangesdemonstratethephysicaleffectsthatsolitaryconKinementhasonthebrain

itself.Thisisthepairedlobesofthebrainlyingbehindtheforeheadconcernedwith

behavior,learning,personalityandvoluntarymovement.Thislocationmakesiteasyforitto

getbruisedordamaged.“Thefrontallobeishighlyvulnerabletodamage...aninsufKiciently

stimulatingenvironment,druguse,infections,andotherfactors—canpermanentlyalterits

development”(FrontalLobe,par.11).Thiscoreofthehumanpersonalityisthemost

susceptibletodamagethatisaffectedwhenputintosolitaryconKinement.Thedamage

causedbysolitaryconKinementcausesthischange.Brainalterationsoccurinthebrainasa

resultoftheextendedisolationpresentedbysolitaryconKinement.Ittriggersstress

hormonesthatalterthefrontallobeandcausespartsofthebrainlikethehippocampus

(responsibleformemory,spatialorientation,andcontrolofemotions)toshrink.This

isolationnotonlycausesmentaleffectsbutphysicalaswell.“RobertKing,amemberofthe

‘Angola3’whowasheldinsolitaryconKinementforyears...saidhiseyesightandphysical

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orientationarepermanentlyimpaired”(SolitaryConKinementMayDramaticallyAlterBrain

ShapeInJustDays,NeuroscientistSays,par.4).Hormonaleffectsonthehippocampus

changespaceperceptionanddirectionalpositioning.Anaccountfromaninmatedescribes

how“whenIKirstmovedin,Icouldn’tstandnotbeingabletoseethedoor.Tothisday,she

says,friendstellherthathersmallapartmentissetuplikeaprisoncell”(Isolation

DevastatestheBrain:TheNeuroscienceofSolitaryConKinement,par.5).Therestrictionof

inmatesinanenclosedspaceforalmostallhoursoftheday,causesthealterationofspace

andtimetooccur.SolitaryconKinementcauseschangesinbehaviorduetothealteration

thatoccursinthebrain.InmatesinsolitaryconKinementreportfeelingpanicandrage,

irritability,hostility,andpoorimpulsecontrol.Theyalsoshowsignsofanxietythatvary

fromlowlevelsofstresstoseverepanicattacks.Theseinmatesalsoexperiencesignsof

depressionsuchashopelessness,moodswings,andwithdrawal.

“ManyoftheissuesthatconKinedprisonershaveduringisolationarealsoprevalent

post-isolation.Thosewhoareisolatedalsoexhibitmaladjustmentdisordersandproblems

withaggression,bothduringconKinementandafterward.Furthermore,inmatesoftenhave

difKicultyadjustingtosocialcontactpost-isolation”(EffectsofSolitaryConKinementonthe

WellBeingofPrisonInmates,par7).ThestressofbeingconKinedcoupledwiththemental

problemsthatresultininmatesthatdonothaveanysourceofmentalstimulationtoact

out.

Inretaliationforthistreatmentofinmates,programsarebeingtakenintoeffectand

changesarebeingmade.AmajorstepbeingtheStepDownProgram-anincentive-based,

multi-stepprocessthatservestorehabilitatecriminals.SocialscienceanalystMarieGarcia

said,“Itarrangesselectedinmateswithinteractivejournaling,groupfacilitation,voluntary

educationprogram,electiveprogrammingandprosocialvideos”(Garcia).Itvariesinlength

upto24monthsandprovidestheopportunitytoearnmoreprivilegesbynotengagingin

STG(SecurityThreatGroup)behaviors.Theprogram’sendgoalistogettheinmatessafety

outoftherestrictedhousing.Over30stateshavedevelopedsimilarprogramsinorderto

reducetheratesoninmatesgoingintosolitaryconKinement.Severallawsandbillsare

beingtakenintoeffectinordertocurborstopsolitaryconKinement.InSeptember,

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Curieux;IssueIII

ColoradoendedthepracticeofextendedsolitaryconKinementinitsprisons.Colorado

statedthat,“Inmateswhocommitseriousviolationslikeassaultwillnowspendatmost15

daysinsolitary,and,ifnecessary,undergotherapyorangermanagementclassesafterward”

(Raemisch,par.4).PresidentObamaannouncedonJan.18,2016,abanonsolitary

conKinementforjuvenileoffendersinthefederalprisonsystem.Hestatedthepracticewas

overusedandhadthepotentialfordevastatingpsychologicalconsequences.Hepasseda

newlawthatstatesthatthelongestaprisonercanbepunishedwithsolitaryconKinement

foraKirstoffenseis60days,ratherthanthecurrentmaximumof365days.“Thepresident’s

reformsapplybroadlytotheroughly10,000federalinmatesservingtimeinsolitary

conKinement”(Eilperin,par.7).In2017,theHouseofRepresentativepassedabillthatbans

solitaryforchildren.Thebillalsorequiresthecorrectiondepartmenttoreportannuallyon

inmatesassignedtosolitary,publishinginformationonage,gender,mentalhealthissues,

andethnicity.IllinoisandOregonrespondedbysayingtheywillexcludeseriouslymentally

illinmatesfromsolitaryconKinement.

DuetotheintegrationofprogramssuchastheStepDownprogram,thesafeintegration

ofinmatesintotheoutsideworldismorelikelytohappen.Whenprisonersareinsolitary

conKinementforalongtime,thereisabouta66%chanceofthemreturninginthenext

threeyears.Theseprogramshaveintroducedaprocesstohelpinmateswhohavebeen

placedinsolitaryconKinementandgivetheindividualsachancetoadjustandsurviveinthe

outsideworld.AlthoughthereisanabundanceofscientiKicevidencethatexplainsand

pointsoutthedetrimentaleffectsofsolitaryconKinement,itisstillusedbyprisonsystems.

Although,recentlytherehavebeenmovestoreduceanderadicateitfromprisonsystems.

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Curieux;IssueIII

WhyaSynthesizedModelofCapitalismandCommunism

CouldBetheBestAlternativeforGovernmentBy:YuChen

TheRussianRevolutionwasthemostcataclysmiceventduringtheearlypartofthe20th

century.“BeforetheRussianRevolutionandtheRussianworkingclass,wehavenorightto

stakethewholefutureonthecardofanarmeduprising.”Generally,itisregardedasa

transformationalhistoricalincidentleavinganindeliblemarknotjustonRussianhistory

butourcollectivehumanhistory,thusaffectingmodernnationsandstatesgloballyinboth

positiveandperniciousways.

TherevolutionwaslongdestinedforanoutbreakonaccountofRussia’sprecariousand

unsustainablepoliticalandeconomicsituation.Throughoutthe19thandearly20th

centuries,theRussianeconomyhadasigniKicantdownturnandthegovernmentwasmired

incorruption.Thelowerclasseswerevisiblydisaffectedbytheseeminglynever-ending

terriblelivingconditions.DefeatintheRusso-JapaneseWaraswellasBloodySunday4

madepeople’swrathreachitsapex,thuspropitiouslypreparingthegroundfora

transformationalpoliticalchange.

BeforetheoutbreakofWWI,theeconomicandsocio-politicalconditionshadalreadybeen

deteriorating.Terribleworkingconditionsandlackofappropriateandfairwagestriggered

strikeslong.NicholasII’sconservativedictatorshipandruthlessattitudeagainstprotest

antagonizedpeopleandenfeebledhisimpressionof“thelittlefather.”Thewardevoured

mostofthedomesticwealthwhichledtoadearthofsupplies.Ergo,soldiersinthefrontier

experiencedadrasticpaucityoffoodandmilitaryequipment.“Attheendof1914,with

mobilizationcompleted,Russiahad6.5millionsoldiersunderarmsbutonly4.6million

riKles.”Militarysetbacksrevealedthegovernment’sfundamentalincompetence.For

instance,Russia’splantoparalyzeGermanforcesinEastPrussiaprovedtobeamilitary

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Curieux;IssueIII

calamityasoneofthetwoarmieswasalmostannihilatedwhiletheotherwasforcedto

retreatintoPoland.

TheFebruaryRevolutiontookplaceinPetrogradwherestrikesandamélangeofprotests

quicklyspreadthroughoutthecapital,causingmuchsocialpressure,unrestandrevolts,

whichledtoNicholasII’sabdication.Subsequently,theProvisionalGovernmentwassetto

takeovertheexecutivepower,butAlexanderKerensky,theleaderoftheProvisional

Government,ignoredthewar-wearinessofthepeopleandkeptonthebellicoseefforts.He

startedtheKerenskyOffensiveinordertoregainsupportfromRussianpeople,butit

turnedouttobeamartialcatastrophefurtherweakeningthegovernment.Asaresultofthe

government’swarfarepolicy,theBolsheviksoccupiedPetrogradwithanarmeduprising,

otherwiseknownastheOctoberRevolution.

TheclashbetweentheRedArmyandWhiteArmyexpeditedacivilwarwhichthe

Bolshevikseventuallywon.However,thecivilwarcausedthedeathof9.5millionpeople,

mostlycivilians.DuetotheDecossackization,“some12,000Cossacks,manyofthemold

men,wereexecutedas‘counter-revolutionaries’bythetribunaloftheinvadingRedArmy.”

About100,000JewswerekilledintheUkrainebytheWhiteArmy.Northerncities,which

became“littlemorethanghosttowns,”sufferedthemost,especiallyPetrograd;“the

evacuationofthecapitaltoMoscowseemedtodepriveitofalllife.”

By1921,theindustrialproductionvaluehaddroppedtoone-Kifthofthatof1913.The

Bolsheviks,whohadcausedcopiouseconomicdevastation,nowhadtohelpthecountry

recoverbywayofnewtactics.Forothercountries,theratiKicationofamyriadofsocio-

economicpoliciesbecameaviableblueprint.AmongthemwereaseriesofsigniKicant

stratagemswhichhadgreatinKluenceonRussiansocietyandtheworld.Onepositive

exampleistheeconomicpolicydevisedbyLenin.Resuscitationofthecollapsedeconomy

causedbyWarCommunismduringtheCivilWar,whichcalledout“theoutbreakof

nationwiderebellions”,wasabsolutelyvital.TheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP)was

introducedanditturnedouttoprovideeffectivesolutions.

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Curieux;IssueIII

AccordingtotheNEP,thegovernmentwouldonlycollect“apercentageoftheharvest”from

peasants,thusallowingthereserveoftherest,whichcouldbe“soldtocooperativesoron

theopenmarket.”EventhoughtheconceptoftradewasstilltabooinRussia,the

governmentwasnotfastidiouswhenitcametoitsexecution.Cooperatives,individuals,and

evenforeigncapitalistsleasedenterprises,ignoringRussia’ssocialistsystem.Heavy

industrywasstillcontrolledbythestate,butprivateownershipwasallowedforlight

industry.Thistimeframealsosawthecreationofanewstablecurrencybackedbygold.

BecauseoftheNEP,theeconomiccrisisquicklydissipated.

TheNEP’sinitialsuccessinRussiawasnotjustahappenstanceasitwasbasedonthefact

thatsocialismdoesnotnecessarilyruncountertomarketeconomy;capitalismandmarkets

canbeusedasatransitiontosocialism.Acomparableexampleofsimilareconomic

transitionistheReformandOpening-upPolicyinChinain1978,whenChinaopenedits

marketstoforeigncountriesandpracticedcapitalismtoacertaindegree,anditillustrates

thattheNEPhasbecomeagreatexampleinguidingsimilareconomicreformationsacross

othersocialistsystemsintheworld.

Besidestheeconomy,theSovietgovernmentalsoattendedtothedevelopmentof

culture.TheBolshevikswereawarethat“activeparticipationinsocialistsocietydepended

onbeingabletoread”,andthusworkedonincreasingtheliteracyrate.“Bythetimeofthe

1926census,51percentofthepopulationwasliterate,comparedwith23percentin1897.”

Comingfromabackwardfeudalsociety,Russiabeganitsmodernizationunderthesteadfast

leadoftheBolshevikstocatchupwithotherdevelopedEuropeannations.Asmoreand

moreordinarySovietsbecameeducationallyandculturallyliterate,theywerepolitically

sensitiveandwilling“tolearnthelanguageofthenewregime,to‘speakBolshevik.’”

TheBolshevikseducatedthepeoplebywayofculture,whichbecame“abranchof

governmentconcernedwithmoldingmindsandpromotingattitudesfavorabletothe

constructionofasocialistsociety.”Propagandaalwayshighlightedtheexaggerated

ugliKicationofcapitalists’cupiditybasedonCommuniststereotypesandpromulgatedsuch

quintessentialsocialistvaluesasworkers’strongworkethicsandsoldiers’patriotism.

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Curieux;IssueIII

RussianpropagandapostersdidnotspeciallyattackanyWesterncountries,butrather

generallyandperhapsgeneticallydenouncedcapitalismandworshippedcommunism.The

Sovietswerecompelledtobehaveassocialistmodels,adoptingthevaluesofsocialismby

wayofdailypropaganda,whichwasbasedon“censorshipandstrictmonopolyoncultural

organizationsandactivities.”EventhoughRussiawasonsuspicionofbrainwashing,the

anti-NazipropagandacampaignduringWWIIenhancedSoviettroops’moraleand

promotedheroisminordertostrengthenthenationalcohesion.

ControllingpeoplethroughpropagandaprovedtobeparticularlyefKicientinmanysocialist

andothertotalitarianstates.TheconsummatemethodsusedbytheBolsheviksbecamea

constructiveguideforothernations.InNaziGermany,peoplewereardentabout

nationalismandexpansionismduetoJosephGoebbels’massivepropagandamachine.

Goebbelscontrolledalmosteverydepartmentandeachaspectrelatedtoculture.InMay

1933,heplayedaseminalroleinburning“‘unGerman’booksattheOperaHouseinBerlin.”

Goebbels’promulgationstrategyresembledthatoftheBolsheviks’whenthey

“nationaliz[ed]printingpressesandpublishinghouses.”

AfterRussiabecamestable,theBolshevikspaidmoreattentiontointernationalaffairs.

Theirgoalwastorealizeaglobalrevolution.Theoretically,mostBolshevikssawRussiaasa

viableinstrumenttoimplementchangeintheworld.MostBolshevikswereextremely

optimisticandsorelyunderestimatedthepowerofcapitalism.Theythoughttheproletariat

wouldunconditionallyalignwiththemandoverthrowcapitalistgovernments.However,

Russiaremainedtheonlysocialistcountryforalongtime.

TheSovietsneededothersocialistalliesbecauseSovietRussiacouldnotsurvivewhile

beingsurroundedbyinimicalcapitalistcountrieswillingtodestroytheirheretical

neighbor.Hence,theCommunistInternational(Comintern)“composedofrepresentatives

ofcommunistparties”wasfoundedin1919to“promoteworldrevolution”.Withthe

supportfromforeignsocialistsandbusinessrelationships,SovietRussiaregainedthe

diplomaticandcommercialconnections,thuspoliticalcapital,withcountrieswhichusedto

doubtthelegitimacyoftheSovietregime.

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Curieux;IssueIII

TheperiodpostWWIwasauspiciousforthedisseminationofrevolutionssinceimperial

countrieshadalonghistoryofbelligerencewitheachotherthusdepletingtheirrespective

capitalandresources.ThecollapseoftheCentralPowersledtowidepoliticalinstability

andavisibleeconomicdownturninEurope,which,inturn,becameahubforsocialistand

communistideas.TheinKluenceoftherevolutionbegantotraversetheRussianborder,

eventuallyinKiltratingintosuchcountriesasGermanyandHungary.Theredmenacebegan

toshowitspower.

InGermany,theSpartacusLeagueledarevoltinBerlininJanuary,1919,which

failedbecausemostworkerspreferredmoderatesocialism.Almostatthesametime,dueto

wavesofstrikesin1918,Hungarywasconvertedintoarepublicruledbythebourgeoisie,

whichwasoverthrownin1919andreplacedbyaSovietrepublic.However,therevolution

KinallyfailedwhentheAlliessuccessfullyintervenedandtheRomanianarmymarchedto

BudapestonAugust6th,1919.Thecommunists’efforttobuildtheiridealisticcountries

turnedouttobeafailure.Germanresistanceagainstcommunismprovesthateventhough

socialismdrewanampleandwonderfulblueprintfortheworkingclass,workersin

relativelyprosperouscountrieswerenotasamenabletosocialismascommunistleaders

initiallythought.Mostofthemsubscribedtotheideathatagradualevolutionwas

preferabletoarevolution.However,incountrieswithpoliticaldiscordandmuchclass

conKlict,thesocialistinstitutionprovedtobeeffectiveinmollifyingpopulardiscontentand

refreshingtheoldcorruptedpolitics.CommunismintheSovietUnioneventuallyfellin

1991asaresultofinternalproblems,notNATOintrusion.Thedrasticallyweakened

economyduetopoorlyexecutedcentralizationpolicyandvastcorruptionwasthemajor

factorinthedissolution.TheconKlictbetweenpro-democraticMikhailGorbachevand

steadfastcommunistscausedthedeterioration,whichledtotheultimate

demise.

AftertheColdWar,thecommunistmovementdeclinedquickly.TheRussianRevolution

contributedtotheconcretizationofcommunismandsocialismonaglobalscale.In

modernity,theredonotexistfunctional,purecommunistorcapitalistcountries.The

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Curieux;IssueIII

conceptsofpublic-ownedpropertyandsocialbeneKithavebecomecommonpractice.The

regimecreatedbytheRussianRevolutionhascrumbled,butitsinKluencehasnotcertainly

vanished.China,followingtheSocialismwithChineseCharacteristics,hasrisenandbecome

amajorplayer,butrightnexttoitisthedictatorialregimeofNorthKorealedbyKimJong-

un,ameretriciouscopyofJosephStalin.

Thefutureofsocialismremainsfuzzyandunpredictable.Sinceallsocialistcountries

areeconomicallybackwardandinsufKicientlyundevelopedacrossallsectors,itstandsto

reasonthatfundamentally,classical,idealisticsocialismdoesnotworkwell,atleastatthis

pointintime.InordertolearnfromtheRussianRevolution,socialistcountrieshaveto

scrutinizeWesterndevelopedcountries,remembernottorepeattheSovietUnion’smistake

ofunequivocaltotalitarianismandmilitarism,andadoptapoliticalstructureincorporating

bothcommunismandWesterndemocracy.

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Curieux;IssueIII

WhatisEarth’sFinalDestiny:ResourceDepletionor

Sustainability?By:LionelHan

Imagineaworldwheredestitutionimbuestheglobe.Inreality,theEarthisnotfarfrom

that.Currently,theabundanceofnaturalresourcescoexistswithproKligacy,which

inevitablywillblockviablesolutionstoglobalsubsistenceandtheabolishmentofextreme

poverty.Resourceswerenotalwaysindangerofdepletion.However,startinginthe1950s,

somethingunfathomabletranspired:adoublingoftheworld’spopulationfrom3billionto

thecurrent7.4billion.Ittookhumansallthewayto1800CEtoreachonebillion.Injusta

littleovertwocenturies,sixbillionmorepeoplewereaddedtotheplanet,makinghumans

gofromanotherspeciesoflargeapestoglobalubiquity.However,thisascendencydidnot

occurproblem-free.Withthepopulationincrease,indigencefollowed.Thuscamethe

questionbeggingtobeasked:canEarthpossiblysustainthismanypeople?

Sustainabilityisonthepremisethateveryonehastheabilitytosurvive.Hence,thoseliving

inextremepovertyareaviolationtosustainability.ExtremepovertywasKirstrecognizedby

theUnitedNationsin1995asaconditioninwhichpeoplestruggletosubsist.

Quantitatively,theabjectlypoorsurviveon$1.25orlessperdiem.InSierraLeone,the17th

poorestcountryintheworld,theaveragesalaryofapersonis90¢aday.Whenthesubject

ofextremepovertywasKirstbroached,peopledisregardeditsgravity,assumingtherewill

alwaysbepoorpeople.Whilethisispartiallytrue,beingpoorandbeingextremelypooris

radicallydifferent.Thedifference,insum,isoneiscapableofsurvivingandtheotherisnot.

ThelackofsufKicientmonetarysupportforcestheabjectlypoortorelinquishoneofthe

basichumanneedssuchasfood,sanitation,orshelter.

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Curieux;IssueIII

ThereisnodeKiciencyofbasichumanneedsinthemoredevelopedcountries(MDC).

Extremepovertyappearstobepreposterouslyunfeasibleaseventhehomelesscanscrape

upmorethan$1.25eachday.Yet,inthelessdevelopedcountries(LDC),povertyis

pervasive.InSomalia,thetermhomelessnessisobsoletebecausenearlyeverycitizenlacks

apropershelter.Currentdatainformsusthatapproximately12%oftheworld’stotal

populationlivesinextremepoverty,whichequatestomorethan8millionpeoplethat

cannotaffordbasicneeds.However,itisimperativetonotethat85%oftheworld’s

populationlivedinextremepovertyjust200yearsprior.CountriessuchasCanada,Russia,

andeventhepresent-daysuperpowerChinawereimpoverished.Thereductionofextreme

povertypresentsasliverofhopeandisfundamentallyduetotwofactors:populationsand

resources.

Demographersclaimthereisadirectcorrelationbetweenpopulationandpoverty.Withthe

populationincreasingatanalarmingrate,moreandmorepeoplebecameobsessedin

prognosticatingpopulation.TheKirstpredictionoccurredin1798whenThomasMalthus

publishedhisKindingsonthecorrelationbetweenpopulationandfoodsupply.Malthus,an

Englishclericandeconomicscholar,wasinKluentialintheKieldsofpoliticaleconomyand

demography.Duringhistime,subsistencefarming,themainfarmingsystem,wasvery

labour-intensiveandinefKicient.Watchingthisunproductivemethodpursue,Malthusian

viewedtheincreaseinpopulationasathreattohumanexistence,whichbecameknownas

theMalthusiantheory.

TheMalthusiantheoryisbasedonthedifferentgrowthratesbetweenthefoodsupplyand

thepopulation.Malthusbelievedthefoodproductionincreasesatanarithmeticrate,i.e.

1,2,3,whereasthepopulationincreasedatageometricrate,i.e.1,2,4,8andsoon.

Eventually,thegeometricrateofpopulationgrowthwilloutgrowthefoodsupplyratetothe

extentofanunsustainablepopulationcalledtheMalthusianCrisis.IftheMalthusianCrisis

didoccur,massstarvationwouldbeomnipresent.Theglobalpopulationwouldplunge

drasticallyuntilthereisenoughfoodforeveryoneagain.However,themassstarvationis

justameansofresettingthepopulationgrowthrate.Eventually,theMalthusianCrisis

wouldresurgeandthetragiccyclerepeats.

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Curieux;IssueIII

However,Malthusmissedtwocriticalpoints.First,Malthusdidnotaccountforthe

industrialrevolution,whichcatalyzedtheproductionrateofagriculturewellbeyondthe

populationgrowthrate.Newtechnologyadvancementsallowedpeopletomass-produce

goods.MachinesreplacedpeopleandthusincreasingefKiciency.TheefKiciencywasfurther

intensiKiedwiththehelpoffertilizersandpesticides.Consequently,astheoutputoffood

supplygreatlysurpassedthepopulationgrowthrate,farmingevolvedfromasustainability

meantoabusiness.Malthusalsodidnotfactorinthepopulationincreaseasanincentive

ontheeconomy.Morepeopletranslatetomoredemandandmoreworkers,whichentails

anincreaseintheagriculturesupplyrate.

DuetoMalthus’smiscalculations,theMalthusiancrisishasfailedtomaterialize.Hehas

beenheavilycriticizedforhisinabilitytoforeseetheIndustrialRevolutionanditseffectson

theeconomy.However,thepossibilityofaMalthusiancrisiscannotbeoverlooked.Thereis

adeKinitesupplyandlandlimitation.Withoutproperspending,itisjustamatteroftime

beforetheEarthrunsoutofresourcesandfailstoprovideforhumankind.Forsuchreasons,

researchersfromtheUnitedNationsstillKirmlybelieveintheMathusianCrisis.Oncewe

experiencethecrisis,thereislittletonothingwecandotopreventthedevastating

consequences.

Malthusisnotalonefortheoristswhohaveventuredintheprognosticationofglobal

population.In1965,BoserupemergedwithhertheoryofagricultureintensiKication.Inher

KirstpublishedbookTheConditionsofAgriculturalGrowth,shedelineatesdistinctpatterns

reKlectingprimitiveagriculturetopopulation.DifferentlyMalthus,sheregardedpopulation

increaseasafundamentaldriveforagriculturalproduction.Withmorepeople,morelabour

isavailableforagriculturaluse.Consequently,shearrivedattheconclusionthatthe

populationislikelytogrowadinKinitum.Althoughtruetoacertainextent,hertheory

exhibitsapaucityofnaturalimpediments,whichwilleventuallylimitthepopulationunder

acertainamount.Theseimpedimentsareknownaspreventativeandpositivechecks.

PreventativechecksareartiKicialhindrancessuchaspostponementofmarriage,

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Curieux;IssueIII

reproduction,orincreasedcostoffood.OnesuchexampleistheChina’s“onechildpolicy”

rule.Underthispolicy,familieswerecastigatedandpunishedKinanciallyiftheyhadmore

thanonechild.Fineswereimposedforadditionalchildrenandthefamilieswhohadonly

onechildweregivenanincentive.However,thisisanextremecaseduetoChina’ssoaring

populationatthetime.Inmanyinstances,resettingthepopulationgrowthrequiresonly

moderatepreventativechecks.WhentheworldrequiresmoresigniKicantmoderations,it

knowstorelyonpositivechecks.

Positivechecksaresuchbiggerscaleeventsasfamine,war,ordisease.Manycurrent

positivechecksarenaturaldisasters.Acountry’sgrowthratecanexperiencedrastic

reductionswithoutthepopulationitselfseriouslyplummeting.InJournalofAsianStudies,

TheodoreBestor,aresearcheratCambridgeUniversity,exploredtheeffectsofthe9.1

magnitudeJapanEarthquake.Inadditiontothecasualties,theearthquakealsoabsorbed

mostoftheresourcesofJapan.Aschaosensued,productionofcrops,manufacturingof

goods,andeconomicdevelopmentswasundertemporarysuspension.Thistransitoryhalt

wasenoughtostuntthegrowthrateofJapan.

Inadditiontoitsabilityforretrenchment,perhaps,themorenoteworthyimpactofthese

capriciouspositivechecksistheirunpredictability.This,forbetterorforworse,limits

humans’inKluenceonpopulationgrowth,makingthehumanpopulationimpossibleto

foresee.However,thatdidnotpreventHansRoslings,apreeminentstatistician,sharedhis

viewsonthepopulationprojections.RoslingsservedasaDistrictMedicalOfKicerintheLDC

MozambiquewhilepursuinghisPh.Dinmedicine.There,hewasexposedtotheharsh

conditionsoftheimpoverishedandbeganresearchingpotentialsolutions.Learningfrom

bothMalthusandBoserup,Roslingsmadesuretofactorinbotheconomicandgeographic

potentialsofcountries.

Roslingsgraphedeachcountry’swealthwithitscorrespondingpopulationandillustrated

hisKindingsonhismostrecentpublication:TenReasonsWe’reWrongAbouttheWorld.As

aresult,heconcludedthatonlyAsiaandAfricawillseeapopulationincrease.This

predictionbecamethegroundworkofcityplanningformanycivilengineers.However,over

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Curieux;IssueIII

5billionpeopleresideinAsiaandAfricaalready.Theydonotlackhumanlabourandan

increaseinpopulationwillonlyputpressureonastaggeringeconomy.Thisiswhere

resourcescomeintoplay.Theonlyfeasiblewaytosustainmorepeopleistoreducethe

resourceusage.Sincetheimpoverishedarealreadyconsumingverylittleresources,the

sacriKicemustcomefortheopulent.

Retrenchmentcanbeseenineverydaylife;recyclingpapersreducetheamountoftrees

used.AnoteworthyexampleofretrenchmentfromtheopulentistheEarthDay.EarthDay

datesbackto1970asapoliticalcomplaintregardingthelackofduerespectforthe

environment.Almost50yearslater,morethan4billionpeopletookactiononthis

internationalevent.Thedeedsrangefromsmallthingssuchasplantingatreetosuchlarge-

scalephenomenaascuttingtheentirecountry’selectricityforanhour.Fromamoot

complainttooneofthelargestinternationalevents,EarthDayhaswanedtheeffectsof

climatechangedrastically.Thus,thisexempliKieshowonesmallactioncanpotentiallyalter

thewholeworld.

AccordingtoNASA,on2016’sEarthDay,Finland,Iceland,Denmark,andSwedenall

ceasedelectricityconsumptionfrom9:00amto10:00am.Itischallengingtocollaboratea

city,letaloneawholecountry,soitisexpectedthatthesecountriesarethebetter

environmental-friendlycountriesintheworld.Theterminationofelectricitynotonlysaved

energy,butencouragedmorephysicalcontactbetweenpeople.Basedontheiraverage

consumptionofelectricityperday,itisestimatedthatthe4countriescombinedsaved

60,000J,whichtranslatestoalmostaquarteryear’selectricityusageoftheLDC

Bangladesh.ItisfascinatingwhattheMDC’scanachieveinjustonehour.

Forthe2017EarthDay,theUnitedNations(UN)wentona1billionexpeditiontomake

electricitymoreaccessiblefortheLDC”sinAfrica.Theyinstalledpropertransmissionlines

across13countries,includingSomalia,SeirraLeone,andBangladesh.Now,insteadof

tryingtodangerouslyreconducttheelectricityfromawealthiercountrytotheirs,theyhave

affordableandattainableelectricityrightbesidethem.AtKirst,theexpeditionreceived

muchopprobriumastheresourcescouldhavebeenutilizedtomitigatetheconKlictinSyria.

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Curieux;IssueIII

However,themissionresultedinagreateconomicsuccess,asthe13countries’economyis

growingasafasterratethanever.Inparticular,Bangladesh,withthehelpoftheUN,has

managedtoKlourishandclimboutofthecategoryofLDC”s.Ergo,amodestamountof

economicincentivesfromtheopulentcandirectlyandradicallyamelioratetheconditions

oftheLDC’s.

Withtheadventofmoderntechnology,theuseelectricitybecameaglobalstaple.Thewater

dams,windturbines,andsolarpanelsproducedampleenergyforallhumankind.Atthe

prospectofworry-free,electricitypervadedtheglobe.Nowadays,electricitycanbeseen

everywhere;inmachineries,houses,portabledevices,etc.However,electricityisdilatorily

convertingfromabasicnecessitytoaluxury.Aspricesincrease,thehaveswillstillmanage

tolavishlyexploitenergyanderadicatedarknessintheirownabodes.Theextra$100bill

forelectricity,althoughundesirable,seemstrivialtothem.Yet,thesame$100billwillhave

enoughimpacttodevolvetheunfortunatefamiliesintheLDCbacktousingcandlesasa

primarylightsource.

In2016,theOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentreportedthatthe

richconsumesalmost95%ofallproducedelectricity,leavingonly5%fortheLDC’sto

portionamongthemselves.DemographicRepublicoftheCongo,forinstance,consumes

about900,000,000kWhperyear,whichisaround0.004%ofworld’sconsumptionof

electricity.Thisdisparityoccludesaplausiblesolutiontoextremepoverty.Beingunderthe

incentiveofreducingelectricitycostforLDC’s,therichmustreducetheirconsumption.The

cutbackdoesnotneedtobedetrimentaltotheirextravagantspending.IfAsia,

consumptionof70%ofworld’selectricity,weretoreducetheirusageby5%,itwould

lowerthecostofelectricityinChinabynearly50million.The5%reductionalonecan

transpireinto4yearsworthofelectricityinAfrica.

Theseaoflightspaintsamisleadingpictureofelectricity’sdominance.Intheevening,it

seemsasifelectricityistheonlyenergyconsumption.However,inreality,over80%ofall

globalenergyusageisfossilfuel.Fossilfuelusageismoreproblematicduetotheinability

toreplenishthislimitedresource.Unlikeelectricity,fossilfuelcannotbemanufactured.The

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Curieux;IssueIII

naturalprocessforcreatingoilmaytakeuptomillionsofyearsandwehaveyettoKinda

suitablesubstitutionforthelonghiatus.Withoutfossilfuel,thegasforcars,thecoalfor

trains,andtheenergyforfactorieswillallbedefunct.Ironically,theoneswhoare

performingtheproKligacyaretheoneswhodependontheseactivities.

FossilfuelreductioncanonlyoccurintheMDC’sastheLDC’saresimplytoopoorto

affordanyappliancesthatexpendanoticeableamountoffuel.Acomparableexampleis

transportation.MostpeoplelivingintheLDCrelyonwalkingorbikingasamainsourceof

transportation.Thereisascarcityofautomobileuseonaccountofhighexpensesand

underdevelopedinfrastructures.IntheMDC’s,mostpeople’scommontransportationisthe

automobileorpublictransit,whichrunsonfossilfuel.Cementmanufacturingalsoutilizes

plentyoffossilfuel.Ascitiesbecomemoreandmoredeveloped,theuseofcementalso

raised.However,LDCshavebarelyanyproperroads,letalonecementedroads.Ergo,the

reductionmustbefromthedevelopedcountries.

ThelimitedresourcesandhumanpopulationdeterminethesustainabilityofEarth.

AlthoughthepopulationisinaconstantstateofKluctuation,thegeneraltrendisalwaysa

largerpopulationthaneverbefore.TheaccrescentpopulationwillchallengeEarth’s

carryingcapacitytoitslimit,butitisstillpossiblefor11billionpeopletosurviveonthis

planettogether.WithmoderateconsumptionfromtheMDCs,resourcescanbebetter

spreadamongallcountries,whichcanleadtotheeradicationofextremepoverty.However,

thepossibilityisproportionaltotheopulence’swillingnesstoreducetheirconsumptionto

alevelthatcanbesharedamong11billionpeople.Itendtonotsubscribetoanoptimistic

view,butIalsobelievetheworldismuchbetterthanwethink.

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Curieux;IssueIII

TheImpactofPre-SocraticPhilosophyonPrimitive

ScienceBy:HannahHan

Pre-SocraticphilosopherDemocritusofAbderaKirstintroducedtheconceptofatomismto

ancientGreeksinthelate5thcenturyB.C.E.,twomillenniabeforeJohnDalton,an18th

centuryEnglishchemist,publishedhisacclaimedtheoryofmodernatomism.Clearlyahead

ofhistime,DemocritusepitomizedtheingenuityassociatedwiththePre-Socratic

philosophers,agroupofrevolutionarythinkerswhopredominantlystudiedthephysical

world,asopposedtoabstractideasofknowledgelikethe5thcenturyB.C.E.Greek

philosopherSocrates.WhilethemajorityofancientGreeksinthe5thcenturyB.C.E.

believedinthetraditionalpantheonofGreekgodsandattributedastronomicaloccurrences

todivineintervention,thePre-Socraticphilosophersexploredthecausalitybehindnature,

takingtheKirststepstowardsscience.AlthoughthePre-Socraticphilosopherswere

interestedintheologyandphilosophy,theyshouldprimarilybeconsideredscientists,as

theyformedthebasisofprimitivescientiKicthinkingbydrawingconclusionsaboutthe

naturalworldthroughlogicandobservation.Modernscientistscreateandtesthypotheses

toarriveattheoriesaboutthephysicalworld,whilemodernphilosophersstudythenature

ofhumanexistenceandknowledge.Eventhoughtheycannotbeconsideredmodern

scientists,Pre-Socraticphilosophersdevelopedaprimitiveformofscience,inwhichthey

createdinventiveyetofteninaccurateexplanationsofthenatureofthecosmosthrough

reason.

ThalesofMiletuswastheKirstPre-Socraticphilosophertoconsidercausalitywithinthe

naturalworldanddeveloptheideathattherewerefundamentalscientiKicprinciples

governingtheuniversethatexplainednaturalphenomena.Bornin624B.C.E.alongthe

IonianCoast,Thales,oneoftheSevenWiseMenofancientGreece,believedthatwaterwas

thesoleelementor“principle”thatshapedthecosmosandthoughtthat,therefore,every

objectintheuniversewascomposedofwater.Aristotle,therenowned4thcenturyGreek

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Curieux;IssueIII

philosopher,laterstatedthatThaleslikelycametotheconclusionthatwaterwasthe

principleelementofthecosmosbecauseallliferequireswatertogrow,andwaterispivotal

informingmoistenvironments.Thalesattemptedtoexplainthechaosoftheuniverseby

determiningasinglecausethatresultedinadiverse,changingworld.HewastheKirstto

developtheideaofa“soleprinciple”withinnature,aconceptthatwasdistinctlyseparate

fromorthodoxGreekbelief,inwhichreligionandsciencewereintertwined.AsAristotle

stated,Thaleslikelydevelopedhistheorybasedonobservationandrationalthought,ashe

recognizedtheimportanceofwaterinsupportinglifeonEarthandcreatingweather

conditions,suchashumidityanddampness.Whilehemaynothaveconductedexperiments

toprovehistheory,hisrejectionoforthodox,religiousexplanationsofthephysicalworld

andhisrelianceuponhisownobjectivethinkingtoexplainthenatureoftheuniversewere

representativeoftheKirststepstowardsscience.

Usingreasoningandobservationoftheattractionbetweenmaterials,Thalesformed

creative,thoughinaccurate,hypothesesregardingthephysicalchemistryoftheuniverse

andthereasoningbehindmotion,forwardingtheprogressionofprimitivescience.Thales

alsobelievedthatwaterwasadivinenaturalprincipleandmaintainedallmaterialobjects

intheuniversecontainedgodswithinthem.Becausesoulswerebelievedtocausemotion,

hetheorizedthatironandambercontainedsouls.Atthesametime,however,Thales

believednaturetobea“completeandself-orderingsystem.”Thalesattemptedtoexplain

whyironwasattractedtometaland,similarly,whyotherobjectsweredrawntoamber.

Althoughmodernscientistshaveestablishedthattheattractionoccursasaresultof

magnetismandstaticelectricity,Thalesrecognizedtherecurringpatternofattraction

betweencertainobjectsandattemptedtoexplainthephenomenonthroughobservation,

representingtheKirstadvancesinprimitivescience.Whilehisexplanationwasincorrect,

Thalesshowedthathe,alongwithseveralofhiscontemporaries,begantoapproachthe

subjectwithamoreanalytical,“scientiKic”mindset,expandinguponconceptsalready

understoodatthetimeaboutthenatureofsouls.InsteadoffollowingGreekorthodox

religiousbeliefs,Thalesuseddeductionandlogictoreachconclusionsaboutthenatureof

allmaterials,includingamberandiron,showingthathewasattemptingtoKindauniKied,

absolutetruthaboutthecosmos.Furthermore,althoughhethoughtwaterwasdivine,he

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Curieux;IssueIII

alsorealizedthatwaterwasnotanexternalforcethatdisruptedthenaturalworld,adirect

contrastfromtraditionalGreekexplanationsofchangeinvolvingdivinebeings

manipulatingthecosmos.Thalesbegantodevelopamoreobjective,scientiKicoverviewof

thenaturalworld,asherecognizedthatthephysicalworldwasunaffectedbythereligion

andwasabletodrawconclusionsaboutthenaturalworldbasedoffofobservation.

Democritus’stheoryofatomismrepresentedthefundamentalsofprimitivesciencebecause

heobservedobjects’interactionswiththeirenvironmentandformedhypothesesaboutthe

changingnatureoftheworldwithoutrelyingonreligiousexplanations.Alate5thandearly

4thcenturyB.C.E.Pre-SocraticphilosopherfromAbdera,Greece,Democritusbelievedthe

worldwascomposedof“atoms,”orindivisibleparticles.Hetheorizedthatphysicalobjects

weremadeupofatomsandthattheseparticlescouldnotbeseenbythenakedeye.

Furthermore,hethoughtthatthephysicalcharacteristicsofobjectswerebasedoffof

arrangementsof“void,”oremptyspace,andtheatomswithinthem.Democritustooka

revolutionarysteptowardssciencewithhisremarkablyaccuratetheoryofatomism.In

creatinghistheory,Democritusrejectedanydivineexplanationsregardingtheorigination

andinteractionsbetweenmaterialobjects;instead,heusedhisownreasoningand

observationofmacroscopicobjectstologicallyinferaboutthemicroscopicnatureofthe

cosmos.

Buildingoffofhistheoryofatomism,Democritusdevelopedatheoryofdensity,wherehe

usedobservationoftangibleelementsandreasoningtomakeconclusionsaboutthe

chemistryofthephysicalworldinanobjective,“scientiKic”way.Democritusbelievedthat

ironwaslighterthanleadbecauseironcontainedmorespacethanatoms.Helikelyused

observationregardingtheweight,mass,andappearanceofleadandirontodevelopa

logicalhypothesisaboutdensity,afundamentalconceptinmodernscience.ByKinding

tangibleexamplesofair-Killedandatom-Killedmaterialsandconnectingthemtohisalready

establishedtheoryofatomism,Democritusshowedthathewascapableofmakinglogical

inferenceslikemodernscientists.SimilartoThales,Democritusattemptedtoarriveata

uniKiedexplanationregardingthediversenatureofallobjectsonearth,andmore

speciKically,whycertainobjectsaredenserthanothers.Heevencitedexamplesthroughthe

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Curieux;IssueIII

leadandiron,supportinghisclaims,anothersteptowardsmodernscientiKicevidence.In

histheoryofatomism,DemocritustooktheKirststepstowardsprimitivescienceby

observingthenaturalworldandmakinglogicalinferencesaboutthecausalityandphysical

stateofthecosmosinmannercharacteristicofthePre-Socraticphilosophers.

Democritusexpandedontheideaswithinhistheoryofatomismtoformatheoryoftaste

uninKluencedbydivineKiguresorGreekorthodoxviews;hereachedhisconclusionthrough

carefulobservation,representingtheKirststepstowardsprimitivescience.Democritus

believedthatallatomswerecomposedofthesamematerialbutthattheyexistedin

differentshapes;somehadhooks,whileothersweresmooth.Hethoughtthatbitterfoods

consistedofmorepricklyatomswithbarbsthatscrapedthetongue,causingamore

unpleasanttaste.Ontheotherhand,sweeterfoodswerecomposedofsmootheratoms

whichrolledoverthetongue,causingamorepleasant,sweetersensation.Democritus

furtherexpandeduponhistheoryofatomism,citingnotonlyvisualbutalsogustatory

sensationsasevidenceforhishypothesis.Whilenotaccurate,hisconjectureregardingtaste

reKlectedtheKixedmethodofcareful,objectiveexaminationthatthePre-Socraticsemployed

whenapproachingthenaturalworld.DemocritusKirstlikelyexaminedthetasteofsweet

andbitterfoods,andusinghissensoryobservationsandhistheoryofatomism,he

backtracked,utilizingdeductiontocreativelyexplainthewayhumansperceivetaste.His

theoryrepresentedhisattempttoexplainthecausalityofsensoryinputandtoreacha

universaltruthabouttasteunaffectedbygodsorspirits,basedoffofhistheoryofatomism.

Democritusshouldbeconsideredaprimitivescientistbecauseheusedobservationtoform

creativehypothesesregardingthenatureofbiologyandgenetics.Democritusbelievedthat

inorderforhumanstoreproduce,allpartsofthebodymustbeusedtocreateaseed.He

furthertheorizedthatthechildinheritedparentalcharacteristicswhenoneparent

contributedmoreofarespectiveorganorparttothechild.Democrituscontinuedto

examinecausality,apivotalideawithinmodernscience,byattemptingtoexplainwhy

childrenlookliketheirparents.Inordertoreachaconclusion,Democrituslikelyobserved

thelinkbetweenrealmatesandtheiroffspring,aswellastheirsimilaritiesinappearance.

HealsorepresentedtheKirststepstowardsmodernscienceinthathediscoveredtwo

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Curieux;IssueIII

fundamentalconceptsinthemodernKieldsofreproductionandgenetics:similar

characteristicscanbepasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration,andachildinherits

geneticmaterialfrombothparents.Usinglogic,hewasabletocomposeacoherent,

althoughincorrect,theoryaboutthecompositionoftheseedswithoutdrawinguponthe

interventionofdeitiesorreligiontoillustratehispoint.Democritus’sinterestinbiology

furtherrepresentedthebeginningsofthebranchingofdifferentdisciplineswithinscience

asawhole.Democritusshouldbeconsideredaprimitivescientistbecauseheused

observationtoformcreativetheoriesregardingthemodernKieldsofbiologyand

reproduction,uninKluencedbyreligionorGreekorthodoxbelief.

AnotherPre-Socraticphilosopher,XenophanesbuiltthefundamentalsofprimitivescientiKic

thinkingbyseparatingthereligiousworldfromthephysicalworldandusingdirect

observationtoarriveattheoriesregardingastronomicalphenomena,including

environmentalandweatherconditions.AccordingtoHippolytus,a2ndcenturyRoman

theologian,XenophanesofColophon,a6thcenturyB.C.E.Pre-Socraticphilosopher,believed

thatalternatingperiodsofKloodinganddroughtontheEarthresultedintheappearanceof

fossilsonland.HippolytusstatedthatXenophanesthoughttheseaandearthmixed

togethertoformmudduringperiodsofKlooding,resultinginthesubmergenceofland

underwater.OncetheKloodingendedandaperiodofdroughtarrived,theseareceded,

causingthefossilsandshellsofseacreaturesfromlongagotoappearinthemiddleofland.

AccordingtoHippolytus,XenophanesfoundaKishfossilintheItaliancityofSyracuse,an

impressionofagobyinarockinParos,andfossilsofmanycreaturesinMalta,Greece,

provinghistheory.Xenophanesusedlogictoexplainwhythefossilsofseacreatureslayin

themiddleoflandmasses.Hesupportedhishypothesiswithfossilevidence,whichremains

avalidwaytosubstantiatemodern-dayarchaeologicaltheories,showingthathewas

formingthefoundationsofprimitivescience.Xenophanesdemonstratedhisabilityto

logicallymakeconnectionsbetweentheinlandlocationsandmarinequalitiesofthefossils

andformreasonableinferencesregardingtheirorigins,representingtheKirststepstowards

science.Hefurthertoucheduponthesubjectofworld-wideclimatetrendswithhismention

ofperiodsofKloodsanddroughts,displayinghisinterestinthecausalitybehindweather

phenomena.HisattempttouncoverthecausalityshowedthathewastryingtoKind

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Curieux;IssueIII

absolutetruthsaboutthenatureofthephysicalworld,separatefromthedeitieswithinthe

Greekpantheon.Whilenotentirelyaccurate,Xenophanesexplainedthatthenatural

phenomenonofKloodsanddroughtswasduetothemixingof“theseaandearth,”insteadof

divineintervention.Hedrewaseriesoflogicalinferencesabouttheappearanceoffossils

andseacreaturesonlandthroughdeduction,creativity,andconcreteexamples,usinga

chainofreasoningcharacteristicofthePre-Socraticphilosophers.Xenophanesrepresented

theKirststepstowardsprimitivesciencesincehediscardedreligiousexplanationsof

naturalphenomenainfavoroflogicalhypothesesregardingKloodsanddroughts,purely

naturaloccurrences.

Usinglogic,Xenophanesalsodevelopedtheoriesregardingthecausalityofmeteorological

phenomenawithoutrelyingupondivineintervention,representingtheKirststepstowards

science.Xenophanestheorizedthatthesun,moon,comets,andmeteorswereallmadeof

cloudsandthatthetwomainprinciplesgoverningtheworldwereearthandwater.10

Xenophanes,similarlytoThalesofMiletus,believedthattherewerestrictprinciples

governingthecosmos,andhebegantocharacterizethenatureofallobjectswithinthe

universe.Hisbeliefthatearthandwaterwere“principles”ofnaturerepresentthePre-

Socraticphilosophers’interestinthecompositionofobjectsandtheirvisionofnatureasan

orderlysystemuninKluencedbythegods.Xenophanesbuiltuponhisbeliefsofthe

“principles”ofnaturebymakingconjecturesaboutthestateofastronomicalphenomena

throughlogic,thereforetakingtheKirststepstowardsprimitivescience.Becausecloudsare

betweensolidandgasandmidwaybetweentheearthandsky,theyarecloselyrelatedto

thetwoprinciplesofearthandwater,whichislikelywhyXenophaneschosecloudsasthe

explanationofastronomicalbodies.Xenophanesseparatedastronomicalphenomenafrom

Greekorthodoxbeliefsandarrivedatconclusionsbasedonlogicandreason,representing

theKirstadvancesinprimitivescience.

WhilethePre-SocraticphilosophersdevelopedmanyprimitivescientiKictheoriesaboutthe

naturalworldthroughreasoningandobservation,theywerealsointerestedinmattersof

theologyandphilosophy.AccordingtoStobaeus,aMacedonianhistorianwholikelylivedin

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Curieux;IssueIII

the5thcenturyB.C.E.,Democritusbelievedthatjoyandcontentmentarosefrom

moderationandthatextremesresultedinunhappinessandtoomuchmovementofthe

soul,leadingtojealousyandinstability.WhileDemocrituswasmostfamousforhistheory

ofatomism,hewasalsointerestedinphilosophy.Histheorystatingthatmoderation

emergesasaresultofjoyshowedthathenotonlydabbledinthephysicalsciences,butalso

philosophy,orthestudyofhumanbehaviorandknowledge.XenophanesrejectedRoman

godsbecausetheypossessedhumanKlawsandbelievedthattherewasonlyoneincorporeal

godexisted,whothoughtandlookeddifferentlyfromhumans.Xenophanesmadeaclear

distinctionbetweenreligionandsciencebyinventingtheideaofanomniscientgod.He

strayedfromtheGreekorthodoxy,whichbelievedinapantheonofgods,whowereoften

temperamentalandinKluencedthenaturalworldandthelivesofhumans.Hisbeliefinone

godrepresentedahintofmonotheismintheancientworld,showingthathewasinterested

intheologyandinventedideascontrarytocommonbelief.However,Xenophanes’sideaof

anomniscientgodandhisexplanationsofthenaturalworldunaffectedbydeitieswere

unrelated,showingthatwhilethePre-Socraticswereinterestedinreligion,theyrecognized

thattherewasadistinctionbetweenthenaturalandspiritualworld.Pre-Socratic

philosophersdisplayedinterestintheologicalandphilosophicalmatters,eventhoughthey

wereprimarilyassociatedwiththeirworkinthenaturalworld.

Whiletheydidproduceideasregardingphilosophyandtheology,themaincontributionof

ThalesofMiletus,DemocritusofAbdera,andXenophanesofColophon,aswellasotherPre-

Socraticphilosophers,laidintheirformationofthefoundationsofprimitivescience.The

Pre-Socraticphilosophers’useofobservationandreasoningtoformhypothesesaboutthe

cosmosindependentoftraditionalGreekreligiousexplanationshelpedcementthemasthe

Kirstscientistsoftheancientworld.

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Curieux;IssueIII

UbiquitousComputing;AStepForwardinTechnology,but

aStepBackwardsforSocietyBy:TessAlwan

Ubiquitouscomputinghasbeenanextremelyprevalentyetfar-fetchedideasincethe20th

century,untilnow.Ubiquitouscomputing,oralsoreferredtoasubicomp,willinevitably

becomeournewreality,ashintedatthroughGeorgeOrwell’snovelNineteenEighty-Four

whichkeyedthephrase,“Bigbrotheriswatchingyou.”Thenotionofthisnewtechnologyis

invasiveonmanylevels.Theword“ubiquitous”isderivedfromtheLatinword“ubique”

meaning“everywhere”(“Ubiquitous.”).Ubiquitouscomputingisanewideawithinsoftware

engineeringandcomputersciencewherecomputingisnolongersolelyindesktopform;it

iseverywhereatanygiventime(“UbiquitousComputing.”).Thiscoversawiderangeofnew

technologieswherecomputingisincorporatedintoeverydaylifethroughthingssuchas

eyewear,cars,andevenhouseholdappliancessuchasrefrigerators.Theseadvanced

technologiesarepossiblethroughtheembeddingofsensoredcomputationaldevicesin

everydayobjectsandallowingthemtostealthilycollectmassamountsofdata(Hilty,Lorenz

M.).Studieshavebeenconducted,suchasonementionedinanarticlewithinScienti7ic

American,fromtheMITMediaLabbyresearchersanddevelopersGershonDublonand

JosephA.Paradiso,wheredevicessuchasDoppelLabhavebeencreated.DoppelLab

incorporatesamassamountofsensorsincertainareastoprovideanewperceptionof

presence.AccordingtoEricBrownfromtheMITTechnologyReview,“[...]these

technologies,theircreatorssay,willputcomputerseverywhere-andnowhere,”touchingon

thewayubiquitouscomputingwillsilentlysurroundhumanity.Theeffectsofubiquitous

computingonthenotionofprivacycanbeanalyzedthroughvariouslensesincludingsocial

andcultural,scientiKic,andethicalinordertoprovetheideathatprivacywillberareand

potentiallydiminishedthroughthefurtherdevelopmentofubiquitouscomputing

technologies.

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Curieux;IssueIII

Ubiquitouscomputingwillhavemanyeffectsonsociety,withamajoronebeingthesocial

andculturalchangesthatcouldpotentiallybeseen.InanarticlewrittenbyPeterNowak,an

authorforthewell-knownCanadiannewspaperTheGlobeandMail,titled,“Weliveinside

themachinenow:thearrivalofubiquitouscomputing,”ubiquitouscomputingisreferredto

as“TheForce.”AccordingtoNowak,TheForcesurroundssocietyonallsidesandcannotbe

escaped.Hestates,“There'slittledoubt:we'requicklybeingsurroundedbycomputing,and

thewaysinwhichweinteractwithitarebecomingmuchmorenaturalandinvisible.”The

presenceofadvancedtechnologiessuchasmassamountsofsensorsbeingplaced

everywhere,trackingtheworld’severydetail,isasilentintruder.Developersand

researchersGershonDublonandJosephA.ParadisocreatedaproductcalledDoppelLab,a

sensor-baseddevicethatplacessensorsineverycorneroftheenvironment,essentially

recreatingtheideaofpresencebyallowingpeopletotuneintocertainenvironmentswhile

theyarephysicallyelsewhere(GershonandDublon).Thisideaoftiny,nearlyinvisible

sensorssurroundinghumans,evenoutdoors,seemsinvasiveandmaybedifKicultto

becomeaccustomedto.“Toguaranteeprivacy,audiostreamsareobfuscatedatthe

originatingsensordevice,beforetheyaretransmitted,”thetwoMITMediaLabresearchers

claim.“Thisrendersspeechunintelligiblewhilemaintainingtheambienceofthespaceand

thevocalcharacterofitsoccupants.”Nevertheless,theideaofhavingotherspresentinyour

space,unbeknownsttoyouisastrangenewreality.Anotherconcernisthelikelinessof

errorinthetechnology’ssecurity.Ifthesensorsaresusceptibletobeing“hacked”into,or

arepronetoanyotherformoferror,potentiallyallowingaudiotobefullyintelligible,any

shredofprivacytohumanitycouldbecompletelydiminished.Despiteprecautionsbeing

takentoensureacertainlevelofsecurity,newtechnologiesinubiquitouscomputingare

stillconsiderablyinvasive.

Notonlydoesthepresenceofubiquitouscomputingaffectthesocialaspectof

everydaylife,therearehealthissuessurroundingthenewtechnologies.Thoughthehealth

issuescouldpotentiallyspreadtophysical,themainproblemsaresurroundingemotional

andmentalhealth.Theavailabilityofcomputinganywhere,anytimemeansaccessto

entertainmentatalltimes,whichultimatelyimpliesthatboredomwillbecomeararity.The

absenceofboredominhumanlivesisdangerousbecauseboredomallowsforhumansto

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Curieux;IssueIII

reachdeeperlevelsofthinkingthanwhenoccupiedwithanactivity(Nowak).Additionally,

emotionalgrowththatstemsfromface-to-faceinteractionscouldpotentiallybecome

stunted(Nowak).AccordingtoauthorPeterNowak,“Wedon'thavetoexperiencereal-time

emotionalreactionsifwereplaceface-to-faceorphoneconversationswithe-mailsand

texts.”GregoryD.AbowdandElizabethD.Mynatt,researchersfromtheGeorgiaInstituteof

Technology,conductedastudythroughtheirresearchonubiquitouscomputingwhichthey

refertoasClassroom2000.Thegoalofthisexperimentwastocreateanon-distracting

classroomenvironmentusingubiquitouscomputing,wherestudentscouldtakeabreak

fromvigorousnote-taking,andlifttheirheadstoengageinthelecture(Abowd,GregoryD,

andElizabethDMynatt).Originally,theresearchersattemptedtoprovidethestudentswith

note-takingdeviceswhichprovedtobetoodistracting.The‘capturesystem’the

researchersultimatelyusedprovedtohavepositiveandnegativeeffects.Duetotheability

ofstudentstolookbackonlectureswiththe“capturesystem,”note-takingbehaviorwas

modiKiedinpositiveandnegativeways.“WealsoknowthatnotallofthismodiKiedbehavior

isforthebetter,”AbowdandMynattconcluded.“Takingnonotes,forexample,isnotagood

learningpracticetoreinforce.”Additionally,becauseoftheuseofthe“capturesystem,”

studentsdidnotfeeltheneedtoaskasmanyquestionsorcontributetothelecturedueto

itsavailabilityafterthefact(Abowd,GregoryD,andElizabethDMynatt).Thisisharmfulto

thecomprehensionofthestudentsasengagementinthelessonprovideslearnerswitha

betterunderstandingofthematerial.Thoughthehealtheffectsduetotheusesof

ubiquitouscomputingmaynotseemextremelyprevalentorinvasive,theyare.The

presenceofubiquitouscomputing,silentlyandunknowingly,invadesourhealthandcauses

ustoinevitablyassumebehaviorsthataredetrimentaltoourmentalandemotional

growth.

TheethicalconcernsregardingubiquitouscomputingareinKinite.Theethicalityof

suchapowerfulconceptrevolvesmostlyaroundprivacy.AccordingtoLorenzM.Hilty,a

professorattheDepartmentofInformaticsattheUniversityofZurich,therearemultiple

mainaspectswhenitcomestotheissueofprivacyandubiquitouscomputing.TheKirst

privacyissuementionedinHilty’sstudyisautomaticidentiKication.“Identifyingpersons

evenwithouttheirknowledgeismucheasierinaubicompworld,”saysHilty.“because

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Curieux;IssueIII

sensordatacaneasilybecollectedandcombined.”AnotherprivacyissuespeciKiedisthe

ideaoflocationprivacy.Ubiquitouscomputingdevicestendtotrackthelocationoftheuser

ratherthanthe“agent,”whichisessentiallytheprogramtheuserisrunningatthetimethe

deviceisbeingused(Hilty).Technologicaladvancescouldeventuallyleadintotheability

forsocialmediaplatformstotrackusersautomaticallyandinrealtime(Hilty).Thisisa

clearviolationofprivacythatcouldpotentiallybeareasontofearthedevelopmentof

certaintechnologies.Additionally,researchersAbowdandMynattwroteaboutthesocial

issuessurroundingubiquitouscomputing,touchingontheideaoftheaccessibilityofusers’

information.Throughthedevelopmentofubicomptechnologies,personalinformation

couldbecomemoreeasilyaccessible.“Abasicconcernaboutanyinformationstoredina

computerisknowingwhocanaccessandmodifythecontents,”saysAbowd.“Wherearethe

bits?Aretheysecure?”Thesequestionsareespeciallyrelevantwhenitcomesto

advancementsintheubicomprealmwhereinformationistransferredconstantlyover

multiplenetworks,makingiteasyforpeopletoformsystemstospyonubicompusers

withoutregulationorauthority(Abowd,GregoryD,andElizabethDMynatt).Theethicality

oftheadvancementsofubicompsystemsbecomesquestionablewhentheissueofprivacy

violationsaretakenintoaccount.Isitethicaltogoforthinsilentlytrackingtheworld,and

everyoneinit,throughtheprogressionofsuchsystems?Also,isitethicaltoforcesociety

intoanewworldoftechnologyinwhichitwillbeimpossibletounplug?Whentheprivacy,

securityandsafetyofusersareatrisk,theanswerisno.

Itcan,andmay,bearguedbymanythattheexpansionofubiquitouscomputingis

beneKicialtosocietyandthosewithinin.Itisvalidtostatethattherearemany

technologieswithintheubicompworldthathavebeen,orarebeing,developedthatare

beneKicialtosociety.Asimpleandcoreexampleofubicomptechnologiesareproductssuch

assmartphonesandtablets,oranyportablecomputingdeviceingeneral.These

technologieshaveproventheirworthinsocietywithmanybeneKicialmeansof

communicationandconnectiontoothers.Thereispotentialformorevaluableubicomp

technologiestobecreated.AnarticlewritteninTheEconomisttitled“Upclose,”toucheson

thepossibilitieswhenitcomestotheadvancementofubicomptechnologies.Anexample

usedisthegoalofSingaporetocreatetechnologiessuchas“telemedicine”wheredoctors

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Curieux;IssueIII

canmonitortheirpatients’healththroughin-homedevices,whichcouldprovetobe

extremelyeffectiveregardingtheefKiciencyofmedicalaidtopatientsinneed(“UpClose.”).

Onasmallerscale,anothertechnologymentionedinthearticleiscalledtheGolfscapeGPS

RangeKinderwhichallowsgolferstoviewadetailedpictureofthecoursetheyareplaying

throughtheirsmartphones(“UpClose.”).AsmentionedbyauthorPeterNowakinhisarticle

withinTheGlobeandMail,“AugmentedReality”willbecomeanimportanttechnology

withinubiquitouscomputing.AugmentedRealityeyewarecanbeusedinsituationssuchas

withthetheU.S.militaryinordertoallowsoldierstoviewwhattheiraerialdronesare

recording,additionallyhighlightinganddistinguishingbetweenenemiesandfellow

soldiers(Nowak).ThoughtherearemanybeneKicialprojectsonthewaythroughthe

progressionofubiquitouscomputing,theseproductshavetheirdangersanddownsides.

Forinstance,inanarticlewrittenbytheMITTechnologyReview,aprojectcalledProject

Oxygenischangingthefaceofubiquitouscomputingthroughitscreationofimpactful

ubicompproducts.OneproductinparticularistheCricketIndoorLocationSystemwhere,

throughacomplexsystemofwirelesstransmitters,otherdevicescanaccessone’sphysical

locationaswellasotherthingswithintheroomsuchasexits,orevenotherpeople

(Brown).Theuseoflocationtrackingcouldpotentiallybeextremelyusefulwhenitcomes

tocertainthingssuchastheFederalCommunicationsCommission’s“Enhanced911”

requirementswhichrequire95%ofsmartphonestohaveautomaticlocationdetection

(Brown).Nevertheless,theideaofubiquitouscomputingproductsbeingsoyoungand

sensor-basedisanextremelyprevalentthreattoprivacytoallhumansbeingsubjectedtoit.

Thereareusefulfunctionsofthesenewtechnologies,buttheriskstheycontainandtheir

abilitytotakeoverthelivesofallhumansoutweighthepros,unlessasolutioniscreatedto

preventtheissuesofubicompfromtakingover.

Ubiquitouscomputinghaspresentedamultitudeofpositiveandnegativepotential

effectsonsociety.Therearestepsthatcanbetakentopreventthenegativeaspectsofthe

developmentsofubicompproductsfromovertakingitspotentialbeneKits.Researchers

AbowdandMynatthavecomeupwithmultiplesolutionstomakethetransitionintoa

sensor-basedworldsmoother.Tinysensor-basedproductsthataretrackingallmovement

andactivityincertainspacesisadauntingideatomany.Torelievethefearthatcomes

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Curieux;IssueIII

alongwiththisinevitableadvancementintechnology,humansneedtobeawareofwhen

theyarebeingtrackedviainvisibilesensors.“Forexample,systemsthatsensephysical

phenomenaandcapturelivesituationsshouldprovideclearindicatorsthatthissensingor

recordingisoccurring,”(Abowd,GregoryD,andElizabethDMynatt).Additionally,those

beingsensoredshouldhavetheabilitytostoptherecordingtakingplaceinthespacethey

arein,orshouldbeabletohavecontroloverwheretheinformationisdistributedto

(Abowd,GregoryD,andElizabethDMynatt).Anotherpolicythatshouldbeenforced

regardingubicompproductsistherequirementofproperandextensivetestingand

researchthatneedstobeputintotheproductsbeforebeingputtousetoensurethe

securityofthetechnology.Thosewantingtohackintothesetechnologiesandretrieve

personalinformationshouldnotbeabletodoso.Iftheseregulationsareputinplace

throughthisageoftechnologicaladvancement,thefearwithinsocietyregardingubicomp

technologieswillbelessened,andtheproductswillbeabletobeusedtosociety’s

advantage.

�33

Curieux;IssueIII

That’sWhatSheSaid:HowTheOfKiceCanProvide

InvaluableInsightintoNPIIllusionsandLanguage

ComprehensionBy:AngelaWu

Thisseemstobehowmostpeoplefeelaboutgrammar(well,notexactly.Butyougetthe

idea).Perhapsthesefearsarewellgrounded.Giventhatitsacquisitionprocessislargely

unconscious,andit’ssuchacommonplacenecessitywithinourlives,weoftentake

languageforgranted.However,frommalapropismstoponderingtheusageofwhoever

versuswhomever,theAmericanversionofTheOfKiceprovidesviewersaunique—andmost

importantly,ahumorous—twistoncolloquiallanguage.Itisfrommomentslikethesethat

wecantrulyponderthemysteriouscomplexitiesthatpoweroureverydaylives.

Therulesbehindlanguageacquisitionandinterpretationareimmenselycomplex—so

muchsothatevenafterdecadesofintenseresearch,scientistshaveyettoKinda

comprehensivehypothesisandsolutiontothesubjectmatter.Yet,atthesametime,these

veryrulesaresimpleenoughformosthumaninfantswithdevelopingbrainstograsp

withintheKirstfewyearsoftheirlives.Despitetheambiguitybehindtheexactprocesses

thatoccurduringlanguageacquisitionandcomprehension,it’sobviousthat—onan

unconsciouslevel,atleast—humansarequiteproKicientatunderstandingandfollowing

theserules.

However,likeallmachinesandmechanisms,thehumanmindisnotinfallible.But

whethertheseerrorsareaccidentaloranactualmisunderstandingofgrammaticalrules,

languagescientiststakeagreatinterestinthesemistakes,astheycanprovideaninsightful

lookintothenutsandboltsoflanguagecomprehension.

SpeciKically,agrammaticalillusionreferstowhensomebodyinterpretsasentenceor

�34

Curieux;IssueIII

phrasedifferentlyfromthewaythesentenceorphraseismeanttobeunderstood,

primarilyfromone’sinitialcomprehensionofthesentencetoalater,morecareful

interpretationofthesamesentence.

Acommonoccurrenceofthisariseswithproblemsregardingsubject-verbagreement.For

example,whilemistakessuchas“thekeyhavebeenlost”maynotbeascommonlymade,

confusioninthesubject-verbrelationinmorecomplexsentencesmayresultinerrorssuch

as“thekeytotheof7iceshavebeenlost.”

However,whenitcomestogrammaticalillusions,subject-verbaccidentsareonlythetip

oftheiceberg.Amorefascinating—andfarmorecomplex—versionofgrammatical

illusionsoccurswithNPIs,ornegativepolarityitems.

AnNPIisanexpressionthatcanonlybeusedinnegativecontexts(orothersemantically

relatedcontexts,suchasconditionalphrasesorimperatives).Togiveanexample,whilethe

sentence“noonewouldeverbelievethat[Erin]wouldbeaboss”isacceptabletonative

speakersofEnglish,oncethenegativityispulledout,itisclearthatthenewphrase

“[someone]wouldeverbelievethat[Erin]wouldbeaboss”feelsalittlemoreiffy.

ForasentencewithanNPItobegrammatical,itmustbeproperlylicensed.Inother

words,theremustbesomewordorphrasethatsigniKiesthenegative(orconditional,

imperative,etc.)contextofthesentence.Inourpreviousexample,thewordthatindicates

thenegativecontextofthesentenceistheword“no.”This,ofcourse,isarelatively

commonplaceexample,butonceyoustartaddinginrelativeclausesandadditional

informationlikewedidinthephrase“thekeytotheof7iceshavebeenlost,”mixupsoccur,

andNPIillusionsmanifest.

AsituationinwhichanNPIillusionmayariseiswhenanNPIlicensorinsidearelative

clausedoesnotlicensetheusageofanNPIoutsideofthatclause.Takealook,forexample,

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Curieux;IssueIII

atthesentencebelow:

Thesalespeoplethatnomanagersofthepapercompanyinterviewedfortheassignment

haveeverdelayedanorder.

Thisisungrammatical,becausethelocationoftheNPIlicensor—theno—isplaced

insidetherelativeclause“thatnomanagersofthepapercompanyinterviewedforthe

assignment,”andthereforeisnotaproperlicensorfortheNPI,whichislocatedoutsideof

therelativeclause.Thiscanalsobeseenbysimplytakingtherelativeclauseout:thenew

sentence“thesalespeoplehaveeverdelayedanorder”greatlyresemblesourprevious

exampleaboutkeysinthatitisalsoequallyungrammatical.

Comparetheprevioussentence,then,tothefollowingexample,whichcontainstheNPI

licensoroutsideoftherelativeclause:

Nosalespeoplethatthemanagersofthepapercompanyinterviewedfortheassignment

haveeverdelayedanorder.

Withtherelativeclausetakenout,thesentencebecomes“nosalespeoplehaveever

delayedanorder.”Alittleoptimistic,perhaps,butthisismuchmoregrammatical!

Despitetheerrorintheoriginalsentence,numerousstudieshavefoundthatpeopletend

toacceptsuchunlicensedNPIsmoreoftenthantheyshould.Thereareseveralhypotheses

forthis.

Onesuchhypothesisisknownascue-basedretrieval,whichrelatestoahypothesisabout

howourbrainstoresandretrievesmemories.Forexample,assumesomebodyistryingto

storethestatement,“I’mnotsuperstitious,butIamalittlestitious”intotheirmemory(we

aremakingtheassumptionthatthereisnodistinctionbetweenshortandlongterm

memory).Thissentencewouldhavetobestoredbothwordbywordandalsobyits

grammaticalfeatures,bothofwhichwillhelptointerpretthemeaningofthesentence.For

�36

Curieux;IssueIII

example,thewordIwouldbestoredwiththefeaturesthatitisapronoun,thesubjectof

thesentence,issingular,andintheKirstperson.Whilereading,peoplegradually

comprehendtheindividualcomponentsofthesentence,andtheyareabletoreferbackto

thefeaturesofeachwordtounderstandthemeaningofthesentence.Forexample,when

somebodyhasreachedtheword“am,”theyareabletolookatthefeaturesofthisword(a

singularverbintheKirstperson),andlookforcorrespondingfeatures(therefore,looking

forasingularnounintheKirstpersonthatisthesubject)tounderstandwhoisdoingthe

owning—inthiscase,thatwordwouldbeI.Byusingthedifferentfeaturesofeachword,

peoplearetheoreticallyabletopiecetogetherthedifferentwordsofthesentencetofully

comprehenditsmeaning.

Throughthecue-basedretrievalhypothesis,peoplewouldreachanillusionwhenthey

comeuponpartialmatchestothecorrespondingtermsinasentence.Forexample,ifwe

returnbacktothesentence“thekeytotheofKiceshavebeenlost,”wecandeKinefeaturesof

everywordsothatweknowthat“key”isasingularnounthatisthesubjectofthesentence,

that“theofKices”isapluralizednounthatistheobject,and“have”isapluralizedverb.

However,aswearereadingthissentenceandcomeupontheword“have,”wereacha

problemaswegobackintoourmemorytoKindapluralizednounthatisthesubjectofthe

sentence—becausethereisnoonewordthatKitstheserequirements.While“key”maybe

thesubjectandanoun,and“theofKices”maybeapluralizednoun,neitherwordfully

matchestherequirementsoftheword“has;”rather,bothareconsideredtobea“partial

match.”Whensuchcasescomealong,peoplemayslowdown,butduetothepartial

matches,theymayfailtonoticethegrammaticalityerror.Itisnotuntilyoureachasentence

withnomatchesatall(suchas“thekeystotheofKiceshasbeenlost”)thatreadersaremore

consistentlyabletodetectthegrammaticalerror.

Inessence,fullmatchesallowfortheswiftestreadingswiththemostefKicientreading

times,failedmatches(nomatches)resultintheslowestreadingtimes,andpartialmatches

aresomewhereinbetweenthesetwo,becausesomeerrorsarenoticedwhileothersaren’t.

Thesepatternscanbedetectedthroughself-pacedreadingtests.Basedoffdatashowing

thatpeopleslowdownwhenreadingungrammaticalsentencesandnotasmuchwhenthe

�37

Curieux;IssueIII

sentencesaren’t,onecaninferthatpeopleslowdownwhentheynoticeungrammaticality;

theungrammaticalsentencesthattheydonotslowdownforcouldpotentiallyindicatethat

theerrorwasnotdetected.

Theaforementionedexamplesforcue-basedretrievallookparticularlyatsubject-verb

agreement,inwhichthepluralityoftheverbmustmatchthatofthesubject.However,NPIs

andtheirlicensorsdonotrequirethesamecriteriaassubjectsandtheirverbs.Now,the

questionbecomes:whatexactlydoweneedforanNPItobeproperlylicensed?

Someproponentsofthecue-basedretrievaltheoryarguethatnecessaryfeaturesfora

properlylicensedNPIisthepresenceofnegationandc-command.However,whilenegation

isastrongindicatorforapotentialNPI,NPIssuchasevercanbefoundinnumerous

contexts,notjustsentenceswithnegativity.Forexample,whilethequestion“wouldIever

leavethiscompany”containsaproperlylicensedNPI,eventhoughthereisnonegativity

impliedinthesentencewhatsoever.Thus,despitethefactthatnegativitycertainlyisa

plausiblecondition,itisnotcomprehensiveenoughtoapplytoalllicensedNPIs.

AnothersuggestedcriterionisthattheNPIlicensormustc-commandtheNPIitself.

Whilethistermsoundscomplexandintimidating,c-commandismerelyarelationshipthat

canbedrawnbetweenthenodesofasyntactictree,whichlinguistsusetostructurally

organizesentences.However,forcue-basedretrievaltowork,cuesmustbepropertiesofan

individualnode,andnotbetweentwo.However,sinceyoucannotassumethatanNPIwill

deKinitelyappearwhenyoucomeuponanNPIlicensor(e.g.justbecausethereisnegativity

inasentencedoesn’tmeanthattheremustbeanNPI),searchingforc-commandisalsonot

theoptimalwaytoidentifyNPIs.

Analternativehypothesistothenegationandc-commandcriteriaarguesthatNPI

licensorsneedtobedownwardentailing.Entailmentreferstowhenonestatement

necessarilyorlogicallyfollowsanotherstatement.Forexample,ifyouweretoassumethat

(a)“[Phyllis]calledeverygrocerystoreinScranton,andnoonesellswholepigs”istrue,then

youcanlogicallyreasonthatthestatement(b)“thegrocerystoreacrossDunderMif7lin’s

�38

Curieux;IssueIII

ScrantonBranchof7icedoesnotsellwholepigs”isalsotrue.Inotherwords,statement(a)

entailsstatement(b);however,sentence(b)doesnotentail(a),sinceyoucannotsaythat

justbecausethestoreacrossthestreetdoesn’tsellwholepigs,thatsurelyeverystore

doesn’tsellwholepigs.Thisformoflogicalreasoning,inwhichoneisabletomakemore

speciKicclaimsbasedoffofthevalidityofamoregenericclaim,isknownasdownward

entailment.

Now,however,ifyoutakenegationoutofsentences(a)and(b),youwillnoticethatthe

entailingrelationshipsbetweenthetwosentencesreverse.Now,whilethesentence(c)“the

storeacrosstheDunderMif7linsellwholepigs”entailsthesentence(d)“thereisastorein

Scrantonthatsellswholepigs,”sentence(d)doesnotentailsentence(c),sinceyoucannot

everknowforsurewhichspeciKicstoresinScrantondoordonotsellwholepigswithonly

theknowledgeprovidedinsentence(d).

DownwardentailmentisbelievedtobeakeyfactorinKindingproperlylicensedNPIs.In

returningtotheNPIever,weseethatthestatement“Idon’tthinkStanleyHudsonhasever

beenonjuryduty”isdownwardentailing,sinceyoucanlogicallyassumefromthevalidityof

thisstatementthatStanleywasnotapartoftheScrantonStranglercasethatco-worker

TobyFlendersonparticipatedin.However,withonlytheinformationprovidedinthis

sentence,youcannotassumethatStanleyhasneverbeentothecountycourt:perhapshe

popsinoccasionallytomakeanappealtotakepartinjuryduty.Theimplicational

constraintsbroughtonbythissentenceisaterriKicexampleofdownwardentailment.

Thegreatnessofthisentailmentphenomena,unfortunately,isovershadowedbyonegreat

Klaw:notallcontextsthatNPIsmayexistinaredownwardentailing.Takealookatthe

followingexample:

DoyouthinkAndywouldeverjumpoffanexplodingbuildingtiedtoahoseforme?

Thisquestionbynomeansisdownwardentailing,orentailingatall,forthatmatter.

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Curieux;IssueIII

Fromthisinquiry,youcannotlogicallydeduceamoregenericsituation,suchasthatAndy

hasneverjumpedoffanybuildingsever;norcanyoudeduceanythingmorespeciKic,such

asthatAndyoncejumpedoffanon-explodingbuildinginhisyouth.Yet,thereareno

grammaticalKlawsinthisquestion,andtheNPIisclearlylicensed.

Inaddition,downwardentailmentalsocannotbe“subbedin”toreplacenegationandc-

commandsasapotentialcueinthecue-basedretrievaltheory.Thereisnosingular

propertyinonewordthatcanmakeaphrasedownwardentailing—rather,downward

entailmentreferstologicalimplicationsthatarenotexplicitlystatedinasentence.

Therefore,whenreviewingthepropertiesofasentence,itwouldbehardtoKindaspeciKic

termthatdeKinesentailment,therebymakingdownwardentailmentunKitforcue-based

retrievalaswell.

So,intheend,afterourin-depthviewtowardsthefunctionandcomprehensionofNPIs,

wecansafelyreachseveralconclusions:whilebothserveasgrammaticalillusions,

sentencescontainingNPIsarehardertoworkaroundthanthosewithsubject-verb-

agreementerrors;thehumanmindprocessessentencesnotbystoringindividualwords,

butbystoringthegrammaticalcomponentsofeachwordthatcanbelaterretrievedto

comprehendthesentence;individualNPIscanbelicensedundernumerousconditionsand

contexts.And,mostimportantly,ofcourse,thatgrammargoesalongwayinhelpingto

expressaninKinitudeofideas.Whilemoreresearchisnecessarytoclearupsomequestions,

theimplicationsandKindingsofresearchintoNPIscertainlyallowustogainahugestride

forwardinunderstandinghowhumansacquireandprocesslanguage.

Or,asKellyKapoorwouldsay,“Youguys,I’mlikereallysmartnow.Youdon’teven

know.”

�40

Curieux;IssueIII

GrowingPains:ApophysitisinJuvenileAthletesBy:MayaHarris

Throughouttheyears,theworldofyouthathleticshasexperiencedasuddenandsharp

increaseincompetitiveness.Thismeanslengthenedactiveseasons,longerandmore

intensepractices,andultimatelyhigherstressonthebody.Sportsaretheleadingcauseof

injuryinchildrenandadolescents.Overuseistheleadingcauseofinjuryinmiddleschool

andhighschoolagedchildren.Foryoungathletes,overuseinjuriestotheapophysisare

overwhelminglycommonandcanaffectthewayinwhichtheypracticetheirsport.

ApophysitisdevelopsinchildrenbecausetheirsecondaryossiKicationcenter,wherethe

muscletendonisinsertedintothebone,isunabletohandlethedemandsplacedonitby

physicalactivity.Youngcompetitiveathletesarerepeatingthesamemotionspractically

everyday,whichdoesnotgivetheapophysistimetorecoverinbetweenworkouts.These

ailmentscausepainandswellingandcantargetvirtuallyanyareaofthebody.Inhighly

competitiveenvironmentssuchaschildrensports,itisnotuncommonfortheathleteto

attempttoignoretheirpendinginjury.Coachesandparentsoftentimesencouragethechild

to“pushthroughthepain”,whichleadstoprolongingofinjuryandevenworseningofthe

initialcondition.Theseyoungcompetitorsareespeciallyatriskforapophysitisdueto

errorsintechniqueandbodyabilities.Itisestimatedthatsportsinjuriesamongstchildren,

especiallythosewhicharecausedbyrepetitivetrauma,canbecutinhalfwithproper

educationandequipment.Inordertodecreasetheoccurrenceofinjuriestotheapophysis

inyouthathletes,propereducation,preventativemeasures,andtheseriousnessnatureof

theconditionmustbecommunicatedbythecoachesandtrainerstoparentsandathletes.

Withanyexposuretophysicalactivitycomesacertainthreatofinjury.Themorestress

theactionputsonthebody,thehighertheriskisforseriousphysicaltrauma.Asratesof

participationinhighlycompetitiveyouthathleticshaverisen,theoccurrenceofinjuryhas

skyrocketed.Themajorityoftheseyouthsportsinjuriesarecreditedtooveruseinjuries.

OveruseinjuriesaredeKinedasinjuriesthatoccurduetorepetitivesubmaximalloadingof

themusculoskeletalsystem(DiFiori).Unfortunately,thedemandsofhighlycompetitive

�41

Curieux;IssueIII

athleticsstressestheailmentrepetitivelywithoutpropertimeforthebodytoconductits

naturalrepairingprocess.Thetissuesadapttothestresswhichresultsinchronicpainuntil

theathleterestsfortheproperamountoftimetolettheinjuryfullyheal(Brenner).These

typesofinjuriescanbetriggeredbyavarietyofintrinsicfactorsincludingskeletalgrowth,

priorinjury,alignmentabnormalities,etc.Limitingerrorinextrinsicfactors(i.e.training,

technique,equipment)helptolessentheeffectoftheseveralintrinsicfactorswhich

threatenyoungathletesandareinmostcasesunavoidable.

Childhoodandadolescenceareperiodsofrapidgrowthbothphysicallyandmentallyfor

anyindividual.Whenanathleteispracticingforoversixteenhoursperweekyearround,

he/shebecomessubjecttomicrotraumaticdamagetoatendon,muscle,orbone.Whilethe

bonesgrowinlengthandthicknessandthemuscles,ligaments,andtendonsgrowstronger,

thegrowthcartilageofthethephysis,adjacenteithertoanapophysisoranepiphysisare

leftweakerincomparison.Foryounganddevelopingathletes,thephysicalstressplacedon

theirbodiesbytheirspeciKicpracticedsupportcausesthemtobeathighriskfor

developinginjuriesintheweakerlinksoftheirmusculoskeletalsystems.Overuseinjuries

developwhenathletesundergorepetitivemotionswhichcausecontinuousmicrotraumato

aspeciKicareaofthebodywithoutproperhealingtime.Fiftypercentofallyouthsport

injuriesarediagnosedasoveruseinjurieswhicharecausedbyovertrainingandinsufKicient

timeforrecovery(Gholve).ApophysitisisaspeciKiccategoryofoveruseinjurywhich

developsingrowingchildrenwhoparticipateinintensivephysicalactivityprograms.These

injuriestargettheapophysis,thesecondossiKicationcenterwhichservesasacorefor

growthandalocationfortheinsertionofamuscletendonintoabone.Dr.IraGelb,and

orthopedicassociateatPotomacValleyOrthopedicsdescribesapophysitisas“...typicallyan

overusesyndromeinkidsobviously.Itonlyoccursonachildwithopengrowthplates.It’s

typicallyanoverusesyndromebecausetheapophysisistheweaklink.It

isnotasstrongastheboneorthetendon.That’swhattendstogetinjured...”.Thetypical

pain,swelling,andinKlammationcharacterizedwiththeseacuteinjuriesisaresultofthe

developingandweakgrowthcenter’sinabilitytohandlethedemandsplacedonitby

physicalactivity.

Itisimperativetofullyunderstandthebiomechanicsanddemographicsofthesekindsof

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Curieux;IssueIII

overuseinjuries.Abiomechanicalanalysis“providesawaytoestimatetheforcesand

deformationsexperiencedbyvarioustissuesduringhumanmovement”(Hawkins).

Apophysitisandoveruseinjuriesingeneralmustbeanalyzedwithafocusonlimbinertial

properties,musclestrength,bone,ligament,andtendonproperties,externalloading

conditions,aswellashowthesefactorschangewithexerciseandage.Growthspurtsduring

pubertycanoftencausechangesintheratioofmusclestrengthtomusclemass,which

causesincreasedstressandstrainonthesofttissue.Averagemusclestrengthincreases

appropriatelytomatchchangesinlimbinertialpropertiesinthelongterm.Themuscle

groupsadaptquicklytomeetthedemandsplaceduponthembycompetitivesports.They

increaseinsizetogenerategreaterforce,whilethetendonsandapophysisadaptata

slowerrateinresponsetophysicalactivity.Tissuepreloadistheamountofforcesustained

byatissueinanormalandrelaxedstate(Mcnair).Thehigheratissue’spreload,thehigher

theacuteandchronicforcethattissuewillapplytoothertissues.Amuscle-tendonunitmay

experienceanincreasedpreloadifthebonegrowsfasterthanthemuscle-tendonunit.The

muscle-tendonunitsincreaseinlengthovertimeinordertorestoretheirpreferredpreload.

Duringvigoroussports,themuscle-tendonunitisinastretchedpositionwhich

increasesthetissuepreload.Thechronicstretchingandincreasingtissuepreloadwithout

properresttorestorethepreferredpreloadresultsinahighamountofforceonthe

tendonsandapophysis.Thiscausespainandswelling,whichpertainstoapophysitis.

Thesetypesofinjuriesareuniquetoyoungathletesand,asthesamemechanisms

causingmusclestrainsinadults.Oftentimes,thediagnosisofapophysitisisdelayed

becausemusclestrainsareKirstsuspected.Musclesandboneshealfasterinchildren,and

theyaremoreelastic.ImbalanceinstrengthandKlexibilityduringthepeakofgrowthis

responsibleforthehigherriskofinjuriesinadolescents.Suddenoverload,duetoexercise,

maycausethebonestobuckle.Apophysealinjuriesaremorecommonduringperiodsof

rapidgrowth.Periodsofrapidgrowthcausethegrowthcentertobecomethickerandmore

fragile.Alackofmineralizationresultsinmoreporousbones,whicharemoresusceptible

toinjury.Theseverityofinjurycanbeverydifferent,rangingfrompainintheapophysis

areatoavulsionofthesecondarygrowthcentre.“Youngathletesaremostatriskduring

forcefulandviolentcontractions,duetotheweaknessacrosstheunfusedapophyseal

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Curieux;IssueIII

growthplate”(Longo).Chronicapophysealinjuriescanoccurinpatientsundergoinglong

programsofintensivesporttraining.

Apophysitisisaversatilecategoryofoveruseinjurywhichcandevelopinseveral

differentareasofthebody.Differentapophysitisarecommonlyseenindistinctsports.

Sportsthatinvolverunningormorelikelytohaveahighpopulationofathleteswith

apophysitisofthelowerextremities.Whereas,sportsincorporatingthrowingorarm

movementshavehigherratesofapophysitisintheupperextremities.OsgoodSchlatteris

oneofthemostcommonandwellknownformofapophysitis.Thisformofinjurycauses

painoverthetibialtuberosityandistrademarkedbyabumpunderthekneecapcausedby

overcalciKication.Itisa“resultofatractionapophysitisoccurringatthetibialtuberosity

becauseofthepullofthequadricepsmusclegroupviathepatellatendon”(Wilson).Osgood

Schlattercorrelatestoarapidgrowthspurtandisnormallyseeninboysaged12-15and

girls8-13.Thepaincanbeinitiatedbyasingletraumaticeventorcontinuousoveruse.The

painmaybeexacerbatedbyrunningandjumpingorothermovementswhichstressthe

knee.Sinding-Larsen-JohanssonSyndromeisinKlammationofthepatellaatitslowestpoint

inthegrowthcenter.Thisinjuryisduetorepeatedstresscausedbyvigorousexercise.

Tractionislocatedinthisareaduetolargequadricepsandthedeepbendingoftheknee.Its

symptomsresemblethoseofOsgoodSchlatter,buttriggeredbylessvigorousactivity.Often

times,thissyndromecanbepresentalongwithOsgoodSchlatter,whichinmostcases

impairstheathleteforanextendedperiodoftime.Inextremecases,prolongmentofthis

syndromewithoutproperrehabilitationcancausecompleteseparationofthegrowth

plates(SindingLarsenJohanssonSyndrome).

ApophysitiscanpresentitselfinthefootintheformofIselin’sDisease.Sever’sDisease,

Calcanealapophysitis,isthemostcommonoveruseinjuryinchildrenandadolescents.Itis

characterizedbypaininthebackoftheheelworsenedbyrunningandjumping.For

apophysitisoftheheel,swellingismildorabsent.Iliacapophysitiscausespainintheiliac

crest,whichisthesiteofattachmentforabdominalmuscles.Thisconditioncausesthe

growthplatestobecomeinKlamedwhichcanresultinanavulsionfracture(Clancy).The

symptomsincludebeingswollen,warm,andtenderalongthepelviswhichisslowly

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Curieux;IssueIII

worsenedbyrunning,jumping,kicking,andtwistingmotions.Thisinjuryisoftencausedby

lackofstrengthorKlexibilityinthesurroundingregions.Pitchersandotherathleteswhogo

throughsimilarrepetitivemotionsaresusceptibletolittleleaguer’sshoulder,oracromial

apophysitis,whichtargetsthegrowthplates.Thismayleadtodeformity,chronicpain,and

disabilityintheelbow.

Forcertainformsofapophysitis,itispossibleforthepainandswelling,ifleftuntreated,

toprogressintoamoreseriousproblem.Therehavebeenreportsoffracturesand

dislocationsasaresultofimproperlytreatedapophysitis.Ina1980studypublishedbythe

JournalofBoneandJointSurgery,reportedaseriesoftibialtuberosityfractureswhich

requiredsurgicaltreatmentinpatientswhohadbeenpreviouslydiagnosedwithOsgood

Schlatter(Ogden).Acasestudydescribesan18yearoldathletewhowasdiagnosedwith

Iliacapophysitisandtreatedwithanti-inKlammatorydrugsandabriefrestingperiod.After

twoweeksoftreatment,thepatientself-reportedthathewaspainfree.Followinghis

releasefromtreatment,thepatientresumedphysicalactivityandsufferedadislocated

avulsionfractureoftheanteriorsuperioriliacspine.Thepatientwastreatedsurgicallyand

wasnotabletobearweightuntilseveralweeksaftertheprocedure(Pointinger).Inthe

casesofapophysitiswhichdevelopedfurtherinjury,thepatientsrestedforbriefperiodsof

timeandwerenotputintoaphysicaltherapyprogram.

DifferentRehabilitationandpreventivemethodshavedifferentdegreesofsuccesswhen

treatingapophysisinjuries.Manyphysiciansencourageapplyingicepriortophysical

activityandimmediatelyfollowingpracticeandgameswith20minuteintervalsalternating

betweenapplyingiceonandtakingitoff(Lyle).Dr.Gelbsuggestsicingbeforeandafter

physicalactivityaswellasanti-inKlammatorydrugs,likeAdvil,asneeded.Mostdoctorsare

hesitanttoimplementaphysicaltherapyprogram,regardlessofthereportedbeneKitsand

soothingofsymptomswhenKlexibilityandstrengthareimprovedinand/oraroundthe

areaoftheinjury(Clancy).Therehasbeenresearchconductedonamoreexperimental

approachindealingwithextremecasesofapophysitiswhichhavenotrespondedtothe

normalcourseoftreatment.Evidencetosuggestimplantingbonemorphogeneticproteins

mayassistwithhealingthetibialtuberosityapophysis(Sakou).Bonemorphogenetic

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Curieux;IssueIII

proteinsaresuggestedtostimulatecalciKicationandbonegrowth,whichintheorywould

helptolimitandimprovesymptomsofapophysitis.

Athletesareencouragedtoreturntotheirphysicalactivitywhenevertheyfeelready.

Theyshouldbeabletoparticipateintheirsportwithoutfearoffurtherinjuringtheir

apophysis.Incertaincases,manyyoungathleteswillfavorthealternatelimbwhichcan

causeinjury.Painshouldresolvetemporarilyafterrestperiods.Thepaincomesandgoesit

isjustamatterofhowmuchpaintheathletecanendure.Itcanbearguedthatapophysitis

canbetreatedandpreventedwithpropertechniqueandequipment.Researchhasbeen

conductedwhichprovesthatspecialheelorthoticsandproperrunningshoeswithraised

heelsupportareeffectiveinreducingpainforthosesufferingfromSever’sDisease(James).

Asfollowsforpreventingmostsportsrelatedinjuries,athletesshouldhavesufKicient

Klexibilityaswellasstrengthofthecore,arms,andlegs.

Ifparentsandathletesaremadeawarewhatapophysitisisandhowtotreat,aswellas

howtopreventthem,theirprominenceinyouthathleticsmaydecrease.Withoutthe

recurringpain,swelling,andimmobility,anathletewillbeabletoperformathis/her

potential.Thiswouldallowtheathletetoprogressfasterandmoreeffectiveintheir

training.Itisimperativethatathletesunderstandtheseriousnessoftheseinjuriesaswell

asthefactthattheycanoccurinalmosteverypartofthebody.Apophysitiscanbelimited

throughproperstrength,increasedKlexibility,andpropertechniqueandequipment.Pain

canbemanagedthroughperiodsoficeandrest.Athletessufferingfromapophysitismust

beabletoevaluatewhichtypeofpainismanageabletoplaythrough,andwhatpain

requiresresttotreat.

�46

Curieux;IssueIII

PartisanGerrymanderingBy:EishaAhmed

AsdeKined,partisangerrymanderingreferstothepracticeofdrawingpoliticaldistrictsina

waythatgivesonepartyasigniKicantadvantageoveranotherinanelection.Thesedistrict

boundariesareredrawneverytenyearsfollowingthefederalconsensus,usuallybythe

partyinpower(Mark&Gould,2017).Thisindicatesthatpoliticalpartiesareincontrolof

gerrymandering,signifyingthatbothDemocratsandRepublicansbeneKitfromthispractice.

Byskillfullyredrawingelectoraldistricts,politicalpartiescandisenfranchisetheir

opposition,ensuringthattheirvotesdonotcount.Theconstitutionalityofthispracticeis

oftencalledintoquestion.Whiletheconstitutionalityofpartisangerrymanderingmaybe

debatable,thereisnoconstitutionallydiscerniblebasisfordecidingwhetheradistrictisan

illegalpartisangerrymander(Beckett2011).Partisangerrymanderingdilutesthevoiceof

minoritypopulationsindistrictswherefairandconstitutionalmethodscouldhavebeen

appliedinnonpartisanratherthanpoliticallymanipulatedmeans.

ThewordgerrymanderwasusedfortheKirsttimeintheBostonGazetteintheyear1812.

ThewordwascreatedinreactiontoaredrawingofMassachusettsstateSenateelection

districtsunderGovernorElbridgeGerry,whomthispracticewasnamedafter.In1812,

GovernorGerrysignedabillthatredistrictedMassachusettstobeneKithisDemocratic-

RepublicanParty.Whenmapped,oneofthecontorteddistrictsintheBostonareawassaid

toresembletheshapeofasalamander,andhencegerrymanderisaportmanteauofthe

governor’slastnameandthewordsalamander.Thisisastarkcontrasttoproportional-

electionsystems.Inproportional-electionsystems,politicalpartiesarerepresentedin

proportiontothetotalnumbersofvotestheyreceive.Thissystemisusedincountriessuch

asAustralia,theUnitedKingdomandCanada.Concerningtheutilizationofsuchsystems,

gerrymanderinghaslittletonosigniKicanceregardingtheeffectsofthemanipulationof

votersanddistrictshapes.

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Curieux;IssueIII

Theimplementationofpartisangerrymanderingdilutesthevoiceofminoritypopulations

withinadistrict.Thepoliticalpartiesinchargeoftheredistrictingprocessdividedistricts

withinastatetoensurethattheyhaveapoliticaladvantageoveranopposingpolitical

party.AsthepurposeofpartisangerrymanderingistobeneKitthesepoliticalpartiesin

charge,gerrymanderingisusedto,“tominimize,cancelout,ordilutethevotingstrengthof

minoritypopulations”(Seltzer,2017).Minoritypopulations,suchasaDemocraticminority

inaRepublicanmajoritydistrictorviceversa,wouldthenbeunabletobeaccuratelyand

fairlyrepresentedintheirowndistricts.Politicalpartiesinchargeofgerrymanderingare

mostnotablefortakingadvantageof“thewastedvoteeffect.Bymovinggeographic

boundaries,theincumbentpartypacksoppositionvotersintoafewdistrictstheywill

alreadywin,wastingthoseextravotes”(Kolaneci,2015).Thevotesoftheseminority

populationsarewastedagainstthoseofthemajoritypopulations,denyingthese

populationsequalrepresentation.Asthesepopulationsareunfairlyrepresentedintheir

district,minoritypopulationswouldthenbelesslikelytosuccessfullypushforpoliciesor

agendasintheirfavor.

Theprocessofgerrymanderingisdonebyusingvariousmethodstodividedistrictsthat

wouldfavorthepoliticalpartyincharge.Themethodsincludepacking,cracking,

kidnappingandhijacking.Perhapsthemostutilizedmethod,packingconcernscrowding

votersintoonlyahandfulofdistricts.Typically,thepartyinchargecrowdsthevotersofthe

opposingpartyintoasingledistrict.Indoingthis,thevotersoftheopposingpoliticalparty

winbyamuchlargermarginthantheyneedtowinthatonedistrict(Klarreich,2017).By

placingthesemembersoftheopposingpoliticalpartyinahandfulofdistrictsinhigh

numbers,theyincreasethevotersoftheirownpartyelsewhereandreducetheinKluenceof

theopposingparty.(Kolaneci,2015)Tomostaccuratelysumupthismethod,packing

concentratesmembersofagroupinasingledistrict,therebyallowingtheirownpartyto

wintheremainderofthedistricts.

Inadditiontothis,therearevariousdifferentformsofgerrymanderingthatseektoskew

anelectiontowardsacertainpoliticalpartyoranother.Alesscontroversialformof

gerrymanderingincludessweetheartgerrymandering.Usingthistypeofgerrymandering,

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Curieux;IssueIII

thepeopleinchargeofdrawingthedistrictlinestacitlyagreetodrawdistrictlinesto

ensurethatincumbentsofbothpartieswinreelection(Holden,2007).Onthecontrary,

racialgerrymanderingishighlycontroversialandconsideredunconstitutionalbythe

SupremeCourt.Racialgerrymanderingreferstotheintentional,nottheaccidental,

segregationofvotersonthebasisofrace.Thismethodofgerrymanderingdistrictsisthe

deliberateandarbitrarydistortionofdistrictboundariesforracialpurposes(Mark,2017).

TheEqualProtectionClauseofthe14thAmendmentprotectsagainstthistypeof

gerrymandering.Partisangerrymanderingisaformofgerrymanderingwhichaidseither

onepoliticalpartyoranother.Thistypeofgerrymanderingoccurswhenthepartyin

controloftheredistrictingprocessdrawsthedistrictlinestomaximizethepoweroftheir

ownparty(Holden,2007).

Crackingisanotherpopularmethodtomaximizetheeffectofthevotesofthesupporting

partyandtominimizetheeffectofthevotesofthatoftheopposingparty.Themainidea

behindcrackingdistrictsistodilutethevoiceofpopulationswhichthepartyischargedoes

notwanttoberepresented.Incracking,theremainingsupportersoftheopposingpolitical

partyorpartyrepresentativearespreadacrossmanydistricts,wheretheywon’tgatherthe

amountofvotesneededtowin.Crackingessentiallysplitsthisblocamongmultiple

districts,soastodilutetheirimpactandtopreventthemfromconstitutingamajority

(RedistrictingtheNation,2009).Thisprocessisgenerallyusedincombinationwith

packing,asitmaximizesthechanceofapoliticalpartytogainthemajorityvotesacross

multipledistricts.

Hijackingandkidnappingaremethodsofgerrymanderingthatdonotconcernwiththe

manipulationofvotersacrossdistricts,butrathertheplacementoftheincumbentsthat

representthem.Hijackingisamethodofgerrymanderingthataimstoredrawdistrictsina

waythatforcetwoincumbentstobeinthesamedistricttogether.Thesetwoincumbents

areusuallyofthesameopposingpoliticalparty.Byplacingthisincumbentinanother

district,theywillhaveanotherincumbenttocontendwith(Pierce,2011).Indoingso,one

oftheincumbentswouldhavetolosetheirpositionasincumbent,whichwouldthenallow

forthepartyinchargeofthehijackingtoKillintheemptyposition.Kidnappingaimsto

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Curieux;IssueIII

moveareaswhereacertainelectedofKicialhassigniKicantsupporttoanotherdistrict.This

methodofgerrymanderingseparatesanincumbentcandidatefromhisconstituentsand

placeshimorherinadistrictwhereheorshehasnonamerecognition.(Idle2014)In

usingthismethod,thosewhodrawdistrictlines,“cutoffpopularsupportfroman

incumbent,transferringthesevotestothenewdistrictandinsodoing,makeitdifKicultfor

anincumbenttowinfutureelectionswiththenewelectorate”(Kiprop,2017).Asthe

incumbentlosestheirsupportfrompreviousvotersintheirlastdistrict,anopposing

politicalpartycanalienatethem,causingthemtolosere-election.Thepurposeofthese

methodsofgerrymanderingistomaximizetheeffectofsupporters’votesandtominimize

theeffectofopponents’votes.

Aspartisangerrymanderingfavorsasinglepoliticalpartyoveranother,thereisnotan

accuraterepresentationofthevotingeligiblepopulationforstateswhoexcessively

gerrymandertheirdistricts.Duetothelackofaccuraterepresentation,“politicallydriven

redistrictingweakensthequalityofrepresentativegovernment”(Olson,2016).Thisis

becausethevotersthenhavelittlechoiceofwhomtheirrepresentativewillbeiftheirvotes

becomewastedduetothepoliticalmakeupintheirdistrictasaresultofgerrymandering.

AndsoinsteadofasysteminwhichvoterspickpublicofKicials,theimplementationof

partisangerrymanderingallowspublicofKicialstopicktheirvoters,thusweakeningthe

qualityofarepresentativegovernment.

Gerrymanderingservesasapossiblecauseofbothpartypolarizationandelectoralbiasin

theUnitedStates.Thisisduetothefactthatpartisangerrymanderingconcernswinning

safeseatsinordertomaximizetheirchancesofcontinuingtobethepartyinchargewithin

astate.Itisreportedthat,“bystufKingminority-partyvotersintoasmallnumberof

districts,gerrymandershelppolarizepolitics”(Olson,2016).Whilecontroversial,thisclaim

ismadeonthebasisthatasstatesareaccuratelyrepresented,thelegislaturewouldthen

alsonotaccuratelyrepresentthepopulationoftheirstate,resultinginamorepolarized

legislaturethanthereshouldbe.Theadverseeffectsofpartisangerrymanderingismade

apparent.Howeveritisalsoimportanttonotethat,”[w]henadistrictismeanttocorral

membersofonepartytheonlymeaningfulcompetitionwillcomeintheprimary,andthe

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Curieux;IssueIII

chiefpoliticalpressureonincumbentsmaybetoavoidcomingacrossastoomoderatefor

fearofattractingaprimarychallenge”(Pierce,2011).Thisclearlyshowsthatpoliticians

activelyseektopolarizepoliticsinordertogainmoresafeseatsfortheirpoliticalpartyas

tocontinuetomaintaincontrolofthestatestheypresent.

Theeffectofgerrymanderingonlegislatureisstillheavilydebated,withsomeclaimingthat

gerrymanderingitselfhasnoapparentimpactongainsinthelegislativebranchofthe

government.Theselegislativegainsincludetheincreasedincumbencyrateofthoseinthe

legislativebranch.Theselegislativegainsareinsteadattributedtonaturalpoliticalchanges

andeventhetypicalspreadofthepopulation.Onthecontrary,gerrymanderingisthought

tohavecausedanincreaseinthereelectionratefromincumbentsinlegislature,butthis

claimhasbeendifKiculttoproveusingcomputersimulations.Manystudieshavefoundthis

hasmuchpredictivepoweronelectoraloutcomes,andeventhatmovementsinthis

variableovertimehavecontributedtowardstheincreaseinthereelectionrate,suchas

JohnN.Friedmaninhisstudyoftheimpactofgerrymanderingonlegislativegains

(Friedman,1999).Friedmanthengoesontorefutethisclaimusingcomputersimulations.

HisKindingsareshocking,toboththegeneralconsensusandhimself.Heconcludesinhis

paperthatgerrymanderingdoesnotplayamajorroleintheincreasedincumbent

reelectionrate,butrathermakesitlesslikelyforanincumbenttobereelected(Friedman,

1999).Theresultsoftheimpactofgerrymanderingonlegislativegainsareinconclusive

duetothevarietyofclaimsregardingitsimpact.Overall,moreresearchneedstobedoneto

makeaconcreteclaimregardingtheeffectofgerrymanderingonlegislation.

Amajorconcernregardingthepracticeofgerrymanderingisitsconstitutionality.The

implementationofeitherpartisanorraciallymotivatedgerrymanderinghasthepotential

tobeunconstitutional.Clausesintheconstitutionmayhelptoprovethatthepracticeof

gerrymanderingisillegalorunconstitutional.MorespeciKically,theDueProcessclausein

theKifthamendmentandtheclausesinthe14thamendmentgiveriseforalegitimate

argumentagainstthepracticeofgerrymandering.InanarticlebyGoldman,hestatesthat

parties,“whochallengepartisangerrymanderingcouchtheirargumentsintermsofthe

DueProcessandEqualProtectionClausesofthe14thAmendment.Somecommentators

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Curieux;IssueIII

alsohavesuggestedthatpartisangerrymanderingviolatestheFirstAmendment

”(Goldman2017).Inadditiontothis,Article1,Clause2,Section3oftheConstitutionstates

thataconsensusmustbetakeneverytenyearstoensurethattherepresentationin

Congressisproportionaltothatofthepopulation.(Bajwa,2018)Partisangerrymandering

doesnotensureproportionalrepresentationofthepopulationwithmembersofCongress,

asthevoicesofmembersofcertainpoliticalpartiesaredilutedwithintheirownstates.

Insteadofdrawingdistrictlineseveryconsensustoensurethatthepopulationis

proportionallyrepresentedinCongress;itisinsteadusedtohelppoliticalpartiesstayin

power.TheseclausesfromtheConstitutionwouldthenhelpprovideconstitutionalproof

thatpartisangerrymanderingviolatespeople’srightstoequalrepresentationintheir

districtsandwiththeirrepresentatives.

ThecaseagainstgerrymanderinginthestateofWisconsinmayhelpdeterminethefuture

oftheconstitutionalityofgerrymandering.In2011,thestateofWisconsin,whichis

presentlycontrolledbyRepublicans,redrewitsdistrictmapinawaythatheavilyfavored

theGOPthatwasincharge.Theiruseofpartisangerrymanderingwaschallengedby

Democratsonthebasisofbeingunconstitutional.TheDistrictCourtfortheWestern

DistrictofWisconsinstruckdowntheRepublicans’newmap.WisconsinRepublicanstook

thecase,“allthewaytotheUSSupremeCourtin2015,andisaskingtheCourttooverturn

thedecisionmadebytheDistrictCourt”(Kennedy,2017).Thiscaseprovides,“an

opportunitytoformallydetermineametriconwhatconstitutesunlawfulgerrymandering,

whichcouldhavemajorimplicationsforthewayvotingdistrictsaredrawninother

states”(Kennedy,2017).InaninterviewwithChrisAiden,itwasmentionedthatthiscase,

“wouldessentiallydeterminetheuseofgerrymanderingandtheusesofgerrymandering

throughouttheUnitedStatesand...wouldessentiallysolvedisputesandcontroversies

nationalityinregardstobothgerrymandereddistrictsanditsapplication”(Aiden).

Theresultsofthiscasewouldhelpdeterminethefutureofpartisangerrymandering,and

possiblyevensetastandardforthepracticeofgerrymanderingastoincreaseandtighten

regulationsonitspractice.

�52

Curieux;IssueIII

Unfortunately,itisdifKiculttogaugewhetherornotadistricthasbeenunconstitutionally

gerrymanderedbyapoliticalpartyasmethodsofdeterminingwhetherornotadistrictis

gerrymanderedinamannerthatispoliticallyorraciallymotivatedhavebeensettoavery

highstandard,orratherextremelyvaguestandards.Anypre-existingcriterionfor

determiningifagerrymandereddistrictwasunconstitutionallydonesoisundetermined

andisfartooambiguousforcourtstocometoaclearconsensusofwhatexactlyconstitutes

asanillegallygerrymandereddistrict.Gerrymandereddistrictsaretypicallynotcalledout

fortheshapeoftheirdistrictsarethereexists,““nomajorityforanysinglecriterionof

impermissiblegerrymander”(Grofman2007).Partisansymmetryistypicallyconsideredto

bethemainstandardofdeterminingifadistricthasbeenillegallyoroverly

gerrymandered.Usingsymmetryisespeciallyusefulas,“Essentially,symmetryrequires

thataspeciKicshareofthepopularvotewouldtranslateintothesamenumberof

congressionalseats,regardlessofwhichpartywonthatshareofthevote”(McGann,2017).

Becauseofthis,alackofpartisansymmetryisasureKiresignofpartisangerrymanderingas

itcannotbeeasilyhidden.However,concretestandardsfordeterminingwhetherornota

districthasbeenunconstitutionallygerrymandereddonotexist,andinordertoprevent

futureoccurrencesofillegalgerrymanderingaconcretestandardfordeterminingthismust

besetbythecourts.

Therearevariousmethodsofdeterminingtheunconstitutionalityofadistrict,manyof

whicharenotsetasthestandardfordeterminingunconstitutionalgerrymanderingbythe

courts.Somestatesrequirethattheirdistrictsbecompactandcontiguous,meaningthat

theyhavemoreorlessregularshapesandthatallpartsofthedistrictaregeographically

connected.Thisisnot,however,explicitlyembodiedinfederallaw(Entin,2017).Inorder

torectifythis,thecourtsneedtodeterminepossiblegeneralcriterionforidentifying

gerrymandereddistricts,suchascompactness.Bydeterminingwhatpossiblecriterion

couldbeusedtodeterminewhichdistrictsaregerrymanderedunconstitutionality,the

courtswouldbeabletousethatstandardtoidentifygerrymandereddistrictsmoreeasily

andreadilytostates.

�53

Curieux;IssueIII

Inordertorectifytheunfairadvantageofasinglepoliticalpartybytheprocessof

gerrymandering,nonpartisanmethodsshouldbeappliedtodrawfairandconstitutional

districtboundaries.Theimplementationofgerrymanderinganddrawingdistrictlinesis

donesobythepoliticalpartyinchargeofthatstate.Asthatpartyisincontrolofdrawing

thesedistrictlines,itisunlikelythattheywilllosetheirpositionasthepoliticalpartyof

thatspeciKicstateastheyhavetheabilitymanipulatedistrictlinestofavortheirpartyover

theopposing.Thecourtsandstaterepresentativeswouldthenhavetobeconvincedin

ordertointroducelegislationtosetrestrictionsontheuseofgerrymandering.Inorderto

obtainequalrepresentationintheirstate,votersmustconvincetheirrepresentatives.Inhis

article,JayMillerarguesthatgerrymanderingistheclauseforpoliticalpolarization.In

ordertopushforreformsongerrymanderinghestates:

“Theonlysolutionisforvoterstodemandachange.Lobbyinglegislatorsonthe

subject,ofcourse,representsonemethodofdoingso.Holdinganadvisory

referendum,however,couldprovetobeamoreeffectivealternative.Ifa

substantialmajorityvotedinfavorofwrestingcontroloftheredistrictingprocess

fromelectedofKicials,itwouldbehardforthemtoignore(Miller2016).

Millerpresentsanargumentthat,inlargenumbers,voterscaninKluencelegislation.In

orderforthistohappen,votersneedtobeknowledgeableonthesubject.Bybeing

knowledgeableonthesubjectofgerrymandering,voterscouldpushtheirrepresentatives

forreformstobeplacedonthepracticeofgerrymandering.Iftheydemandedachange,

thesevoterscouldpushtheirdistrictorstaterepresentativesforequalrepresentation.

Aspreviouslymentioned,concreteandmeasurablestandardsongerrymanderingneedto

beappliedtodistrictsinordertoavoidbeingunconstitutional.Nonpartisanmethods

shouldbeappliedtodrawfairandconstitutionaldistrictboundaries.Somestatesrequire

thattheirdistrictsbecompactandcontiguous,meaningthattheyhavemoreorlessregular

shapesandthatallpartsofthedistrictaregeographicallyconnected(Entin,2017).

Contingencyreferstoadistrictinwhichitsshapeisbothsingleandunbroken.Andmore

oftenthannot,though,compactnessisill-deKinedbythe"IknowitwhenIseeit"standard.

�54

Curieux;IssueIII

Geographers,mathematiciansandpoliticalscientistshavedevisedcountlessmeasuresof

compactness,eachrepresentingadifferentconception(RedistrictingtheNation).A

partisansymmetrytestwouldexplorewhetheronepartyhastogetmorevotesthanthe

otherpartyinordertowinthesamenumberofseats(Goldman2017).Partisansymmetry

demandsthateveryvoterreceivesthesamestrengthofrepresentation,regardlessofwhich

partytheyvotefor,requiringthateachpartyhaveanequalopportunitytoconvertitsvotes

intoseats.(McGann2017)Thesymmetrytestwouldmakesurethatminoritypopulations

andopposingpoliticalpartiesareequallyandfairlyrepresentedbyboththeirstatesand

theirrepresentatives.

TheinKluenceofpoliticiansandpoliticalpartiesontheprocessofdrawingdistricts

evidentlygrantsthemwithunfairpartisangainsduringelections.Thepracticeofpartisan

gerrymanderingdiminishesthevoiceofthepopulationsinoppositiontothatofthe

politicalpartyinpower.Thisprovidesaninaccurateindicationoftheideology,otherwise

knownasthepoliticalviewpoint,ofthegeneralpopulationwithinadistrictorastate.In

extremecasesofexcessivegerrymandering,thispracticeisatriskofbeinglabeledas

unconstitutional.However,therenoconstitutionallydiscernablebasisfordecidingwhether

thegerrymanderingimplementedinadistrictinunconstitutional.Theremovalofpolitical

partiesandpoliticiansfromtheprocessofgerrymanderingisapossiblesolutionto

counteracttheunfairpartisangainsthatresultfromincorporatingpoliticalpartiesintothis

procedure.Thissystemshouldbereplacedbynonpartisanmethods,excludingthepolitical

parties.Byimplementingnonpartisanmeans,districtscanbedrawninafairand

constitutionalmanner.

�55

Curieux;IssueIII

RepresentingWarThroughTensionintheVietnam

VeteransMemorialBy:NanditaNaik

Section1:Introduction

TheVietnamVeteransMemorialconsistsoftwointersecting,reKlectivegranitewalls

intendedtomemorializeandhonorliveslostintheVietnamWar.Thewallsareetchedwith

thenamesoffallenveteransinchronologicalorder.WhentheVietnamVeteransMemorial

wasKirstunveiled,itwasmetwithcontroversy.Criticsheldthatitrepresentedthewar

negatively.Theynoticedthatthewallinvertedcommonmemorialtendenciesofthe

NationalMall--blackinsteadofwhite,undergroundinsteadofaboveground.Thesecritics

connectedthesedesignelementstonegativefeelings--blackfor“shame,”undergroundfor

“dishonor.”Fromthis,theydrewtheconclusionthatthememorialwasantiwar(Savage

276).OthersheldthatthereKlectiveblackwallswere“toofeminine,”ortoodisconnected

fromhumanity,or“tooAsian”(Lin).Inotherwords,criticsfoundthewaythememorial

representedwartobeinherentlyproblematic.Now,thousandsofpeopletravelfromall

overtheworldtolaygiftsatthesiteofthememorial.Theworldhasreconcileditselfwith

howtheVietnamVeteransMemorialrepresentswar.Ratherthanthinkofthememorial’s

meaningashavingchangedovertime,wemightaskthequestion,howdoesexperiencing

thememorialaddtoaviewer’sunderstandingofwar?Thispaperarguesthatinthe

VietnamVeteransMemorial,theseemingtensionbetweenitsmirroredblackwallsandthe

engravednamesendsupbecomingcohesivetotheviewer--inotherwords,theseemingly

competingrepresentationsworktogethertocommunicateacohesivepictureofwar.

Section1.2:Introductiontoekphrasisandrepresentationalfriction

IfweapproachthisquestionbyconsideringtheVietnamVeteransMemorialtobe

ekphrastic,thenweareabletoanalyzetherelationshipbetweenthemirroredsurfaceand

�56

Curieux;IssueIII

theengravednames.InhisbookMuseumofWords:ThePoeticsofEkphrasisfromHomer

toAshbery,JamesHeffernandeKinesekphrasticpoetryas“theverbalrepresentationofa

visualrepresentation,”inwhichthereexistsrepresentationalfrictionbetweentheverbal

andvisualmediums.(Heffernan5)Wecanconsiderthenamesandthemirroredsurfaceto

betworepresentationsoftheVietnamWar.AnalyzingtheVietnamVeteransMemorialasan

ekphrasticpoemitselfallowsustodrawconclusionsabouthowtensioncanbeusedto

representwar.Takingacloserlookatthememorial,wediscoverthatthewordsandthe

imagearenotstrugglingovertheviewer’sattention--rather,totheviewer,thisseeming

tensionisresolved.Theviewer’sexperience,then,consistsofresolvingthis

representationalfrictionintoacohesivepictureofwar.

Section2:ExplainingEkphrasis

Section2.1:Heffernan’sTheoryandTension

BeforeweanalyzetheVietnamVeteransMemorialasekphrasis,weneedtogetahandle

onekphrasisanditshallmarktrait,tension.Essentially,ekphrasisisahybridizedform

whichrepresentsinwordswhatisalreadyrepresentedbyanimage.HeffernandeKinesthis

representationalfrictionascharacterizedbyaconKlictbetweentwomodesof

understanding:thevisualandtheverbal.HeassertsthatifwedeKinenarrationasthe

portrayalofpeopleorcreaturesinmovementanddescriptionasthepeopleorcreaturesin

stasis,thenekphrasiswouldmainlysatisfydescriptionovernarration.However,Heffernan

goesontostatethat:“Ifekphrasis‘frustratesnarrativemovement’...,itisanythingbut

submissive.Itistheunrulyantagonistofnarrative,theornamentaldigressionthatrefuses

tobemerelyornamental.”(Heffernan5).Inotherwords,ekphrasiscontainstheproperties

ofnarrationandsoontheboundariesseparatingnarrationanddescriptiondissolve.Then

hemakesthecasethateither:“narrationordescriptionpredominatesinaparticular

passage...”(Heffernan5).

Thisraisesaquestion:doesanekphrasticworktendtowardsthequalitiesofwords(like

�57

Curieux;IssueIII

narration)orthequalitiesofimages(likedescription)?Orcanitsatisfyboth?Heffernan

extendsthistoaconKlictbetweenvisualandverbalart:“becauseitverballyrepresents

visualart,ekphrasisstagesacontestbetweenrivalmodesofrepresentation:betweenthe

drivingforceofthenarratingwordandthestubbornresistanceoftheKixed

image.”(Heffernan5).Heffernandrawstheconclusionthatinekphrasticpoetry,eitherthe

visualorverbalartpredominatesandtheorderinwhichweperceivethemmatters.This

summaryofHeffernan’stheoryleavescertainquestionsunanswered.CentraltoHeffernan’s

theoryistheassumptionthatthechronologicalorderofcreationmatters:Kirsttheimage

happens,andthenthepoem.Whathappensifthesetwoekphrasticcomponentsarecreated

atthesameinstant?WhatdoesthisdototheconKlictbetweennarrationanddescription?

Thispaperwillexplorewhathappenswhenthewordsandimagewerecreatedatthesame

timeandvisuallyinterrupteachother.

Section2.2:Historicalusesofekphrasis

Sinceitsconception,ekphrasticpoetryhascontainedsomeversionofrepresentational

friction.IntheeighteenthchapteroftheIliad,HomerdescribesHephaestusforgingthe

shieldofAchilles,theearliestknownexampleofekphrasis.Achilles’sshieldwasan

instrumentdesignedforwar.ItisengravedwithpicturesoftheMycenaeansengagingin

everydayactivities:weddings,harvesting,singing,dancing.Homerdescribesploughmen

workingaKield:“Theearthdarkenedbehindthemandlookedlikeearththathasbeen

ploughed/thoughitwasgold”(Lattimore18.548-49).AsHeffernanhaspointedout,by

underscoringthedifferencesbetweentheshielditselfandwhatitistryingtorepresent,

Homerbringsourattentiontotherepresentationalfrictioninherentinhiswords

(Heffernan19).Inotherwords,thedifferencesbetweentheactualsceneryintheshieldand

thepicturescarvedinmetalseemtobeinconKlictfortheperceiver’seyes.Homerreminds

usthatheisrepresentingrepresentation.Eveninoneoftheearliestexamplesofekphrasis,

thisfrictionbetweentherepresentedandthemediumofrepresentationispresent.

�58

Curieux;IssueIII

DescribingthecreationofAchilles’sshieldcarriestheimplicationthattheshieldwillbe

usedlateron,bringingthoughtsofviolenceandwartomind.AsHeffernannotes,Homer

dealswiththetopicofrepresentingwarthroughthisrepresentationalfriction.When

Homerdescribeswhatisrepresentedontheshield,hementionsthedeathsofshepherdsby

thehandsofthesoldiersinanambush.Inanarrativepassage,thesoldiersaresaidtoKight

“likelivingmortals”(Lattimore539).Bydrawingourattentiontoacarvedsoldier’slackof

mortality,thebattlenarrativecontains“theonlyclearsignalthattheKiguresrepresentedin

wordsbeforeusarewroughtofmetal,notmadeofKlesh”(Heffernan19).Thismethodof

usingrepresentationalfrictioninparallelwithconnotationsofwarhaspersistedsince

Homer’stime.

Section3:ApplyingEkphrasistotheMemorial

InthecaseoftheVietnamVeteransMemorial,thepoemwouldbethenamesofthe

fallenengravedintothewall,whiletheartwouldbethereKlectivesurfaceshowingthe

viewer.

WhilethenamesatKirstglancemightnotseemlikepoetry,acloserlookrevealshowthey

KitHeffernan’sdeKinitionofnotionalekphrasis.EkphrasisischaracterizedbyaconKlict

betweenthewriter’spenandtheartist’simage.Thisrepresentationalfrictionhappens

whenthepen’spowerofnarrativemeetsthevisualimageandacknowledgesthe

differencesinhowtheyrepresentthereferent.Inthiscase,thetensionmightbeinthatthe

viewer’sattentionwaversbetweenthetwomediums.Heffernansuggeststhatthewords

andtheimagesareinconKlictfortheviewer’sattention.Inotherwords,consideringthe

memorialasapieceofekphrasisleadsustoregardthetensionbetweenthewallsandthe

namesonthewallsasabattlefordominance.

Sincethevisualartisessentialforthereadertounderstandtheverbalart,theremustbe

somethingwithinthevisualartthatisnotintheverbalartandviceversa.Inotherwords,

theremustbesomethingwithintheartwhichisnotdepictedinthewords.Whileitmay

seemthatthemirrorandengravingscompetewitheachotherfortheviewer’sattention,

�59

Curieux;IssueIII

whichisamisreadingofHeffernan’stheory,theyactuallyrelyoneachothertoprovidea

completepicture.ThiswasstatedastheintentbythedesignerMayaLin.

WecanwitnesstheinteractionbetweenthenamesandthewallthroughanalyzingYusuf

Komunyakaa’s1958ekphrasticpoem“FacingIt”aboutvisitingtheVietnamVeterans

Memorial.Komunyakaabeginswithdescribingthemirrorpartofthememorial,andhow

hisfacefadesandblendsinwiththegranite.HisreKlectionisclouded.Wegetthesensethat

thenarratorhasadistinctreasonforbeingthere,tiedtomemoriesandapastwhichhas

notbeenforgotten.Thenarratorblendsinwiththememorial--inthispoem,heis

essentiallydeKinedbyhispast.Hethenswitchestodescribingthenames:

Igodownthe58,022names,

half-expectingtoKind

myowninletterslikesmoke.

ItouchthenameAndrewJohnson;

Iseetheboobytrap’swhiteKlash.

Namesshimmeronawoman’sblouse

butwhenshewalksaway

thenamesstayonthewall.(Line14-21)

Inthispoem,thenamesandthereKlectivesurfaceseemtocompeteforKomunyakaa’s

attention.ThisisadifferenttypeofrepresentationalfrictionthanHomer’s--inhere,the

conKlictisbetweentwosubjectswhichthepoetisobserving.However,notethatboth

indirectlyrepresentthehumanlives--thereKlectivesurfaceshowshumanlivesinmotion

aroundKomunyakaa,whilethenamesrepresentliveslostinthewar.Byacknowledgingthe

frictionbetweenthesetwoforms,Komunyakaasetsapoeticmoodoftensiontoconveyhis

feelingstowardsvisitingtheVietnamVeteransmemorial.Evenwhendescribing

contemporarymemorials,thelanguageofekphrasisinvolvesrepresentationalfrictionto

conveyfeelingstowardswar.

The‘conKlict’withinthispoemisessentiallybetweenthenamesandthemirror.Which

�60

Curieux;IssueIII

takesprecedence?WhichonecapturesKomunyakaa’sattention,whichonehasthe

potentialtohaunthismemoryfordaystocome?Onthesurface,itseemslikethemirroris

depictingsomethingtotallydifferent,like“awoman’sblouse”.“BrushstrokesKlash,ared

bird’swingscuttingacrossmystare.”Themirrorseemsunrelated,adistraction.Inaddition,

thenamesinterruptthevisualimage.Theyareetchedrightintothemirroredstone.

Focusingonthewordsmeanslosingtrackofwhatthemirrorisshowingyou.Komunyakaa

alsodescribesconfusionbetweenthetwomodesofrepresentation.Whatappearstobe

happeninginthemirrorsometimesblursoverandseemstobeaffectingthecarvings.

He’slosthisrightarm

Insidethestone.Intheblackmirror

awoman’stryingtoerasenames:

No,she’sbrushingaboy’shair.(Lines28-29)

Ifweusethesimplereading,thenwecouldsaythatthenamestrytodistracttheviewer

fromwhatisseeninthemirror.However,rememberwhatweestablishedatKirst?The

namescontainsomethingthatthemirrordoesnot,andviceversa.Thenamesarestatic.

They‘stayonthewall.’Throughthisstaticness,thenamesrepresentthememoryofthe

fallen.Thepoetseesordinarythingshappentothenameslikeawomanwalkingby,andthe

namesseemtobeartheillusionofmotion.AlsonoticethateverytimeKomunyakaavisits

thewall,heislikelytoseeadifferentimageinthemirroredwall,becausethepresent

movesonwhilethepaststandsstill.However,thepermanenceofthenamesoutlivesallof

theeventswhichthepoemdescribesthemirrorportraying.Rightnow,wehavethepower

ofmotionwhiletheveteranswhosenamesareonthewallmuststaymotionless.This

bringsustoaplaceofreKlectionwhenconsideringwar,insteadofaglory-centered

monument.Asmanyhavesaidbeforeme,thepastisthekeytounderstandingthepresent.

Weneedtokeepthememoryofthefalleninthepresent.ThisiswhytheVietnamWar

Memorialwasbuilt.Inordertounderstandwhatthemirroristellingus,thepresent,we

Kirstneedtokeepthememoryofthefalleninthepresent,withus.Thememorialsendsa

messagethroughthecompositionofbothmediums.Thereforeweconcludethatbothforms

ofartareessentialtocomprehendingtheother.

�61

Curieux;IssueIII

4.ConsideringtheViewer’sPerspective

Thusfarthispaperhasarguedthatintheviewer’sexperience,thenamesandthe

reKlectivewallcollaboratetocommunicatearepresentationofwar.Thisraisesanimportant

question:whyisitimportanttoconsidertheviewer’sexperience?

AsKirkSavagecontends,therepresentationalfrictionbetweenthenamesonthe

wallandthereKlectiveobsidiansurfaceismostkeenlyfeltbytheviewer,whosefocusshifts

betweenthetextualnamesandthereKlectionsbehindthewall.Duringtheexperience,the

viewersarebroughtclosetothewall,which“magniKiestheirrolebymakingtheirown

reKlectioninthewallstandoutamidthenamesandthesceneryaroundthem”(Savage

273).Inthisway,thenamesonthewallandthereKlectionsofeverythingaroundthemseem

tocompetefortheviewer’sattention.ThisissimilartoHomer’suseoffrictionwhen

describingAchilles’sshield,whichremindsusduringanarrativethathischaractersare

madeofmetal.Therepresentationalfrictioninthememorial“wouldremind[theviewers]

thattheirownthoughtsandreactionswereasmuchthesubjectmatterofthememorialas

thesoldiersbeingcommended”(273).Inthisway,eachindividualviewercreatestheir

moralunderstandingofthememorial.ThisconKlictbetweenthenamesandthemirrored

imageiswhatgiveseachviewertheirownpersonalversionofcomprehendingthewar.

Also,everyvisitingexperienceisunique,sincethereKlectivesurfaceisconstantlychanging.

4.1.MayaLinandtheViewer’sPerspective

MayaLin,thearchitectoftheVietnamVeteransmemorial,alsoemphasizedthe

importanceoftheviewer’sperspective,indocumentsaccompanyingthedesignofthe

memorial.Linstatesthatmemorialsshouldbe“honestabouttherealityofwar,aboutthe

lossoflifeinwar,andaboutthepeoplewhohadservedandespeciallythosewhohad

died”(Lin).Manyscholarsholdthatthememorialissetupto“puttheburdenofcreating

meaningonthevisitorratherthanthemonument”(Savage21).Iftheperceiversare

intendedtocreatemeaning,whatmeaningshavetheycomeupwithinthepast?Withthis

�62

Curieux;IssueIII

anecdotalevidenceinmind,wecandrawtheconclusionthatintheeyesofmanyviewers,

theekphrasticpoemandtheimagedonotappearasdisjoint,competingentities.Instead,

theyseemtoworktogethertoprovideamorecohesiveviewofthereferent.

Aswecanseefromthecontroversysurroundingherdesign,Lin’sideaforwhata

memorialshoulddowasvastlydifferentfromtraditionalmonumentality.Herdivergence

fromtraditionwasmostextremeinthatthememorialdidnotattempttoconveyany

message—instead,themessageshouldbediscoveredbytheviewer.Otherscholarshave

alsonoticedthatwhenitcomestotheVietnamVeteransmemorial,themeaningiscreated

bytheviewer’sexperienceratherthandeterminedbyauthorialintent.Theideaof

individualizingeachexperienceispartofthe“minimalismapproach,circulatingintheart

worldsincethe1960s,oflocatingmeaningnotintheobjectitselfbutintheviewer’s

experienceofit”(Savage273).Thisalsomeansthateachinterpretationofthememorial

dependsontheindividual’spersonalconnectiontothemonument,andthatourexperience

“thenbecomesthereferencepointforan(ofteninternal)dialoguewithwhatwephysically

encounter”(Williams6).WhenanalyzingLin’smemorial,theperspectiveofthevieweris

crucialtoconsider,asitdeKinesthemeaningwedraw.

Section5:ConcludingThoughts

ThroughconsideringtheVietnamVeteransMemorialasanekphrasticpiece,and

analyzing“FacingIt”,we’veconcludedthatfromtheviewer’sperspective,thenamesand

themirroredgranitewall,seeminglyincompetition,worktogethertocommunicatea

cohesivepictureofwar.Thetension,farfromdistractingfromthemessage,isessentialto

theviewer’scomprehension.ThisservestocomplicateHeffernan’stheorybyclarifying

wherethetensionlies.Italsogivesusaninsightintothememorialitself.Byputtingthe

wallandthenames,whicharerepresentingdifferenttimes,inharmony,thewallletsus

keepthememoryofthefallenwithusinthepresent.

ThepurposeoftheVietnamWallMemorial,andperhapseventhepurposeofrecording

�63

Curieux;IssueIII

warthroughpoetry,issimplytorememberthewarandkeepitwithusinthepresent.

Throughthecompositionofbothmediums,itremindsustonotforgetthepastbuttolivein

thepresent.Thearchitecturealsofocusesonagroupofpeopleratherthananindividual.

ThiscontrastswithothermemorialsliketheLincolnMemorial,whichislocatedveryclose

by.TheLincolnMemorialconsistsofastatueofAbrahamLincoln.IntheVietnamMemorial,

therearemanynamesonthewallandmorearebeingaddedeveryday.Thefocusisnoton

asingleperson;rather,aviewerwouldobserveamoresweepingviewoftheeffectthatwar

hasonlives.

Thereisanadditionalcomplicationsurroundingthecircumstancesofthepiece.Duringa

war,everybodyknowsaboutthecarnage.Buttheeventsrightafterarealittlemore

ambiguous,becauseafterawarwehavethisneedtorememberwhathappened.Wedothis

throughmemorials,whichiswheretheVietnamWallcomesin.Whenwerepresentawar,

wearerepresentingtheveteransaswellastheevents.Manyveterans,likeKomunyakaa,

areprofoundlyaffectedbythewar:somehaveshellshockafterwards,andeveniftheydon’t

theyareconnectedtothewarbecausemanypeopletheyknowhavepassedawaybecause

ofit.

Duringawar,falseinformationisoftenpassedaroundtomisleadtheenemy.

Misrepresentationhappensafter,too:andithasmoralimplicationsbecauseitcanleadtoa

false,orwhitewashed,viewofthewar.Thememorialissupposedtorepresentsomething

whichisinherentlyincomprehensibleandriskytorepresent.Apossiblenextsteptothis

paperwouldbetoconsiderthesemoralimplicationsinconjunctionwiththisekphrastic

piece.Fornow,wecanseehowthismethodofhavingtwomodesofrepresentationwork

togethercanbeappliedtohelpuscomprehendtheincomprehensible,likebeauty,orinthe

caseoftheVietnamMemorialWall,death.

�64

Curieux;IssueIII

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