Culture, Community, Nation, STUART HALL

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Culture, community, nationStuart Hall

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• A R T I C L E S

C U L T U R E C O M M U N I T Y

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h o u g h I w a s n e v e r t a u g h t b y R a y m o n d W i l l ia m s , a n d w o r k e d

T w i t h h i m o n l y i n a n i n f o r m a l c a p a c i t y f r o m t im e t o t im e , h e h a d a

m a j o r i n f lu e n c e o n m y i n te l le c tu a l a n d p o l i t ic a l f o r m a t i o n . 1 W e

m e t i n O x f o r d i n t h e m i d 1 9 5 0 s - h e a s a l e c t u r e r i n a d u l t

e d u c a t i o n w h i l e I w a s a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d , l a te r , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t . A t ak e y m o m e n t in th e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f ir st N e w L e f t, so m e o f us r e a d Cultureand Society i n d r a f t; a n d i t h e l p e d t o g i v e a d e c is iv e s h a p e t o t h e c o n c e r n w i t h

c u l t u r a l p o l it ic s w h i c h h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e t h i n k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o f a n

i n d e p e n d e n t c r it ic a l N e w L e f t e v e r s in c e . T h e r e a f t e r , o u r p a t h s c r o s s e d

c o n t i n u a l ly - o n t h e B o a r d o f N ew Lef t Review w h i c h I e d i t e d f o r a ti m e ; i n

t h e d r a f t i n g o f th e M ay Day M anifesto; e v e r y w h e r e i n th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

C u l t u r a l S t u d i es , w i t h w h i c h I w a s d i re c tl y c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e B i rm i n g -

h a m C e n t re f r o m 1 9 6 4 o n w a r d s ; a n d i n a n g u i s h e d c o n v e r sa t io n i n t h e

e i g h ti e s, a s w e a ll tr i e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s t o m a k e s e n s e o f t h e d i s o r i e n t a t i o n

o f t h e l ef t u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f T h a t c h e r i s m a n d t h e f o r c e s it u n l e a sh e d , u n t i lh i s u n t i m e l y d e a t h i n 1 9 8 8 .

A s I h a v e t r i e d t o s a y e l s e w h e r e , th i s is t o p u t h i s f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e t o o

w e a k l y . I d i d n o t , o f c o u r se , a lw a y s a g r ee w i t h h i m ; a n d n o t h i n g w a s m o r e

f o r e i g n t o h i s d i a l o g i c m o d e o f t h i n k i n g t h a n a n y h i n t o f d i s c i p l e s h i p .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s I p u t i t, t h e f a c t is t h a t , i n a b r o a d e r i n t e l l e c t u a l s e n s e , I

o f t e n h a d , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s in m y l if e, th e u n c a n n y e x p e r i e n c e o f h e s i t a n t l y

a n d c o n f u s e d l y b e g i n n i n g a l i n e o f t h o u g h t , o n l y t o f in d t h a t , a p p a r e n t l y

c o i n c id e n t a ll y , R a y m o n d h a d n o t o n l y b e e n t ra v e l l i n g m u c h t h e s a m e r o a d

b u t h a d g i v e n it a c l e ar e r , m o r e f o r c e f u l, c la r i fy i n g f o r m u l a t i o n t h a n I e v e rc o u l d ( H a l l, 1 9 9 3 : 3 0 5 ) .

T h e r e w a s a n o t h e r e l ec ti v e a f f in i t y w h i c h m a d e m e fe e l c l o se t o h i m ,

d e s p i te o u r e n o r m o u s d i ff e re n c es in te m p e r a m e n t , c h a r a c te r , b a c k g r o u n d ,

49


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a g es , g e n e r a t i o n a n d f o r m a t i o n : o u r r e s p o n s e s a s s c h o l a r s h ip b o y s f r o m t h e

p e r i p h e r i e s o f E n g l i s h c u l t u r e t o o u r f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s

w h i c h w e r e a t i ts v e r y c e n t r e a s a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l s y s t e m : O x b r i d g e . I s ti ll

r e ca ll t h e s h o c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h I e x p e r i e n c e d o n r e a d i n g h is r e s p o n s e

t o h i s i n t e r v i e w e r s q u e s t i o n s i n Politics and Letters a b o u t t h e im p a c t o f

C a m b r i d g e o n h i m w h e n h e f ir st w e n t u p i n O c t o b e r 1 9 3 9 : I w a s , h e s a id ,

w h o l l y u n p r e p a r e d f o r i t . I k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t i t ( 1 9 7 9 : 4 0 ). A s h e la t er

w r o t e i n M y C a m b r i d g e : I t w a s n o t m y C a m b r i d g e . T h a t w a s c le a r f r o m

t h e b e g i n n i n g . . . I h a v e n o w s p e n t 1 8 y e a rs i n t h e u n i v e rs i ty i n t h re e d i s ti n c t

p e r i o d s . I n e a c h o f t h e m I h a v e s t a r t e d b y b e i n g s u r p r i s e d t o b e t h e r e a n d

t h e n , i n ti m e , m a d e s o m e k i n d o f s e tt l e m e n t . B u t th i s h a s a l w a y s , e v e n in t h e

l o n g es t p e r io d , fe lt t e m p o r a r y . . . C a m b r i d g e c an b r e a k y o u u p , t o n o g o o d

p u r p o s e ; c o n f u s e y o u , s ic k e n y o u , w r i n g y o u d r y ( 1 9 8 9 b : 5 ) . H a v i n g s p e n t

s ix y e a r s i n O x f o r d , I t h o u g h t I k n e w i m m e d i a t e l y w h a t h e m e a n t .

W h a t w a s e v e n m o r e S t ri kin g w a s t h e c o n f id e n c e w i t h w h i c h R a y m o n d

W i l l i a m s w a s a b le to m e a s u r e t h e s o - ca l l e d c i v il iz a t i o n o f C a m b r i d g ea g a i n s t a n o t h e r c iv i li ty , a n o t h e r s e t o f s t a n d a r d s , d r a w n f r o m h i s e x p e r i e n c e

o f a n a l te r n a ti v e , a n d d i ff e re n t , k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y - h is W e l sh B o r d e r

C o u n t r y - a g a in s t w h i c h h e f o u n d C a m b r i d g e s ad ly w a n t i n g :

I w a s r e m i n d e d o f a c o n v e r s a t i o n m y f a t h e r h a d r e p o r t e d t o m e f r o m h i s

a d v a n c e v i s it [t o T r i n i ty ] . T h e p o r t e r h a d a s k e d h i m , r a t h e r h a u g h t i ly ,

w h e t h e r m y n a m e w a s a l re a d y d o w n , Y e s , s in c e l as t a u t u m n . L a s t

a u t u m n ? M a n y o f th e m , y o u k n o w , a re p u t d o w n a t b ir th . I tr y to b e

c h a r i t a b l e a n d f i n d i t e a s ie r n o w . B u t I r e m e m b e r s i tt in g o n t h e b e n c h e s i n

h a l l s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e se p e o p l e a n d w i s h i n g th e y had b e e n p u t d o w n a tb i r t h . . . . T h e m y t h o f t h e w o r k i n g -c l as s b o y a r r i v i n g a t C a m b r i d g e . . . i s

t h a t h e is a n a w k w a r d m i s f it a n d h a s t o le a r n n e w m a n n e r s . I t m a y d e p e n d

o n w h e r e y o u c o m e f r o m . O u t o f r u r a l W a l es i t d i d n t f e el l ik e t h a t. T h e

c la ss w h i c h h a s d o m i n a t e d C a m b r i d g e is g iv e n to d e s c r ib i n g i t se lf a s

w e l l - m a n n e r e d a n d p o l i te , s e n s it iv e . I t c o n t i n u a l l y c o n t r a s t s i ts e lf f a v o u r -

a b l y w i t h t h e r o u g h e r a n d c o a r s e r o t h e r s . W h e n i t t u r n s t o t h e a r t s i t

c o n g r a t u l a t e s i ts e l f o v e r t l y o n i ts t a s t e a n d i ts s e n s i b i li ty ; s p e a k s o f it s

p o i s e a n d t o n e . I f I t h e n s ay t h a t w h a t I f o u n d w a s a n e x t r a o r d in a r i ly

c o a r s e , p u s h i n g , n a m e - r i d d e n g r o u p , I s h a l l b e t o l d I a m s h o w i n gc l a ss - fe e l in g , c l a ss e n v y , c la s s r e s e n t m e n t . T h a t I s h o w e d c la s s fe e l in g is

n o t i n a n y d o u b t . A l l I w o u l d i n si st o n is t h a t n o b o d y f o r t u n a t e e n o u g h t o

g r o w u p i n a g o o d h o m e in a g e n u i n e l y w e l l - m a n n e r e d a n d s en s it iv e

c o m m u n i t y , c o u l d fo r a m o m e n t en v y th e s e l o u d , c o m p e t i t iv e , d e p r i v e d

p e o p l e . A ll I d i d n o t k n o w t h e n w a s h o w c o l d t h a t c la ss is . T h a t c o m e s

w i t h e x p e r i e n c e ( 1 9 8 9 b : 7 - 8 ) .

W h a t m a d e R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s c a p a b l e o f, a s h e p u t i t l at er , h i t t i n g

C a m b r i d g e a n d b e i n g e x t ra o r d i n a r i l y u n a f r a i d o f i t ? I t w a s h is p l a c in g

w i t h i n a n o t h e r c u l tu r e ; h i s a cc es s t o a d i ff e re n t , k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y ,i n d e e d a n o t h e r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , a d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e o f f ee l in g . T h o u g h

s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a n d d i s p la c e d in it s p e r i p h e r a l r e l a t io n s h i p t o t h e d o m i n a n t

E n g l is h c u l t u r e , a n d w i t h t h e c u l t u re o f t h e e d u c a t e d , m e t r o p o l i t a n , u p p e r

35 CULTU RAL STUDIES


1 4



m i d d l e c la ss es , th is o t h e r k n o w a b l e c o m m u n i t y p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h ce r ta i n

c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , w h i c h e n a b l e d h i m t o l iv e a n d f ee l, a n d l a te r t o w r i t e a n d

t h i n k , a c c o r d i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t g r a i n f r o m t h a t o f C a m b r i d g e . I t w a s t h i s , i n

t u r n , w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e w a y h e t h o u g h t a b o u t , a n d g a v e a n e x p e r ie n t i a l,

l iv e d , d i m e n s i o n t o , s u c h k e y i d ea s a s c u l t u re a n d c o m m u n i t y , a n d

i n d e e d W a l e s as a n a t i o n a n d b e i n g W e l s h a s a c u l t u r a l id e n t i t y , w h e n la t e r

h e c a m e t o r e f l e c t o n t h i s c l u s t e r o f c o n c e p t s . I t i s t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d

l i m i t a t i o n s o f h is i d e as o n t h e s e s u b je c t s , a n d t h e i r v a l u e i n h e l p i n g u s t o

t h i n k t h r o u g h t h e c o m p l e x i t ie s o f t h e se f o r m a t i o n s n o w , i n t h e v e r y a lt e re d

c o n t e x t o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s a n d b e y o n d , w h i c h f o r m s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h es e

r e f le c t io n s . B u t t h e s to r y p r o p e r l y s t a rt s h e r e , w i t h t h e i d e a o f a k n o w a b l e

c o m m u n i t y i n t h e W e l s h b o r d e r c o u n t r y o f h is e a rl y y e a r s, a n d h o w i t g a v e

r is e t o a n d i n f o r m e d h i s t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k . A s h e s a id , r e c a l li n g th e w a y t h e

W e l sh w r it er , E m y r H u m p h r e y s , o n c e i n t ro d u c e d a r e a d in g f r o m W i ll ia m s

n o v e l : n o t Border Country b y R a y m o n d W i l li am s , b u t Raym ond Wil liams

b y B o r d e r C o u n t r y .I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f c u l t u r e , i n t h e f a m o u s c h a p t e r o n T h e a n a ly s i s o f

c u l t u r e i n The Long R evolution h is p a t h b r e a k i n g a t t e m p t t o b r e a k w i t h t h e

l i te r a r y - m o r a l d i s c o u r s e o f Culture and Society i n t o a m o r e s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t

o f g en e r a l th e o r iz i n g , th e k e y c o n c e p t u a l m o v e h e m a k e s i s f r o m a n a b s t r a c t

d e f i n i t i o n o f c u l t u r e - a s t a te o r p r o c e s s o f h u m a n p e r f e c t i o n - t o c u l t u r e a s

a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f l if e w h i c h e x p r e s s e s c e rt a in m e a n i n g s

a n d v a l u e s , n o t o n l y i n a r t a n d l e a r n i n g , b u t i n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o r d i n a r y

b e h a v i o u r . C u l t u r e , h e in s i st e d , w i t h h i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic i n f le c t io n o n o u r

c o m m o n l if e , is o r d i n a r y . T h e a n a l y si s o f c u l t u r e , f r o m s u c h a d e f in i t io n ,h e a r g u e d , i s t h e c la r i fi c a ti o n o f t h e m e a n i n g s a n d v a l u e s im p l i ci t a n d

e x p l i c i t i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f li fe , a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c h e r e i s

n o t o n l y t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m a b s t ra c t i d e a l t o c o n c r e t e , f r o m t e x t s to t h e i r

c o n t e x t s o f i n s t i tu t i o n a l li f e a n d o r d i n a r y b e h a v i o u r ; b u t a ls o th e b r e a k i n g

d o w n o f a rt if ic i al d i s t in c t i o n s b e t w e e n a r t a n d l i te r a t u r e - t h e s ig n i fi e rs o f

c u l t u r e i n t h e f ir st , a s i t w e r e C a m b r i d g e s e n se - a n d w h a t h e c a ll e d t h e

g e n e r a l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e a r t is t h e r e , a s a n a c ti v it y , w i t h t h e

p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t r a d i n g , t h e p o l i t i c s , t h e r a i s i n g o f f a m i l i e s . T o s t u d y t h e

r e l a t io n s a d e q u a t e l y w e m u s t s t u d y t h e m a c ti v e ly , s e e in g a ll t h e a c ti v it ie s a s

p a r t i c u l a r a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s o f h u m a n e n e r g y ( 1 9 6 1 : 6 1 ).

L a t e r h e w a s t o i n s is t t h a t t h e m o r e s p e c i a li z e d fo r m s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s o f

w h a t C a m b r i d g e k n e w a s l i t e r a tu r e w e r e m o s t v a l u ab l y to b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f w r i t i n g , a l l r e l a te d i n d i f f e re n t w a y s a n d f o r m s to w i d e r

s t r u c tu r e s o f f e el in g , th e w a y m e a n i n g s a n d v a lu e s w e r e lived i n r e a l l i ve s , i n

a c t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e m o s t d i ff ic u l t t h i n g t o g e t h o l d o f , i n s t u d y i n g a n y

p a s t p e r i o d is th i s fe l t se n s e o f t h e q u a l i ty o f l if e a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e a n d

t i m e ; a se n s e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e p a r t i c u l a r a c t iv i t i e s c o m b i n e d i n t o a

w a y o f t h i n k i n g a n d l i v i n g . . . I t h i n k w e c a n b e s t u n d e r s t a n d t h is if w e t h i n k

o f a n y s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s o f a w a y o f l if e t h a t w e o u r s e l v e s s h a r e . ( 1 9 6 1 : 8 0 )H e c a ll e d t h is m o s t d e li c a te a n d le a s t t a n g i b l e o f s t r u c t u r e s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

f e e li n g o f a p e r i o d . E d w a r d S a id , t h e 1 9 8 9 W i l li a m s M e m o r i a l le c t u r e r,

t h o u g h t th i s c o n c e p t , w h i c h e n a b l e d h i m t o m o v e b e y o n d t h e t h e id e o l o g ic a l

CULTURE COMMUNITY NATION 351


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c a p t u r e o f t h e t e x t in t o t h e li fe o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s b e y o n d it , h is m o s t f a m o u s

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o l i t e r a r y s t u d y ( 1 9 9 0 ).

I n c i d en t a l ly , f e w p e o p l e k n o w t h a t o n e o f th e f i rs t, c o n s i d e r e d f o r m u l a t i o n s

o f th i s c e n t r a l i d e a in W i l l i a m s s w o r k f i rs t a p p e a r e d i n a l it tl e b o o k e n t i t l e d

Preface To Film w h i c h h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d ( in 1 9 5 4) w i t h M i c h a e l

O r r o m , a fi l m d i re c t or w h o w o r k e d w i t h P au l R o t h a a n d w h o m R a y m o n d

m e t a t C a m b r i d g e :

A l l t h e p ro d u c t s o f a c o m m u n i t y in a g i ve n p e r i o d a r e, w e n o w c o m m o n l y

b e l ie v e , e s s e n t i a ll y r e l a te d , a l t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e a n d i n d e t a i l th i s i s n o t

a l w a y s e a s y t o s e e. I n t h e s t u d y o f a p e r io d , w e m a y b e a b le t o r e c o n s t r u c t

w i t h m o r e o r l es s a c c u r a c y th e m a t e r i a l l i fe , t h e g e n e r a l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n

a n d , t o a l a rg e r e x t e n t , t h e d o m i n a n t i d e a s . I t is n o t n e c e s s a r y to d i s c u s s h e r e

w h i c h , i f a n y , o f th e s e a s p ec t s is , i n t h e w h o l e c o m p l e x , d e t e r m i n i n g . . .

B u t w h i l e w e m a y , i n t h e s tu d y o f a p a s t p e r i o d , s e p a r a t e o u t p a r t i c u l a r

a s p e c t s o f l if e, a n d t r e a t t h e m a s i f t h e y w e r e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d , it is o b v i o u s t h a t

t h i s i s o n l y h o w t h e y m a y b e s t u d i e d , n o t h o w t h e y a r e e x p e r i e n c e d

(1954: 9 ) .

E v e n w h e n , i n The L ong Revolu tion h i s r a t h e r o r g a n i c i s t s t re s s o n c u l t u r e

a s a w h o l e w a y o f l if e m o v e s i n a m o r e d i a lo g i c d i r e c ti o n , t o a n e m p h a s i s o n

t h e g i v i n g a n d t a k i n g o f m e a n i n g s w i t h i n a s e t o f l i v e d r e l a t i o n s , t h i s n e w

e m p h a s i s o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n is i m m e d i a t e l y l in k e d b a c k t o a n d in f o r m s t h e

i d ea o f c o m m u n i t y :

H u m a n c o m m u n i t y g r ow s b y t h e d is c o ve ry o f c o m m o n m e a n in g s a n d

c o m m o n m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t io n . . . T h u s o u r d e sc r i pt io n s o f o u re x p e r i e n c e c o m e to c o m p o s e a n e t w o r k o f re l a t io n s h i p s , a n d a l l o u r

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g th e a r ts , a r e l i te r a ll y p a r ts o f o u r s o c ia l

o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e s e l e c t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n v o l v e d i n o u r d e s c r i p -

t io n s e m b o d y o u r a t t it u d e s , n e e d s a n d i n te r es t s, w h i c h w e s e e k t o v a l i d a t e

b y m a k i n g t h e m c l e a r t o o t h e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s w e

r e c ei v e f r o m o t h e r s e m b o d y t h e i r a t ti t u d e s, n e e d s a n d i n te r e st s , a n d t h e

l o n g p r o c e s s o f c o m p a r i s o n a n d i n t e r a c t i o n i s o u r v i t a l a s s o c i a t i v e l i f e .

S i n c e o u r w a y o f s e e i n g t h i n g s is l i te r a l l y o u r w a y s o f l iv i n g, t h e p r o c e s s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s i n f a c t t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m m u n i t y : t h e s h a r i n g o fc o m m o n m e a n i n g s , a n d t h e n c e c o m m o n a c t i v i t i e s a n d p u r p o s e s ; t h e

o f f e r i n g , r e c e p t i o n a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f n e w m e a n i n g s , l e a d i n g t o t h e

t e n s io n s a n d a c h i e v e m e n t s o f g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e ( 1 9 6 1 : 1 0).

T h e o r e t i c a l ly , W i l li a m s s f o r m u l a t i o n s g r e w o v e r t h e y e a r s in b o t h c o m -

p l e x it y a n d c o n f i d e n c e - M arxism and Literature is a p o w e r f u l l y c o n d e n s e d

s t a t e m e n t o f h is m o r e m a t u r e r e f le c t io n s o n t h e s e to p i cs . B u t th e e m p h a s e s

w e h a v e i d e n t i fi e d i n t h e e a r ly w o r k r e m a i n a c t i v e t o t h e e n d .

W h a t d o e s h i s d i ff i c u lt w r e s t l i n g w i t h t h e s e q u e s t i o n s o f c u lt u r e ,

c o m m u n i t y , s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t it y h a v e to t e ll u s n o w i nt h e m o r e h i g h l y c h a r g e d e r a o f r e v i v e d n a t i o n a l i s m s i n b i g a n d s m a l l

s o c ie t ie s , a n d t h e a s p i r a t io n s o f m a r g i n a l i z e d p e o p le s t o n a t i o n h o o d , w h i c h

h a v e b e c o m e s o u n e x p e c t e d l y a f e a t u r e o f t h e l a t e - m o d e r n w o r l d o f t h e

35 CULTU RAL STUDIES


1 4



1990s a nd a r e tr ans f o r m i ng t he cu l t u r a l li fe o f mo de r n i t y? H o w us e fu l a r et hey i n he l p i ng u s t o dec i ph e r t he unp r ed i c t ed r e t u r n o f na t i ona l i s m as a

ma j o r h i s t o r i ca l f o r ce , and t he e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e na t i ona l cu l t u r e s a s t he

p r i mor d i a l s ou r ce o f cu l t u r a l i den t i t y a s t he s e t endenc i e s a r e man i f e s t i ng

t hems e l ves t oday , w e l l bey ond t he l i m i t s o f the na t i ona l - l i be r a t i on s tr ugg le s

t h a t m a r k e d t h e d e c o l o n i z i n g m o m e n t o f t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w a r d e c a d e s?

H o w m u c h c a n w e l e a r n f r o m h i m i n n e g o t ia t i n g t h e s h o a ls a n d c u r r e n ts o ft h e se c o n f u s i n g a n d d a n g e r o u s w a t e r s ?

W e have , f i r s t , t o s e t t he con t ex t by t r y i ng , how eve r s ke t ch i l y , t o

cha r ac t e r i ze t h is ne w s i tua t i on . T h e g r ea t d i s cou r se s o f m ode r n i t y - i n t h isr e s pec t M ar x i s m no l e s s t han l i be r a l i s m , bo t h i n t he i r d i f f e r en t w ays ,

E n l i gh t enm en t g r a nd na r r a t i ve s - l ed u s t o expec t , no t the rev i va l bu t t he

g r adua l d i s appea r ance o f t he na t i ona l i s t pa s s i on . A t t achmen t s t o na t i on ,

l i ke t hos e t o t r i be , r eg i on , p l ace , r e l i g i on , w e r e t hough t t o be a r cha i c

pa r t i cu l a r i s ms w h i ch cap i t a l i s t mode r n i t y w ou l d , g r adua l l y o r v i o l en t l y ,

d i s so l ve o r s upe r cede . Soc i a li sm , t he cou n t e r - cu l t u r e o f m ode r n i t y i nZ y g m u n t B a u m a n s p h r a s e, w a s e q u a l l y p r e d i c a t e d o n t h e s u b s u m p t io n o f

t hes e pa r t i cu l a ri s ms i n t o a m or e cos m opo l i t an o r i n t e r na t i ona l i s t cons c i ous -

n e ss . G l o b a li z a ti o n , d r a w i n g m o r e a n d m o r e o f t h e g l o b e i n t o t h e n e t o f t h e

g l oba l cap it a li s t mar k e t , i s, o f cou r s e , no r ecen t , pos t- B i g B ang phe nom -

eno n . I t ha s been g o i ng on s ince t he Span i s h an d t he Po r t ugues e i n i ti a t ed t he

W es t s enc oun t e r w i t h t he R es t a t t he end o f t he f i ft een th cen t u r y . T h e

r ecen t i n t eg r a t i on o f f i nanc i a l s y st ems , t he i n t e r na t i ona l i za t i on o f p r odu c -t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n , th e s p r e a d o f g l o b al c o m m u n i c a t i o n s n e t w o r k s , is

on ly the l a te s t - a lbe i t d i s t inc t ive - ph ase in a long , h i s to r i ca l p rocess .H ow eve r , t h i s l a t e s t phas e o f cap i t a l i s t g l oba l i za t i on , w i t h i t s b r u t a l

compr es s i ons and r eo r de r i ngs ac r os s t i me and s pace , ha s no t neces s a r i l y

r e s u l ted i n t he des t r uc t i on o f t hos e s peci fi c st r uc t u r e s and pa r t i cu la r i s ti c

a t t a c h m e n t s a n d i d e n ti fi c a ti o n s w h i c h g o w i th t h e m o r e l o ca l iz e d c o m m u n i -

t ie s w h i ch a hom oge n i z i ng m ode r n i t y w a s s upp os ed t o r ep l ace . O f cou rs e ,

t he f o r ces o f cap i t a li s t m ode r n i t y , i n t he i r com bi ne d an d uneven deve l op -

men t , have r ad i ca l l y d i s l oca t ed t he s oc i e t i e s i n t o w h i ch t hey pene t r a t ed

( though th i s d i s t inc t ive h i s to ry of cap i t a l i s t deve lopment has , c l as s ica l ly ,

been s ubo r d i na t ed i n it s na r r a t iv i za t i on t o t he qu i t e d i f f e r en t s t o r y o f ho w

cap i t a li s m peace f u ll y evo l ved f r om t he w om b o f feuda l E u r ope ) . B u t the

s o - ca ll ed l og i c o f cap i t a l ha s ope r a t ed a s m uch t h r o u g h di f fe rence -

p r e s e r v i ng and t r ans f o r m i ng d i f fe r ence ( inc l ud i ng s exua l d i f fe r ence ) - no tb y u n d e r m i n i n g i t.

T he eng i ne o f t h i s expans i on i s t h i s t o r y w as t he E u r opean na t i on - s t a t e ,

w i t h i ts w e l l - de f ined t e r r i to r i a l bou nda r i e s , na t i ona l eco nom i es and i nc reas -

i ng l y na t i ona l cu l t u r e s . O f cou r s e , s ide by s ide w i t h t h i s , w e r e t he f l ow s - o f

c a p it al , g o od s , l a b o u r - be t w e e n nd c r os s na t i on a l f r on ti e r s. A s I m m anu e l

W a l le r st e in h a s o b s e rv e d , A t t h e v e r y m o m e n t t h a t o n e h a s b e e n c r e a ti n g

na t i ona l cu l t u r e s , e ach d i s t i nc t f r om t he o t he r , t he s e f l ow s have beenb r eak i ng do w n na t i on a l d i st i nc ti ons ( 1991 : 19 ). T h i s t ens i on be t w een t he

t ende ncy o f cap i t a li s m t o deve l op t he na t i on - s t a t e an d na t i ona l cu l t u r e s and

i t s t r ans na t i ona l i mpe r a t i ves i s a con t r ad i c t i on a t t he hea r t o f mode r n i t y



1 4



w h i c h h a s t e n d e d t o g i v e n a t i o n a l i s m a n d i t s p a r t i c u l a r i s m s a p e c u l i a r

s i gn i fi c a nc e a n d f o r c e a t t he he a r t o f t he s o - c a l le d ne w t r a ns n a t i ona l g l oba l

o r d e r . N e g o t i a t i n g t h is t e n s i o n w a s o n e o f th e k e y c o n j u r i n g tr ic k s o f

T h a t c h e r i s m ; a n d i t w a s i ts f a il u r e t o r e s o lve t h is t e n s i on - t he i ll u s i on t ha t

B r i ta i n c o u l d s n a t c h t h e g o o d i e s o f a s in g l e m a r k e t w i t h o u t s a c ri fi ci n g a n

i nc h o f na t i o na l s ove r e i gn t y o r E ng t i s hne s s a s a c u l tu r a l ide n t i t y t o t he

E u r o p e a n i d e a - w h i c h f in a lly d e s tr o y e d M r s T h a t c h e r a n d w h i c h h a s

b r o u g h t h e r s u c c e s s o r s , M r M a j o r a n d M r L a m o n t , t o t h e b r i n k o f t h e

p o s t - M a a s t r i c h t a b y s s.

N e v e r t h e l e ss , th e p r e s e n t i n t e n s if ie d p h a s e o f g l o b a l i z a t io n h a s f a v o u r e d

t h e t e n d e n c i e s p u s h i n g n a t i o n - s t a t e s t o w a r d s s u p r a n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n -

e c o n o m i c , a n d m o r e r e l u c t an t ly , p o li ti c a l a n d c u l tu r a l: w e a k e n i n g w i t h o u t

d e s t r o y i n g t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e a n d t h e r e b y o p e n i n g u p l o c al a n d r e g i o n a l

e c o n o m i e s b o t h t o n e w d i s lo c a t io n s a n d t o n e w r e l at io n s h i p s . P a r a d o x ic a l ly ,

g l oba l i z a t ion s e e m s a l s o t o ha ve l e d t o a s t r e ng t he n i ng o f l oc a l a l le g i a nc e s

a n d i de n t it i es w i t i n na t i on - s t a t e s ; t h ou gh t h i s m a y be de c e p t i ve , s i nce t hes t r e ng t he n i n g o f t he l oc a l is p r o ba b l y l es s t he r e v iva l o f t he s t a b le i de n t it ie s

o f l o c al ly se t tl e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f th e p a s t , a n d m o r e t h a t t r ic k y v e r si o n o f

t h e lo c a l w h i c h o p e r a t e s w i t h i n , a n d h a s b e e n t h o r o u g h l y r e s h a p e d b y t h e

g l oba l a nd ope r a t e s l a r ge ly w i t h i n i t s l og ic .

O n e r e su l t h a s b e e n a sl o w , if u n e v e n , e r o s i o n o f t h e c e n t r e d n a t i o n a l i s m s

o f t h e W e s te r n E u r o p e a n n a t io n - s t a te a n d t h e s t re n g t h e n i n g o f b o t h

t r a ns na t i o na l r e l a t i ons a nd l oc a l i de n t i ti e s - a s i t w e r e , s i m u l t a ne o us l y

a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e le v el o f t h e n a ti o n - s ta t e . T w o f e a t u r e s o f t h is v e r y

u n e v e n p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n t h e r e - v a l o r i z a t i o n o f s m a l l e r , s u b o r d i n a t en a t io n a l is m s a n d m o v e m e n t s f o r n a t io n a l a n d r e g io n a l a u t o n o m y b y

p r e ci se ly t h o s e g r o u p s w h o s e i d e n t it ie s w e r e s w a l l o w e d u p b y o r s u b s u m e d

un de r w ha t E r ne s t G e l lne r ca ll s t he po l i t ic a l r oo f o f the b i g na t i on - s t a t e s ,

a n d t h e p a r a ll e l g r o w t h o f a d e f e n s iv e re a c t io n b y t h o s e n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e s

w h i c h s e e t he m s e l ve s t h r e a t e ne d f r o m t he i r pe r i phe r i e s . W e c a n s ee t h is no t

o n l y i n t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f r e g io n a l a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t it ie s w i t h i n t h e U K

( o r, a s R a y m o n d W i l li a m s c alls it , t h e Y o o k a y ) b u t a l s o in t h e g r o w i n g

e f f o r t s o f l oc a l c e n t r e s a t t e m p t i n g t o b y - pa s s b l oc k a ge s o f va r i ous k i nd s a t

t h e n a t i o n a l l ev el - S c o t l a n d s d r e a m o f b r e a k i n g t h e E n g l is h c o n n e c t i o n a n d

r e s t o r in g i ts E n l i g h t e n m e n t li n k s w i t h E u r o p e ; t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f s u b s u m i n g

N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d s in t r a c ta b l e p r o b l e m s in so m e s o r t o f E u r o p e a n s o l u t io n .

W i l l i a m s h i m s e l f r e f l e c t s t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y

t he s e t w o t e nde nc i e s w h e n he r e f e r r e d t o h i m s e l f a s f e e li ng l ike a

W e l s h - E u r o p e a n . B u t t h e r e a r e s i m i la r s ig n s e ls e w h e r e i n E u r o p e , t h e

g r o w t h o f t h e N o r t h e r n L e a g u e in I t al y , as a w a y o f d i s so c i a ti n g t h e

i n d u s t r ia l (a n d , a s i t t u r n s o u t , c o r r u p t ) M i l a n f r o m t h e b a c k w a r d ( a n d , o f

c o u r s e , e q u a ll y c o r r u p t ) S o u t h , b e i n g o n l y t h e m o s t r e c e n t e x a m p l e .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e a s th i s h a s b e e n g o i n g o n i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e , w e h a v e

s e en t h e b r e a k - u p o f t h e S o v ie t U n i o n a n d E a s te r n E u r o p e a n d t h e re v iv a l o fe t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m s a m o n g s t p e o p l e s s u b m e r g e d f o r d e c a d e s w i t h i n t h e

s up e r na t i ona l i s m o f t he S ov i e t s phe r e o f i n f l ue nc e . T h i s s e e m s to r e f le c t a

c o m p l i c a t e d d o u b l e - m o v e m e n t - t h e a t t e m p t t o r e c o n s t i tu t e th e m s e l v e s a s a

5 4 C U L T U R A L S T U D IE S


1 4



n a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g b o t h t h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t a n d s t a t e - s o c i a l i s t

p a s t a n d t h e h o p e f o r th e f u t u r e - w h i c h m a y t u r n o u t t o b e i ll u so r y - t h a t

n a t i o n h o o d is t h e o n l y p a s s p o r t o r e n t r y - t i c k e t l ef t f o r b a c k w a r d E a s t

E u r o p e a n s t o th e n e w W e s te r n E u r o p e a n p r o s p e r i t y .

H e n c e t h e c o n f u s i n g s p ec ta c le o f w h a t w e m a y c al l a sc e n d i n g a n d

d e s c e n d i n g n a t io n a l i s m s , l o c k e d in a so r t o f c o m b i n e d - a n d - u n e v e n d o u b l e

h e l i x . I t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e o f t e n o v e r - r a t i o n a l i s t e x p e c t a t i o n s

f a v o u r e d b y t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t p e r s p e c t iv e s o f t h e l e ft , n a t i o n a l i s m is n o t

o n l y n o t a s p e n t f o r c e ; i t i s n t necessarily e i th e r a r e a c t i o n a r y o r a p r o g r e s s i v e

f o r c e , p o l i t ic a l l y . W e h a v e s e e n p l e n t y o f b o t h v a r i e t i e s in r e c e n t y e a r s - e v e n

s u p p o s i n g t h a t i t is e a sy t o e s t a b l is h t h e c r i te r ia b y w h i c h t h e y c a n b e e as il y

d i s t i n g u i s h e d (is I r a q i n a t i o n a l i s m p r o g r e s s i v e b e c a u s e i t o p p o s e s t h e W e s t o r

r e a c t i o n a r y b e c a u s e i t h o l d s i t s p e o p l e i n a c r u d e a n d v i o l e n t d i c t a t o r i a l g r i p ?).

T o c o i n o n e o f E r n e s t o L a c l a u s p h r a s e s , n a t i o n a l i s m h a s n o n e c e ss a ry

p o l i t i c a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s . I t is c a p a b l e o f b e i n g i n f l e c te d t o v e r y d i f fe r e n t

p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s , a t d i f fe r e n t h i s t o r ic a l m o m e n t s a n d i ts c h a r a c t e r d e p e n d sv e r y m u c h o n t h e o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s , d i s c o u r s e s a n d f o r c e s w i t h w h i c h i t i s

a r t i c u l a te d . T h e n a t i o n a l i s m s o f , s a y , T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e e r a o f

d e c o l o n i z a t i o n , w h i c h w e r e p r o d u c e d a s t h e c o u n t e r - d i s c o u r s e s t o e x p l o i -

t a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d l i n k e d w i t h c r it ic a l c u lt u r e s a n d p o l i t ic a l

t r a d i t i o n s , h a d a v e r y d i f fe r e n t p o l i t ic a l m e a n i n g a n d t r a j e c t o r y f r o m t h o s e

w h i c h h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t i m p o s e d s t a t e

s o c i a li s m b u t w h i c h h a v e r e a p p e a r e d i n p o l i ti c a l c u l t u r e s w i t h s t r o n g e t h n i c

a n d r e li g io u s a b s o l u t i s t t r a d i t io n s .

T h e n a t i o n - s t a t e w a s n e v e r s i m p l y a p o l i ti c a l e n ti ty . I t w a s a l w a y s a ls o as y m b o l i c f o r m a t i o n - a s y s te m o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n - w h i c h p r o d u c e d a n

i d ea o f t he n a t io n a s a n i m a g i n e d c o m m u n i t y , w i t h w h o s e m e a n i n g s w e

c o u l d i d e n t if y a n d w h i c h , t h r o u g h t h is i m a g i n a r y i d e n t i f ic a t io n , c o n s t i tu t e d

i ts c i ti z e n s a s s u b j e c t s ( in b o t h o f F o u c a u l t s se n s e o f s u b j e c t i o n - s u b j e c t

o f a n d s u b j e c t e d t o t h e n a t i o n ) . T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n , t h e n , t h a t t h e r e l a ti v e

d e c l in e o f t h e c e n t r a l iz e d n a t i o n - s t a t e s , w i t h t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i n g c u l t u r e s a n d

n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t i e s , i m p l a n t e d a n d s e c u r e d b y s t r o n g c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

w h i c h c l a i m e d t o b e a b l e to s u b s u m e a ll d i f fe r e n c e s a n d d i v e r s it y i n t o t h e i r

i m a g i n e d u n i t y , o p e n s u p p r o f o u n d a m b i v a l e n c e s a n d f i s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e

d i s co u r s e o f t h e n a t io n - s t a t e a n d t h u s p r e s e n ts u n p r e c e d e n t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e sf o r s m a l l e r n a t i o n a l i s m s t o r e a l i z e t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s f o r a u t o n o m y i n n e w ,

m o r e e f fe c ti v el y s e l f -g o v e r n i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h i s i s t h e p e r s p e c t iv e w h i c h

R a y m o n d W i ll ia m s a d d r e s s ed , w i t h i n c re a s in g f r e q u e n c y a n d u r g e n c y , i n h is

w r i t i n g a b o u t W a l e s a n d o t h e r s t r u g g l e s f o r a c t u a l s o c ia l i d e n t it ie s ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n T o w a r d s 2 00 0 b u t o f c o u r s e a l s o , in a d i f f e r e n t r e g i st e r , in h i s

f i c t i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e d r i v e t o n a t i o n -

h o o d i n m a n y o f t h e a s c e n d i n g s m a l l n a t i o n a l is m s c a n o f t en ta k e t h e f o r m

o f t r y i n g t o c o n s t r u c t e t h n i c a l l y ( o r c u l t u r a l l y , r e l i g i o u s l y o r r ac i a ll y ) c l o s e do r p u r e f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e o l d e r , c o r p o r a t e n a t i o n - s t a t e s o r

i m p e r i a l f o r m a t i o n s ; a c lo s u r e w h i c h c o m e s , in G e l l n e r s t e r m s , f r o m t ry i n g

t o r e a l iz e t h e a s p i r a t i o n , w h i c h t h e y s e e as th e s e c r e t o f s u c c e ss o f t h e g r e a t ,

C U LT UR E C O M M U N I T Y N A T I O N 3 55


1 4



m o d e r n i z i n g n a ti o n - st a te s o f W e s t e r n m o d e r n i t y , o f g a t h e r i n g o n peop l e ,

o n e t hn i c i ty , ga t he r ed u nd e r o n pol i t i ca l roof .

B u t t he h i s t o r y o f t he na t i on - s t a t e s o f t he W es t has n v r been o f t h i s

e t hn i ca l l y pu r e k i nd . W i t ho u t excep t i on , a s D af f yd E llis T ho m as , t he f o r m er

P l a y d C w m r y M P , p o i n t e d o u t a g a i n r e c e n tl y , t h e y a re w i t h o u t e x c e p ti o n

e t hn i ca l l y hyb r i d - t he p r od uc t o f conqu es t s , ab s o r b t i ons o f one peop l e s by

ano t he r . I t ha s been t he ma i n f unc t i on o f na t i ona l cu l t u r e s w h i ch , a s w e

a r gued , a r e s y s tems o f r ep r e s en t a t i on , t o r p r s n t w ha t i s i n f ac t t he e t hn i c

h o t c h - p o t c h o f m o d e r n n a t i o n a l it y a s t h e p r i m o r d i a l u n i t y o f o n e p e o p l e ;

a n d o f th e i r i n v e n t e d t r a d i ti o n s t o p r o j e c t th e r u p t u re s a n d c o n q u e s ts , w h i c ha r e t h e ir r e a l h i st o ry , b a c k w a r d s i n a n a p p a r e n t l y s e am l e s s a n d u n b r o k e n

c o n t i n u i t y t o w a r d s p u r e , m y t h i c t im e . W h a t s m o r e , t h is h y b r i d i t y o f t h e

moder n na t i on - s t a t e i s now , i n t he p r e s en t phas e o f g l oba l i za t i on , be i ng

c o m p o u n d e d b y o n e o f t h e la r g e st fo r c e d a n d u n f o r c e d m a s s m i g r a t io n s o f

r ecen t t i mes . So t ha t , one a f t e r ano t he r , W es t e r n na t i on - s t a t e s , a l r eady

d i a s po r a - i zed bey ond r epa i r , a r e bec om i ng i nex t r icab l y m u l t i cu l t u r a l -m ixe d e thn ica l ly , re l ig ious ly , cu l tu ra l ly , l ingui s t ica l ly , e t c .

D es p i t e t h is , ma ny o f t he n ew na t i ona l i s ms a r e bus y t ry i ng , o f ten on t h e

bas i s o f ex t r eme l y dub i ous my t hs o f o r i g i n and o t he r s pu r i ous c l a i ms , t o

p r o d u c e a p u r if ie d f o l k a n d t o p la y t h e h i g h l y d a n g e r o u s g a m e o f e t h n i c

c l e a n si n g - t o u s e t h e c h a r m i n g p h r a s e w h i c h t h e S er bs h a v e r e t u r n e d t o t h e

pos t mode r n E ur opean vocabu l a r y . H e r e , r ea l d i s l oca t ed h i s t o r i e s and

h y b r i d i z e d e th n ic i ti es o f E u r o p e , w h i c h h a v e b e e n m a d e a n d r e m a d e a c ro s s

t h e t o r t u r e d a n d v i o l e n t h is t o ry o f E u r o p e s m a r c h t o m o d e r n i t y , a r e

s ubs umed by s ome e s s en t i a l i s t concep t i on o f na t i ona l i den t i t y , by t hes u r r ep t i t ious r e t u r n t o t r ad i t i on - o f t en o f t he i nve n t ed k i nd , a s

H o b s b a w m a n d R a n g e r d e f i ne it - w h i c h r e c as ts c u l t u ra l id e n t it y a s a n

u n f o l d i n g e ss en c e, m o v i n g a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t c h a n g e , f ro m p a s t t o f u t u re .

L es t w e t h i nk t ha t t h i s k i nd o f e t hn i c abs o l u t i s m i s r e s t r i c t ed t o t he

B a l k a n s - w h i c h W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n s h a v e a l w a y s t h o u g h t u n f i t t o g o v e r n

t hems e l ves w e mu s t r em em ber tha t ve r s ions o f i t a r e a li ve and w e l l i n t he

o l d m od e r n na t i on - s ta t e s , e s pec ia l ly i n t he w ake o f t he mu l t i cu l t u r a l

d i ve r si ty w h i ch t he d i s l oca t ions o f g l oba l i za t i on a r e pus h i ng a l ong . W e can

no w s ee T ha t che r i s m s ques t i on - A r e yo u one o f u s ? - a s no t on l y a s ea rch

f o r t r ue con ve r t s t o t he G os pe l o f M a r ke t Fo r ces , bu t a s on l y t he l a t e st e f fo r t,s t i l l con t inu ing , to r esur rec t tha t r ap id ly van i sh ing spec ies , the l a t e -

t w en t i e t h - cen t u r y t r ue bo r n E n g l i s hm an ( the gend e r ed f o r m is de l i be ra t e )

an d t o r ed i scove r , by a v i r u l en t f o r m o f r eg r e ss ive m od e r n i za t i on ( an

a t t e m p t t o c a p t u r e t h e f u t u r e b y a d e t e r m i n e d l o n g d e t o u r t h r o u g h t h e p a s t)

t h o s e d is c u rs iv e f o r m s o f m a n l y a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l g r e a tn e s s w h i c h c o u l d

r e s to r e E ng l i s hnes s a s a be l eagu r ed na t i ona l iden t i ty : tha t cu l t u r a l i den t i t y

in to which a l l the o ther d iver se cu l tu res o f the Br i t i sh I s l es and , a t i t s

pe r i phe r ie s , t he co l on i zed s oc i et ie s , w e r e s o o f t en and s o b r u t a l l y co l laps ed .

I n t he f ace o f t he p r o l i f e r a t ion o f cu l t u r a l d i f f e rence a t h om e , and t hem u l t ie t h n i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n e w B r it a in , a n d t h r e a t e n e d o n t h e o t h e r si d e

b y th e e n c r o a c h i n g t r a u m a o f a n e m e r g i n g E u r o p e a n i d e n ti ty , w e h a v e s e en

i n B r it a in , ove r t he pas t decad e , t he cons t r uc t i on o f a pa r t i cu l a r l y de f ens ive ,

56 CULTURAL STUDIES


1 4



c l o s e d a nd e xc l u s i ve de f i n i t i on o f E ng l i shne s s be i ng a dva nc e d as a w a y o f

w a r d i n g o f f o r r e f u s in g to l iv e w i t h d i ff e re n c e - a r e t r e a t f r o m m o d e r n i t y

w h i c h n o e x er c is e i n m a n a g e r i a l n e w s p e a k o r t h e n e w e n t r e p r e n e u r ia l i sm

c a n d i s g u is e o r d e fl ec t. O n e s lip o f t h e D a n i s h p e n , a n d i t h a s c o m e p o u r i n g o u t

- i n d i f fe r e n t f o r m s , a s m u c h f r o m t h e l ef t a s t h e r ig h t . C o n f r o n t e d b y a n

ope n l y ra c i s t f a r - r igh t in F r a nc e o r G e r m a ny , the B r i ti s h a re a p t t o be s m oo t h l y

s u p e r i o r a n d c o m p l a c e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l

r a ci sm w h i c h h a v e g r o w n u p u n d e r T h a t c h e r i sm s s h a d o w b r in g to g e t h e r a n d

c on de n s e in t o a s i ng l e d i s c ou r s e que s t i ons o f r a c e a nd e t hn i c i ty w i t h qu e s t i ons

o f n a t i o n , n a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g : C u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s

( r e de f ine d a s a n o l d , e xc l u s ive f o r m o f e t hn i c it y ) ha s r e p l a c e d ge ne t i c pu r i t y

a n d f u n c t i o n s a s th e c o d e d l a n g u a g e f o r r a c e a n d c o l o u r . A s P a u l G i l ro y

o b s e r v e d i n T h e r e A i n t N o B l a c k i n t h e U n i o n J a c k:

A f o r m o f c u l tu r a l r a ci sm w h i c h h a s t a k e n a n e c e s sa r y d i s ta n c e f r o m c r u d e

i de a s o f b i o l og i c a l i n f e r i o r it y n o w s e eks t o p r e s e n t a n i m a g i na r y d e f i n i t ion

o f t he na t i on a s a un i f ie d c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t y . It c o n s t ru c t s a n d d e f e n d s a n

i m a g e o f n a ti o n a l - c u l tu r e , h o m o g e n e o u s n it s w h i t e n e s s y e t p r e c a r i o u s a n d

p e r p e t u a l ly v u ln e r a b l e to a t t a c k f r o m e n e m i e s w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t

( 1 9 8 7 : 4 9 - 5 0 ) .

S o m e t h i ng o f t he s a m e f e a r o f d i ff e r e nc e a nd d i ve r s i ty c a n be s e e n , i n d i f f e r e n t

f o r m s , ev e r y w h e r e i n th e N e w E u r o p e , as th e m o s t h e t e r o g e n e o u s p e o p l e s

ha s t il y c obb l e t oge t he r s om e ne w u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l i de n t i t y a s a s h i e ld , no t on l y

a g a i n s t n e i g h b o u r s w i t h w h o m t h e y h a v e p e a c e f u ll y d w e l le d f o r c e n tu r ie s , b u t

a ls o a g a in s t M u s l i m , N o r t h A f r ic a n , T u r k i s h a n d o t h e r m i g r a n t s d r a w n t oE u r op e f r o m i ts pe r i phe r i e s . W e c a n s ee it r e fl e c te d i n t he c ons c i ou s l y L i t tl e

E n g l a n d s c h e m e s d r a w n u p f o r t e a c h i n g l i te r a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y - t h e k e y

d i s c ou r s e s i n the c o ns t r u c t i on o f na t i ona l i de n t i t y - i n t he ne w E ng l i sh

N a t i ona l C u r r i c u l um f o r s choo l s . W e c a n a l so s e e i t i n t he v i o l e n t ba c k l a s h

a ga i n s t m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m i n s c hoo l s a n d un i ve r s i ti e s in t he U S . T he s e

t e nde nc i e s ha ve t he i r r e s pe c t a b le a ll ie s a nd s up po r t e r s i n B r i ta i n a n d t he i r

n o t - s o - re s p e c t a b le s h o c k - t r o o p s e l se w h e r e in E u r o p e , a s t h o s e d i s p l a ce d b y

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m i e s , t h e p r i c i n g o u t o f c r o p s a n d t h e

c r i p p li n g w e i g h t o f d e b t a s w e l l as b y p o v e r t y , d r o u g h t a n d w a r f a r e , p u r s u e d

w i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e i n t e rn a t i o n a l a r m s t r a d e , b u y a o n e - w a y t ic k e t a n d h e a da c ro s s b o r d e r s t o P a r a d i s e o r T h e A m e r i c a n W a y . R a y m o n d W i ll ia m s h a s ,

i n f a c t , w r i t t e n e l oque n t l y a bou t t h i s t r e nd i n a n e a r l i e r h i s t o r i c a l f o r m ,

pa r t i c u l a r l y a s i t a f f e c te d ru r a l W a l es :

A s p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a d in g a d v a n t a g es s h if te d , v a s t n u m b e r s h a d t o m o v e

a g a i n o r b e l ef t s t r a n d e d i n t h e d e b r is o f a w o r k e d - o u t e c o n o m y . M a s s iv e

m o v e m e n t s o f th i s k i n d a r e s till o c c u r r in g i n t h o u s a n d s o f a u t h o r i z e d a n d

u n a u t h o r i z e d e m i g r a t i o n s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n s a n d i n t h e d e s p e r a t e t r a i l s

f r o m l a n d d i s p o ss e s se d b y a g ri -b u s in e s s t o t h e s h a n t y - t o w n s o n t h e e d g e s o f

de ns e l y po pu l a t e d c i ti es ( 1983 : 186 ) .

T h e r e sp o n s es t o t h e se m a s s iv e u n p l a n n e d m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a t io n s f r o m

t h e d e c l i n i n g S o u t h t o t h e o v e r f e d N o r t h u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f g l o b a l iz a t io n ,



1 4



po w er e d a s t hey a re by po l i te and o t he r f o r ms o f e t hn i c abs o l u t i sm , a r e a

species of fund ment lism eve r y b i t a s backw ar d - l ook i ng a s t hos e t o bef ound i n s om e s ect ions o f t he I s lami c w o r l d . T hes e have r ep l aced C o m m un -

i sm i n t he d em ono l ogy o f t he W es t an d a r e s upe r f ic i a ll y po r t r aye d a s t he s i gn

o f a r e t r e a t f r o m m o d e r n i t y b y b a c k w a r d p e o p l e s , w h e n t h e y a r e o f t e nam bi guo us re s pons es by t hos e e i the r l e ft ou t o f m od e r n i t y o r amb i guous l y

and pa r t i a l l y i nco r po r a t ed i n one o f i t s many f o r ms , w he r eas t he f unda -m en t a l i s ms w h i ch a r e af f li c ti ng m od er n na t i ona l cu l tu r e s a r e no t on l y

a r is i ng f r om t he ve ry hea r t o f mo de r n i t y bu t a r e a con t i nu i n g r emi nde r o f t he

d a r k s h a d o w w h i c h h a s p e r s i s t e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e d m o d e r n i t y a n d t h e

E u r o p e a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t fr o m its i n c e p t i o n .

I n the f ace o f t he se d i s loca t i ons , i t is e as y t o und e r s t an d w hy R ay m on d

W i l li ams aga i n a nd aga i n a f f ir ms w h a t he ca ll s t he r oo t ed s e t t l emen t s ,

l ived , w o r ke d and p l aceab l e s oc i a l i den t i ti e s , t o s e t o f f aga i n s t w h a t he

pe r s i st en t ly cha r ac t e r ize s a s t he abs t r ac t i ons o f m od e r n na t i ona l cu l t u r a l

i den ti ti e s. W i t h une r r i ng accu r acy , he p l aces w h o o r w ha t i s r e s pons ib l e f o rt hes e d i s l oca ti ons , aga i n s t w h i ch n a t i ona l i den t i t y has s o f r equen t l y in t he

pas t been s ummoned a s a r e l i ab l e de f ence : I t i s , i n t he mode r n epoch ,

c a p it a li sm w h i c h h a s d i s ru p t e d a n d o v e r - r id d e n n a t u r a l c o m m u n i t ie s a n d

im po sed ar t i f ic ia l o rder s . I t is then a sav age i ron y tha t cap i ta l i s t s t a tes ha ve

aga i n a nd aga i n s ucceed ed i n m ob i l iz i ng pa t r i o t i c f ee li ngs i n t he i r ow n f o r ms

an d in te res t s (1983: 184).T h e pe r s i s ten t emph as i s i n W i l li ams on ac t ua l l ive s i n kn ow ab l e

communi t i e s i s s a l u t a r y i n t he cu r r en t pos t - M aas t r i ch t con f us i on . Fo r ,

much a s one may s uppor t t he s h i f t f r om a na r r ow l i t t l e E ng l and i s m t o ab r oa de r E u r ope an pe r s pec t ive , w e l co m i ng t h is en l a r g i ng and d i ve r s if i ca ti on

o f E ng l i s h pe r s pec ti ves , one has a ls o to a ckno w l ed ge t ha t t he idea t ha t ,

ove r n i gh t , s om e t h i ng ca l led a E u r opea n i den t i t y o r cu l t u r e cou l d be w i l l ed

i n t o be i ng a t t he behes t o f a s i ng l e mar ke t o r t he r equ i r emen t s o f t he

E ur opean bank i ng s ys t em, r ep r e s en t s a concep t i on o f cu l t u r e and an

unde r s t and i ng o f t he mechan i s ms o f s oc i a l i den t i f i ca t i on s o s ha l l ow and

a b s t r a c t , i n R a y m o n d W i l l ia m s s te r m s , t h a t i t de se rv e s t h e c o m e u p p a n c e

w h i c h t h e D a n i s h h a v e s o t e ll in g ly d el iv e r e d t o t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y i nt he i r r e f e r endum . T he m or e one be l ieves i n E u r ope o r , to pu t it m or e

accu r a t e l y , t he mor e t he ques t i on o f E u r ope appea r s t o be a con t e s t edc o n c e p t w o r t h s t r u g g l i n g o v e r a n d a r o u n d , t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e

q u e s t io n s o f w h i c h E u r o p e ? , a n d o f w h a t is E u r o p e a n c u l tu r e ? a n d w h o s e

E u r o p e a n id e n t it y ? a n d w h i c h v e r si o n o f E u r o p e a n m o d e r n i t y ? a n d in d e e d

o f ho w a nd w he t h e r it m i gh t ever be pos s ib l e t o be bo t h B l ack ndE u r o p e a n .

W i l l i ams ce r t a i n l y app r ec i a t ed t he compl ex i t i e s o f t r y i ng t o r e s t o r e an

a l r eady un i f i ed W el s h i den t i t y a r ound any s i ng l e no t i on o f W al es a s a

n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y . D e s p it e th e w o n d e r f u l w o r k h e d i d i n h is n o ve ls i n

i m a g i n a ti v e ly re c r e a ti n g i t a s a n i m a g i n e d c o m m u n i t y , h e o ft e n a c k n o w -l edged h is p r ob l em a t i c r e l a t ions h i p t o W al es . H i s f ami l y , a f te r a ll , w e r e no t

W el s h - s peak i ng , t hough t hey l ea r ned W el s h poems and s ongs f o r s pec i a l

occas i ons. H i s ea r ly hos t i l it y t o t he no r m s o f W el s h nonco nf o r m i s t

5 8 C U L T U R A L S T U D IE S


1 4



c o m m u n i t y r e s u l t e d i n it ia l ly in a r e je c t io n o f m y W e l s h n e s s w h i c h I d i d n o t

w o r k t h r o u g h u n t i l w e ll i n t o m y t h ir ti es , w h e n I b e g a n t o r e a d t h e h i s t o ry

a n d u n d e r s t a n d i t . A g a i n a n d a g a i n , a s w e m i g h t e x p e c t , h e i n s is ts t h a t I

h a v e t o e m p h a s i z e g re a t c o m p l e x i t y i n W a l e s a n d E n g l a n d . W e l s h m e n a r e

a l w a y s a sk i n g w h a t W a l es a c t u a l l y w a s , T h e p r o b l e m a t i c e le m e n t is

c h a r a c t e r i s t ic ( 1 9 8 9 c : 6 8 ) .

H e f ul ly u n d e r s t o o d t h e e s se n ti a ll y m y t h i c a n d c o n s t r u c t e d d i sc o u r se o f

e s se n t i a l c u l t u ra l c o n t i n u i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e W e l s h s o m e t i m e s c o n s o le

t h e m s e l v e s f o r w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o t h e m . H e k n o w s f r o m t h e in s id e t h e

c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e e t h n ic h i s t o r y o f w h a t i s n o w W a l es f r o m e a r l i es t ti m e s .

H e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f th e l i n g u is t i c h e r i t a g e w h e r e t h e a l r e ad y

c o m p l i c a t e d W e l s h / E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e d i f f e r e n t i a l i s c r o s s - c u t b y a n o t h e r

s i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e re n t i a l - h o w t h a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e W e l s h w h o h a v e l o st t h e ir

n a t iv e l a n g u a g e n o w s p e a k a n d w r i te E n g l is h . H e se es b o t h t h e d a n g e r s o f

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g a s p u r i o u s l y u n i f i e d c u l t u r a l id e n t i t y a n d a f a ls e ly c o n t i n u o u s

n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y w h e n t h e re a l h i s t o r y is o n e o f r u p t u r e s a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s -i n d u s t r ia l c o n f l ic t w i t h i n r a p i d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a g r a r ia n

c o n f li c t w i t h i n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t , d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n - a n d

e v e n t h e r e s i s ta n c e t o c u l t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n w a s i t se l f a d e e p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

r e s p o n s e , g o v e r n e d a s m u c h b y w h a t i t w a s r e s p o n d i n g t o a s w h a t i t w a s i n

i ts el f. T h e W e l s h n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l r ev i v al , h e i n s is ts , r e q u i r e s t h e w o r k i n g

t h r o u g h o f a h i s t o r y a m o n g n o w r a d i c a l l y d i s l o c a t e d a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d

p e o p l e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e f o r t u n a t e r e s u r g e n c e o f a s u b d u e d e s s e n c e

( 1 9 8 9 c : 6 8 ) .

N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e e m p h a s i s o n a c t u a l a n d s u s t a i n e d s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p sa s t h e p r i n c i p a l b as is o f i d e n t i f i c a t io n a n d c u l t u r a l b e l o n g i n g n e s s p r e s e n ts

m a n y r e a l d i ff ic u l ti e s w h i c h t a k e u s b a c k t o t h a t o r i g i n a l s tr e ss , i n W i l li a m s s

w o r k , o n c u l tu r e a n d c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e w a y o f l i fe . W h o s e way?W h i c h life? O n e w a y o r s e v e ra l ? I s n t it t h e c a s e t h a t , i n th e m o d e r n w o r l d ,

t h e m o r e w e e x a m i n e w h o l e w a y s o f l if e t h e m o r e i n t e r n a l l y d i v e rs if ie d , t h e

m o r e c u t th r o u g h b y c o m p l e x p a t t e r n s o f s im i l a r i ty a n d d i ff e re n c e , t h e y

a p p e a r t o b e ? M o d e r n p e o p l e o f al l s o r ts a n d c o n d i t i o n s , it s e e m s , h a v e h a d ,

i n c r ea s i n g ly , a s a c o n d i t i o n o f s u rv i v a l, t o b e m e m b e r s , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , o f

s ev e ra l , o v e r l a p p i n g i m a g i n e d c o m m u n i t i e s ; a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s b e tw e e n

a n d a c r o s s t h e s e c o m p l e x b o r d e r l i n e s a r e c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f m o d e r n i t y i ts elf .

L e s t o n e t h i n k t h a t th i s c a p a c i t y to l iv e i n a n d n e g o t i a t e s e v e ra l w o r l d s a t

o n c e i s a s ig n o f th e m o d e r n a l ie n a t e d c o n d i t i o n , a b u r d e n l a id o n t h e

p o s t m o d e r n , W e s t e r n n o m a d i c s u b je c t a l o n e , it i s w o r t h r e c al l i n g t h a t th e

b u r d e n o f d o u b l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h W . E . B . D u B o i s i d e n ti f i e d , w a s th e

b u r d e n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , n o t o f t h e M a s t e r b u t t h e S l a v e , a n d h i s / h e r

d e s c e n d a n t s , w h o - a s C . L . R . J a m e s o b s e r v e d - a r e i n w e s t e r n c i v il iz a t io n ,

w h o h a v e g r o w n u p i n it b u t y e t a re n o t c o m p l e t e ly a p a r t o f i t . 2

I n Towards 2000 W i ll i a m s d i s c u s se s th e r e s p o n s e o f t h e w h i t e w o r k i n g -

c la ss m a n t o w h a t h e c al ls - t o o e u p h e m i s ti c a l l y b y h a l f - t h e m o s t r e c e n ti m m i g r a t io n s o f m o r e v is ib ly d i ff e r en t p e o p l e s a n d t h e a n g r y c o n f u s i o n s

a n d p r e j u d i c e s w h i c h a r e tr i g g e r e d w h e n , a s h e p u t s i t , t h e b l a c k s ( f or it is

t h e m - u s - w h o a r e t h e v i s ib l y d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s ) i n t e rs e c t w i t h t h e m o s t



1 4



s e l ec t i ve f o r ms o f i den t i t y ' . H e acknow l edges t ha t t he r eac t i on t o t he

presen ce of fo re igne r s eas ily sl ides in to spec i fy ing th i s ' o th erne ss ' as b lack .

B u t he ob j ec ts t o t h i s a l w ays be i ng l abe l l ed ' r ac i s m ' and e s pec i al ly t o w ha t he

ca l ls the ' s t an da rd l ibera l rep ly ' , 'But they a re as Br it i sh as you are ' , wh ich , he

argues , i s to em plo y ' a m ere ly l ega l def in i t ion of w ha t i t is to be Br i t i sh '.

I t is a s e r ious m i s unde r s t and i ng w he n f ul l s oc ia l r e l a ti ons a r e i n ques t i ont o s uppos e t ha t t he p r ob l ems o f s oc i a l i den t i t y a r e r e s o l ved by f o r ma l

de f i n i t i ons . Fo r uneven l y and a t t i mes p r eca r i ous l y bu t a l w ays t h r ough

l ong expe r i ence s ubs t an t i a ll y , a n e f fec ti ve aw ar en es s o f s oc i a l i den t i t ydepends on ac t ua l and s us t a i ned s oc i a l r e l a t i ons h i ps . T o r educe s oc i a l

iden t i ty to form al l ega l def in i t ions a t the l eve l o f the s t a te , i s to co l lude

w i t h t h e a l i e n a te d s u pe rf ic ia li ti es o f 't h e n a t i o n ' . . , w h i c h a r e t h e li m i te d

f unc t i ona l t e rm s o f t he m od e r n r u l i ng c la s s (1983 : 195 ).

T h i s pas s age s eems t o me t o con t a i n a s e r i e s o f pow er f u l t r unca t i ons and

e ll ip s es and i t is t he r e f o r e no s u r p r i s e t ha t , i n a n ow f amo us e xchang e i nTher e A i n t N o B l ack i n the U n i on Jack , Paul G i l roy , qu i t e cor rec t ly ,

f as tened on i t as r epresen t ing in it s im pl ica t ions a r ac ia l ly exc lus ive form o fs oc ia l iden t i ty , an d a s ign o f t he de g r ee t o w h i ch W i l li ams ' s w o r k , l ike s o

m uch o t he r t h i nk i ng on t he l e f t, rem a i ns bo t h b l i nd t o ques t i ons o f r ace and

f r a m e d b y c e r ta i n u n e x a m i n e d ' n a t i o n a l ' c u l t u r a l a s su m p t i o n s. A s G i l ro y

as ked , H o w ' fu l l ' mus t ' f u ll soc i a l r e l a t ions ' be? H o w ' ac t ua l ' a r e the s oc i a l

r e l a t i ons h i ps be t w een b l acks and w h i t e s i n many i nne r - c i t y communi t i e s

and ho w ' s u s t a i ned ' do t hey have t o be t o i nc l ude equa l i t y o f r es pec t? I t is

t r ue t h a t s oc i a l i den t i ty can no t be r educe d t o f o r m a l l ega l de f in i t ions . B u t i ti s a s e r ious mis jud gem ent to ascr ibe i t exc lus ive ly to ' t he a l i en a ted

s upe rf ic i a li ti e s o f t he na t i on and t he f unc t i ona l t e r ms o f t he m od e r n r u l i ng

c l a ss .' I f you a r e a b l ack w om an t r y i ng t o s ecu r e r igh t s o f c i ti z ensh i p f r om t he

l oca l D H S o f f i ce o r an A s i an f ami l y w i t h B r i t i s h r e s i dence r unn i ng t he

gaun t l e t o f t he i mmi g r a t i on au t ho r i t i e s a t H ea t h r ow , ' f o r ma l l ega l de f i -

n i ti o n s ' m a t t e r p r o f o u n d l y . T h e y c a n n o t b e m a d e c o n d i t i o n a l o n c u l tu r a las s imi la t ion .

I t s hou l d n o t be neces s a r y t o l ook , w a l k , f ee l, t h i nk , s p eak exac t l y l ike a

pa i d - up member o f t he bu t t oned - up , s t i f f - uppe r - l i pped , f u l l y co r s e t t ed

' f r ee - bo r n E ng l i s hman ' cul tural ly t o be acco r ded e i t he r t he i n f o r ma l

cour tesy and respec t o f c iv i l i zed soc ia l in te rcourse or the r igh t s o f

en t i t l em ent an d c i t izensh ip . Thi s i s to a pply the T ebbi t - t es t c r i ck e t t est ( i.e .,

w h i c h c r i ck e t t e a m d o A f r o -C a r i b b e a n s s u p p o r t w h e n t h e W e s t I n d ie s is

t ou r i ng B r i ta i n?) w i t h a vengea nce - s ubs um i ng cu l t u r a l a l leg i ance t o t he

vaga r i e s o f t he ba t t i ng f o r m o f t he E ng l and c r i cke t t e am ( a s l ende r r eedi ndeed ) , a s t he p r i ce o f d r aw i ng t he f ami l y a l l ow ance . I n t he ma t t e r o f

c i t izensh ip , o f course , there a re m in im al respons ib i l i t ies to those o ther s w i th

w ho m one s ha r e s a po l i t ic a l com m uni t y , j u s t a s t he r e a r e 'r i gh t s '. B u t , f a r

f r om co l l aps i ng t he compl ex ques t i ons o f cu l t u r a l i den t i t y and i s s ues o fs oc ia l an d po l i t i c a l r igh t s, w ha t w e need n ow i s greater d i s tance be tween

t hem . W e need t o be ab l e t o i n s i s t t ha t r i gh t s o f c i t i z ens h i p and t he

i ncom m ens u r ab i l i ti e s o f cu l t u r a l d i f fe r ence a r e r e s pec t ed an d t ha t the o ne is

36 CULTURAL STUDIES


1 4



n o t m a d e a c o n d i t i o n o f th e o t h e r. In th i s s ense , un les s the un iver sa l i s t ic

l anguage o f c i t i z ens h i p , de r i ved f r om t he E n l i gh t enmen t and t he F r ench

R e v o l u t i o n ( b u t l o n g d e n i e d b o t h w o m e n i n E u r o p e a n d b l a c k s l a v e s i nH i s pan i o l a ) i s t r ans f o r med i n t he l i gh t o f t he p r o l i f e r a t i on o f cu l t u r a l

d i f f e r ence , t he i dea canno t and does no t de s e r ve t o s u r v i ve i n t het r ans f o r m ed c ond i t i ons o f l a t e - mod e r n i t y i n w h i ch i t is r equ i r ed t o b ecom e

s ubs t an t ive l y ope r ab l e .

S i nce cu l t u r a l d i ve r si ty is, i nc r eas ing l y , the f a t e o f t he m od e r n w o r l d , a nd

e t hn i c ab s o l u t is m a r eg r e ss ive f ea t u r e o f l a t e - mod e r n i t y , t he g r ea t e s t dang e r

n o w a ris es fr o m f o r m s o f n a t io n a l a n d c u l t u ra l i d e n t i t y - n e w o r o l d - w h i c ha t t e m p t t o s e c u r e t h e i r i den t i t y by adop t i ng c l o s ed ve r s i ons o f cu l t u r e o r

c o m m u n i t y a n d b y t h e re f us a l t o e n g a g e - in th e n a m e o f a n o p p r e s s e d w h i t e

m i n o r i t y sic) - w i t h t he d i f f icu l t p r ob l em s t h a t a r is e f r om t r y i ng t o l ive w i t h

d i f fe r ence . T he capac i t y t o l i v e w i t h d i f f e r e n c e i s, i n my v i ew , t he co m i ng

ques t i on o f t he t w en t y - f ir s t c en t u r y . N e w n a t i ona l mo vem en t s tha t , i n t he i r

s t rugg l e aga i n s t o l d c l o s u re s , reach f o r t oo c l o s ed , un i t a r y , ho m oge neo usa n d e s s en t ia li st a r e a d in g o f c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i t y w i ll h a v e s u c ce e d e d i nove r com i ng one t e r r ib l e h i s t o ri ca l hu r d l e on l y t o f al l a t t he s econd . T h i s is

a l so t he cha l l enge con f r on t i ng t he d i ff icu l t ques t i on f o r t he l e f t, o f ho w t oadap t and t r ans f o r m t he l anguage o f c i t i z ens h i p t o new h i s t o r i ca l

c i r cum s t anes - I m ean , o f cou r s e , a s ubs t an t ive co ncep t i on o f c i ti z ens h ip f o ro u r t im e s , n o t t h a t p h o n e y , a c t iv e o n e b e in g p r o m o t e d b y M r M a j o r s

C i t i zen s C h a r t e r , w h i ch r ede f ines c i ti z ens a s cus t om er s and con s um er s -

abou t w h i ch , s ee t he devas t a t i ng c r i t i que advanced by W i l l i ams i n t he

C u l t u r e o f n a t i o n s C h a p t e r in T o w a r d s 2 0 0 0 . F o r n o w f r o m t h e o t h e r s id eof i t s mouth i t speaks of the consumer : the sa t i s f i ed , ever s tu f fed , the

s ove r e i gn con s um er ( 1983 : 32 ) .I b e g a n b y s p e a k i n g o f h o w R a y m o n d W i l li a m s a n d m y s el f, c o m i n g fr o m

s uch ve r y d i f f e r en t backg r ounds and f o r ma t i ons , o f t en f ound ou r s e l ves i n

t h e s a m e p l a c e s , m a k i n g s o m e o f t h e s a m e k i n d s o f r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e

m a r g i n s t o t h e e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e e x c l us iv e a n d e x c l u d i n g r e d o u b t s o f t h e

d o m i n a n t n a t i o n a l c u l t u re , t h e s e e d - b e d a n d n u r s e r y o f E n g li sh n a t i o n a l

cu l t u r a l i den t it y . I have been p r o f oun d l y i n f l uenced by the s t ubbo r nes s w i t hw h i c h , t h r o u g h o u t h i s lif e a n d w r i t in g , W i l li a m s h e l d to a n d h o n o u r e d t h o s e

a c t u a l , l iv e d r e la t io n s h i p s o f p la c e , cu l tu r e a n d c o m m u n i t y w h i c h d i d n o t

f i gu re i n an ex a l t ed w ay i n t he h i e r a r chy o f conv en t i ona l l y va l ue d E ng l is h

t h i ngs . I ho no ur e d t he s ym pa t hy he ex p r e s s ed f o r t he s t rugg l es o f t he peop l e s

a n d c u l tu r e s - I st re ss th e p l u r a l s - o f W a l e s a n d h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to h o l d o n

t o h i s t w o em phas es : t he cu l t u r a l s t rugg l e f o r ac t ua l soc i a l i den t it ie s and t he

pol i t i ca l r edef in i t ion o f e f fec t ive se l f -govern ing soc ie t ies .B u t , i n ho no ur i n g h i m - i n o r d e r t o hon ou r h i m - I feel com pe l l ed t o c l o se ,

a s i t w e r e , f r om ano t he r p l ace . F r om t he p l ace o f t he mi l l ions o f d i s p laced

peop l e s and d i s l oca ted cu lt u r e s and f r ac t u r ed com m uni t i e s o f the Sou t h ,

w h o h a v e b e e n m o v e d f r o m t h e i r s e tt le d c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e ir a c t u a l li v edr e l a t i ons , t he i r p l aceab l e f ee l ings , t he i r ,w h o l e w ays o f l if e . T h ey have h ad

t o l ea r n o t he r s k i l l s , o t he r l e s s ons . T hey a r e t he p r oduc t s o f t he new

d i as po r a s w h i ch a r e f o r m i ng ac ros s t he w or l d . T h ey a r e ob l iged t o i nhab i t a t

CULTURE CO MM UN ITY NA TION 361


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l e a s t t w o i de n t it ie s , t o s pe a k a t l e a s t t w o c u l t u r a l l a ngua ge s , t o ne g o t i a t e a nd

t r a n s la t e b e t w e e n t h e m . I n t h is w a y , t h o u g h t h e y a r e s t ru g g l i n g i n o n e s e ns e

a t t h e m a r g i n s o f m o d e r n i t y , t h e y a r e a t t h e l e a d i n g e d g e o f w h a t i s d e s ti n e d

t o b e c o m e t h e t r u ly r e p r e s e n ta t iv e l a t e - m o d e r n e x p e r ie n c e . T h e y a r e t h e

p r o d u c t s o f t h e c u l t u r e s o f h y b r i d i t y . T h i s n o t i o n o f h y b r i d i t y i s v e r y

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o l d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t g r a n d n a r r a t i v e , f r o m t h e s u p e r -

f ic i al it y o f o l d st y le p l u r a l i s m w he r e no bo un da r i e s a r e c r o s s e d , a nd f r om t he

t r e n d y n o m a d i c v o y a g i n g o f th e p o s t m o d e r n o r s i m p l i st ic v e r si o n s o f g lo b a l

h o m o g e n i z a t i o n - o n e d a m n t h i n g a f te r a n o t h e r o r t h e d i ff e re n c e t h a t

d o e s n t m a k e a d if fe r en c e . T h e s e h y b r i d s r e t ai n s t r o n g l i n k s t o a n d

i de n t i f i c a ti ons w i t h t he t r a d i t i ons a nd p l a c es o f t he i r o r i g i n . B u t t he y a r e

w i t ho u t the i ll u s i on o f a ny a c tua l r e t u r n t o t he pa s t . E i t he r t he y w i l l ne ve r ,

i n a ny l it e ra l se ns e , r e t u r n o r t he p l a c e s t o w h i c h t h e y r e t u r n w i ll ha ve be e n

t r a n s f o r m e d o u t o f a ll r e c o g n i t io n b y t h e r e m o r s e le s s p r o c es s e s o f m o d e r n

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I n t h a t se n s e, t h e r e is n o g o i n g h o m e a g a in . T h a t is w h y

t h e y s p e a k a n d s i n g a n d w r i t e s o e l o q u e n t l y w i t h i n t h e m e t a p h o r i c a ll a n g u a g e s o f v o y a g i n g , t ra v e ll in g a n d r e t u r n .

T h e y be a r t he t r ac e s o f pa r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e s , tr a d i t i ons , l a ngua g e s , s y s te m s

o f be l i e f , t e x t s a nd h i s t o r i e s w h i c h ha ve s ha pe d t he m . B u t t he y a r e a l s o

o b l i g e d t o c o m e to t e r m s w i t h a n d t o m a k e s o m e t h i n g n e w o f t h e c u l tu r e s

t h e y in h a b i t , w i t h o u t s i m p l y a s s im i l a ti n g t o t h e m . T h e y a r e n o t a n d w i ll

ne ve r be uni f i ed c u l t u r a l ly i n t he o l d s e nse , be c a us e t he y a r e i ne v i ta b l y t he

p r o du c t s o f s e ve ra l i n t e r l oc k i ng h i s t o r i e s a nd c u l t u r e s , be l ong i ng a t the s a m e

t im e to s ev e ra l h o m e s - a n d t h u s to n o o n e p a r ti c u l a r h o m e . A s S a l m a n

R u s h d i e , w h o s h o u l d k n o w , h a s re m a r k e d , h a v i n g b ee n b o u r n e a c r os s t h ew o r l d . . , t h e y a re tr a n s la t ed m e n [ a n d w o m e n ] . T h e y a re th e p r o d u c t o f a

d i a s p o r ic c o n s c i o u s n e ss . T h e y h a v e c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e

m ode r n w or l d , a nd I be l i e ve i r r e voc a b l y , i de n t i t y i s a l w a ys a n ope n ,

c o m p l e x , u n f i n i s h e d g a m e - a l w a y s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s I r e m a r k e d

e l s e w h e r e , i t a l w a y s m o v e s i n t o t h e f u t u r e t h r o u g h a s y m b o l i c d e t o u r

t h r o u g h t h e p a s t ( H a l l, 1 9 9 0 ). I t p r o d u c e s n e w s u b j ec t s w h o b e a r t h e t ra c es

o f t h e s p ec if ic d i s co u r s e s w h i c h n o t o n l y f o r m e d t h e m b u t e n a b l e t h e m t o

produce themselves anew and d i f f eren t ly . I s o m e t i m e s t h i n k R a y m o n dW i ll ia m s m a y h a v e s e en t h e m a s l o s t s o u ls . B u t I w a n t t o e n d w i t h a

d i f f er e n t r e a d i n g o f t h e i r c o n d i t i o n , f r o m R u s h d i e s I m ag i nar y H om e l ands :

The Satanic Verses c e l e b r a t e s hyb r i d i t y , i m pur i t y , i n t e r m i ng l i ng , t he

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t c o m e s o f n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f

hum a n be i ngs , c u l t u r e s , i de a s , po l i t i c s , m ov i e s , s ongs . I t r e j o i c e s i n

m o n g r e l i z a t i o n a n d f e a r s t h e a b s o l u t i s m o f t h e P u r e . Mdlange b o t c h -

p o r c h , a b i t o f th i s a n d t h a t , is h o w new ness en ter s the wor ld . I t is t he g rea t

pos s i b i li t y t ha t m a s s m i g r a t i on g i ves t he w o r l d a nd I ha ve t r i e d t o e m br a c e

it . Th e Satanic Verses is f o r c ha ng e - by - f u s i on , c ha n ge - by - c o - j o i n i ng . I t is a

l o v e - s o n g t o o u r m o n g r e l s el ve s ( 1 9 9 2 ).

3 6 C U L T U R A L S T U D I E S


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N o t e s

1 Vers ions of th is paper were given in Cardiff ( 'The 1992 Raymond Wil l iamsLecture ' , The Welsh Open Univers i ty and the Nat ional Ins t i tu te for Adul t andCon t inuing Educat ion); in Birmingham ( 'The Ray m ond Will iams Lecture ' , TheCe ntre for Cu ltural Studies and the Birmingham Interna tional Film and Tele-

vis ion Festival) ; and in Ox for d ( 'Cul tural Th eo ry at the Fin-de-Si le C onference ' ,The R. Will iams M em orial Trust ) .

2 The idea of 'D ou bl e consciousness ' is f rom W . E. B. DuB ois (1989).

R e f e r e n c e s

Du Bo is, W . E. B. (1989) The Souls o f Black F olks , Ha rm ondsw or th : Pengu in .Gilroy , Paul (1987) There A in t N o Black in the Union Jack , London: Hutch inson .Hal l , Stuart (1990) 'C ul tural ident i ty and diaspo ra ' , in Ru therford, Jonath an (1990)

editor, Identi ty. London: Lawrence W ishart .

- - (1993) 'The Ra ym on d Wil liams interviews ' , Screen Edu cat ion 34. R eprinted inAlve rado, M ., Busc om be, E., and Collins, R . (1993) editors, The ScreenEducation Reader, London : M acmi l lan .

Rushdie, Salman (1992) Imaginary Homelands , London: Gran ta Books .Said , Edward (1990) 'Narrat ive, geography and in terpretat ion ' , N e w L e f t R e v ie w ,

180.W allerstein, Im m anue l (1991) 'Th e national an d the universal ', in King, A. (1991)

editor, Culture, Global izat ion and the W orld System, London: M acmi l lan .Wil liams, Ra ym ond (1961) The Lo ng Revo lu t ion , Harmondswor th : Pengu in .- - (1979) Polit ics a nd Letters, London: N ew Lef t Books .

- - (1983) To w a r d s 2 0 0 0 , London: Chat to W indus .- - (1989a) W ha t I Came to Say, London: R ad ius .

(1989b) 'M y Cam bridge ' , in Wil liams, R. (1989a) .(1989c) 'Wa les and Eng land' , in W ill iams, R. (1989a).

Wi lliams , Ra ym ond and Orrom , M ichael (1954) Preface to Film, London: Fi lmDra m a Limited.



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Culture, Community, Nation, STUART HALL

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