Culture and Customs of the United States

Culture and Customs of the United States

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Culture and Customs of the United States

Volume 1 Customs and Society

EditEd by bEnjamin F. ShEarEr

Culture and Customs of North Amer�ca

GreeNwood Presswestport, Connect�cut • London

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Culture and customs of the Un�ted states / ed�ted by Benjam�n F. shearer. p. cm.—(Culture and customs of North Amer�ca, IssN 1940–1132) Includes b�bl�ograph�cal references and �ndex. IsBN 978–0–313–33875–5 (set : alk. paper)—IsBN 978–0–313–33876–2 (vol. 1 : alk. paper)—IsBN 978–0–313–33877–9 (vol. 2 : alk. paper) 1. Un�ted states—C�v�l�zat�on. 2. Un�ted states—soc�al l�fe and customs. 3. Un�ted states—soc�al cond�t�ons. I. shearer, Benjam�n F. e169.1.C843 2008 973—dc22 2007039174

Br�t�sh L�brary Catalogu�ng �n Publ�cat�on data �s ava�lable.

Copyr�ght © 2008 by Benjam�n F. shearer

All r�ghts reserved. No port�on of th�s book may be reproduced, by any process or techn�que, w�thout the express wr�tten consent of the publ�sher.

L�brary of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2007039174IsBN-13: 978–0–313–33875–5 (set) 978–0–313–33876–2 (vol 1) 978–0–313–33877–9 (vol 2)IssN: 1940–1132

F�rst publ�shed �n 2008

Greenwood Press, 88 Post road west, westport, CT 06881 An �mpr�nt of Greenwood Publ�sh�ng Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com

Pr�nted �n the Un�ted states of Amer�ca

The paper used �n th�s book compl�es w�th the Permanent Paper standard �ssued by the Nat�onal Informat�on standards organ�zat�on (Z39.48–1984).

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

�v

Preface v��

Chronology �x

Introduct�on x�x

Volume 1: Customs and soCiety

1 Context: The Land, the People, the Past, the Present 1Benjamin F. Shearer

2 Religion and Thought 69Benjamin F. Shearer

3 Gender, Marriage, Family, and Education 117Ellen Baier

4 Holidays and Leisure 153Wende Vyborney Feller

Volume 2: Culture

5 Cuisine and Fashion 193Benjamin F. Shearer

Contents

v

v� CoNTeNTs

6 Literature 231William P. Toth

7 Media and Cinema 265Agnes Hooper Gottlieb

8 Performing Arts 303Pamela Lee Gray

9 Art, Architecture, and Housing 343Benjamin F. Shearer

selected B�bl�ography 381

Index 383

About the ed�tor and Contr�butors 407

Culture and Customs of the United States �s part of the Greenwood Culture and Customs of North Amer�ca ser�es. As such, th�s work prov�des a gl�mpse �nto contemporary U.s. culture and a context through wh�ch to understand �t. A chronology �s prov�ded as well as a deta�led �ndex to the complete work. B�bl�ograph�es may be found at the end of each chapter, and a selected gen-eral b�bl�ography �s also prov�ded.

The f�rst chapter �s a general overv�ew of the land, cl�mate, people, language, and h�story of the Un�ted states. The vastness and abundance of the land �s one key to understand�ng the Amer�can character—how Amer�cans th�nk of themselves. L�kew�se, reg�onal var�at�ons also help to def�ne Amer�cans’ understand�ng of themselves and �ntroduce a certa�n d�vers�ty �nto what �t means to be an Amer�can. Indeed, d�vers�ty �s the hallmark of th�s nat�on of �mm�grants. The ethn�c m�x of the country has always been and rema�ns ever �n flux, and Amer�cans have never been shy to borrow what they l�ke from any ethn�c group to the effect of redef�n�ng the�r culture and customs.

The follow�ng chapters delve �nto part�cular aspects of the Amer�can cul-tural exper�ence. Chapter 2 explores Amer�can rel�g�ons, overwhelm�ngly Chr�st�an, and how rel�g�ous thought affects the pol�t�cal and soc�al arenas. Gender, marr�age, fam�ly, and educat�onal �ssues are cons�dered �n chapter 3. In chapter 4, Amer�can hol�day customs and le�sure t�me act�v�t�es, �nclud�ng sports, are the subjects. Chapter 5 takes a look at the eclect�c world of Amer�-can food and fash�on. U.s. l�terature �s covered �n the s�xth chapter, med�a and c�nema �n the next. Chapter 8 covers the perform�ng arts, and f�nally, the last chapter d�scusses Amer�can art and arch�tecture as well as hous�ng.

Preface

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30,000 b.c.e. M�grat�ng groups from As�a and south Amer�ca beg�n populat�ng North Amer�ca.

1492 Chr�stopher Columbus lands �n the New world.

1565 span�sh found st. August�ne, Flor�da.

1607 Jamestown, V�rg�n�a, colony founded by the Br�t�sh.

1619 F�rst Afr�can slaves arr�ve �n V�rg�n�a.

1620 P�lgr�ms land at Plymouth and s�gn the Mayflower Compact.

1621 F�rst Thanksg�v�ng at Plymouth.

1626 dutch found New Amsterdam on Manhattan.

1636 Harvard College founded.

1638 sweden founds a colony �n delaware.

F�rst Bapt�st church �n Amer�ca �s founded.

1692 w�tchcraft tr�als �n salem, Massachusetts.

1718 French found New orleans.

1729 Benjam�n Frankl�n buys the Pennsylvania Gazette and �s �ts pub-l�sher.

1741 Jonathan edwards g�ves sermon “s�nners �n the Hands of an Angry God,” ep�tom�z�ng Amer�ca’s rel�g�ous Great Awaken�ng.

Chronology

�x

x CHroNoLoGy

1769 Fr. Jun�pero serra founds m�ss�on at san d�ego, Cal�forn�a.

1775 Amer�can revolut�on breaks out w�th the battle of Lex�ngton and Concord.

1776 Newly named Un�ted states of Amer�ca declares �ndependence from Great Br�ta�n.

1781 Amer�can v�ctory �n the battle of yorktown ends the Amer�can revolut�on; Art�cles of Confederat�on become the law of the land.

1783 Treaty of Par�s off�c�ally ends the revolut�on and expands Amer�-can terr�tory to the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver.

The Pennsylvania Evening Post �s the f�rst da�ly newspaper �n Amer�ca.

1789 Const�tut�on replaces Art�cles of Confederat�on as Amer�ca’s gov-ern�ng document; George wash�ngton becomes f�rst pres�dent.

1790 The f�rst U.s. census counts 3,893,874 people, of whom 694,207 are slaves.

1793 el� wh�tney �nvents the cotton g�n, wh�ch proves a boon for the use of slave labor.

1796 Amel�a s�mmons publ�shes American Cookery, the f�rst cookbook �n Amer�ca.

1800 Congress convenes �n the new U.s. cap�tal, wash�ngton, d.C.

1803 Amer�ca purchases Lou�s�ana from France, doubl�ng the s�ze of the nat�on.

1808 Importat�on of slaves ends by federal law.

1812 war of 1812, ended w�th the Treaty of Ghent �n 1814, settles no Amer�can �ssues.

1817 The New york stock and exchange Board �s establ�shed.

1818 Un�ted states and Great Br�ta�n agree on U.s.-Canad�an border.

1819 wr�ter wash�ngton Irv�ng’s Sketchbook f�rst appears.

1821 The Adams-onís Treaty w�th spa�n, negot�ated �n 1819, �s rat�f�ed, end�ng span�sh cla�ms on oregon and U.s. cla�ms on Texas and g�v�ng the Un�ted states a southwestern border and Flor�da.

1826 James Fen�more Cooper publ�shes The Last of the Mohicans.

CHroNoLoGy x�

1830 Pres�dent Andrew Jackson s�gns the Ind�an removal Act �nto law.

Joseph sm�th founds a church �n New york that takes the name Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts (Mormons) �n 1838.

1838 The Tra�l of Tears beg�ns as the Cherokee are forced to m�grate to Ind�an Terr�tory.

1844 w�th the a�d of government fund�ng, samuel F. B. Morse proves the commerc�al eff�cacy of the telegraph.

1846 F�rst off�c�ally recorded baseball game takes place at elys�an F�elds �n Hoboken, New Jersey, between the New york Base Ball Club and the New york Kn�ckerbockers.

1847 Freder�ck douglas starts the abol�t�on�st newspaper the North Star.

1850 Nathan�el Hawthorne publ�shes The Scarlet Letter.

1851 Herman Melv�lle publ�shes Moby Dick.

1852 roman Cathol�c�sm becomes Amer�ca’s largest s�ngle rel�g�ous denom�nat�on. Harr�et Beecher stowe publ�shes Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

1857 In the dred scott case, the U.s. supreme Court dec�des that Afr�can Amer�cans have no r�ghts.

1861 The C�v�l war beg�ns and ends �n 1865 w�th defeat of the Confederate states. Henry wadsworth Longfellow publ�shes “Paul revere’s r�de.”

1867 The Un�ted states purchases Alaska from russ�a.

1868 Lou�sa May Alcott publ�shes Little Women.

1870 New york C�ty’s Metropol�tan Museum of Art �s founded.

1873 Lev� strauss and Jacob dav�s patent blue jeans.

1874 Alexander Graham Bell �nvents the telephone.

The women’s Chr�st�an Temperance Un�on �s founded �n Cleveland, oh�o.

1875 Mary Baker eddy publ�shes Science and Health, the bas�s for Chr�st�an sc�ence.

1876 walter Camp, the father of Amer�can football, wr�tes the f�rst rules for Amer�can football at the Massaso�t Convent�on.

samuel Clemens (Mark Twa�n) publ�shes The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.

x�� CHroNoLoGy

1877 Henry James publ�shes The American.

1879 Thomas ed�son �nvents the l�ghtbulb.

1889 The Wall Street Journal beg�ns publ�cat�on.

1890 Massacre at wounded Knee becomes the last battle of the Ind�an wars that began �n the seventeenth century.

1891 James Na�sm�th �nvents basketball at spr�ngf�eld College (Massa-chusetts) for the yMCA and wr�tes the f�rst rules the next year.

1896 U.s. supreme Court dec�s�on �n Plessy v. Ferguson establ�shes “separate but equal” pract�ce �n race relat�ons, thus re�nforc�ng segregat�on.

1898 The Un�ted states annexes Hawa��.

The span�sh-Amer�can war leaves the Un�ted states w�th the Ph�l�pp�nes, Guam, Puerto r�co, and Cuba.

1903 orv�lle and w�lbur wr�ght successfully fly the�r a�rplane �n North Carol�na.

Amer�ca’s f�rst narrat�ve f�lm, the 10-m�nute “The Great Tra�n robbery,” �s shown �n theaters.

1908 Henry Ford produces the f�rst Model-T automob�le.

Ashcan school (art�sts w�ll�am Glackens, robert Henr�, George Luks, and John sloan) exh�b�t the�r works �n New york C�ty.

1909 The Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for the Advancement of Colored People �s founded �n spr�ngf�eld, Ill�no�s.

1911 rad�cal magaz�ne the Masses starts publ�cat�on.

1913 Cec�l B. deM�lle makes Hollywood’s f�rst full-length feature f�lm, The Squaw Man, a smash h�t that helped to establ�sh Hollywood f�lms.

1915 T. s. el�ot publ�shes “The Love song of J. Alfred Prufrock.”

1916 Margaret sanger opens Amer�ca’s f�rst b�rth control cl�n�c �n Brooklyn, New york.

1917 Un�ted states enters world war I.

1920 N�neteenth Amendment to the Const�tut�on g�ves women the r�ght to vote.

KdKA �n P�ttsburgh, Pennsylvan�a, becomes the f�rst rad�o broadcast�ng stat�on �n the Un�ted states.

CHroNoLoGy x��

ed�th wharton publ�shes The Age of Innocence.

Census reveals that most Amer�cans now l�ve �n urban areas.

1924 All nat�ve-born Ind�ans are g�ven U.s. c�t�zensh�p.

George Gershw�n’s Rhapsody in Blue �s f�rst performed �n New york C�ty.

1925 F. scott F�tzgerald publ�shes The Great Gatsby.

John scopes �s conv�cted �n court for teach�ng evolut�on at a Tennessee publ�c school.

1926 ernest Hem�ngway publ�shes The Sun Also Rises.

1929 The Museum of Modern Art �n New york C�ty opens to the publ�c.

w�ll�am Faulkner publ�shes The Sound and the Fury.

stock market crash prec�p�tates the Great depress�on.

1930 wallace Fard Muhammad founds a mosque �n detro�t that �s the or�g�n of the Nat�on of Islam.

1931 Bor�s Karloff stars �n the f�lm Frankenstein.

Construct�on of the emp�re state Bu�ld�ng �s completed.

1932 Amer�cans are �ntroduced to european arch�tecture as the Inter-nat�onal style exh�b�t�on opens at the Museum of Modern Art.

1934 George Balanch�ne and L�ncoln Kerste�n found the school of Amer�can Ballet.

1935 Federal homestead�ng ends, except for Alaska.

1936 Charl�e Chapl�n’s f�lm Modern Times appears �n theaters.

1937 walt d�sney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs �s the f�rst an�-mated full-length feature f�lm.

1939 wrGB makes the f�rst network telev�s�on broadcast from New york C�ty to schenectady, New york.

Profess�onal baseball and football games are telev�sed for the f�rst t�me.

John ste�nbeck publ�shes Grapes of Wrath.

Gone with the Wind �s a Hollywood smash h�t.

1941 The Nat�onal Gallery of Art opens on the mall �n wash�ng-ton, d.C.

x�v CHroNoLoGy

orson welles’s Citizen Kane revolut�on�zes f�lmmak�ng.

Un�ted states enters world war II after Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawa��.

1943 Art�st Jackson Pollock has h�s f�rst one-man show.

1948 Arch�tect Ph�l�p Johnson bu�lds h�s glass house.

1949 Arthur M�ller’s Death of a Salesman prem�ers.

1950 Un�ted states enters Korean war, wh�ch ends w�th arm�st�ce �n 1953.

1951 J. d. sal�nger publ�shes The Catcher in the Rye.

1954 In the case of Oliver L. Brown et al. v. the Board of Education of Topeka (KS) et al., the U.s. supreme Court overturns the sepa-rate but equal prov�s�on of Plessy v. Ferguson, allow�ng for the rac�al �ntegrat�on of schools.

1955 rosa Parks refuses to g�ve her seat to a wh�te man, thus start�ng a bus boycott �n Montgomery, Alabama, as a c�v�l r�ghts protest.

F�rst Mcdonald’s restaurant opens �n des Pla�nes, Ill�no�s.

d�sneyland opens �n Anahe�m, Cal�forn�a.

1956 elv�s Presley makes h�s f�rst number one h�t, “Heartbreak Hotel.”

1957 Jack Kerouac publ�shes On the Road.

1958 New york C�ty’s solomon r. Guggenhe�m Museum, des�gned by Frank Lloyd wr�ght, opens.

1960 Televangel�st Pat robertson purchases a small V�rg�n�a stat�on and calls h�s operat�on the Chr�st�an Broadcast�ng Network, thus beg�nn�ng conservat�ve Chr�st�an network telev�s�on.

1961 Pres�dent John F. Kennedy sends 100 spec�al forces troops to V�etnam.

1962 Pop art�st Andy warhol executes o�l on canvas, pa�nt�ng “200 Campbell’s soup Cans.”

1963 C�v�l r�ghts march on wash�ngton, d.C.

Bob dylan records “Blow�n’ �n the w�nd.”

1964 C�v�l r�ghts Act s�gned �nto law, proh�b�t�ng d�scr�m�nat�on based on race, color, rel�g�on, or nat�onal or�g�n.

1965 Nat�onal endowment for the Arts and Nat�onal endowment for the Human�t�es founded.

CHroNoLoGy xv

Ant�war marches �n wash�ngton, d.C., and race r�ots �n Los Angeles.

1967 F�lm The Graduate �s �n theaters.

1968 dr. Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr. and robert F. Kennedy are assas-s�nated.

1969 Group exh�b�t of conceptual art �s mounted �n New york C�ty.

woodstock mus�c fest�val takes place.

stonewall r�ot �n New york beg�ns the gay l�berat�on movement.

Ne�l Armstrong becomes f�rst man on the moon on July 20.

1970 Jesus Christ Superstar �s performed on Broadway.

The mov�e M*A*S*H �s �n theaters.

1971 All in the Family �n�t�ates soc�ally consc�ous comedy on telev�-s�on.

1972 The equal r�ghts Amendment, wh�ch proh�b�ts the den�al or abr�dgement of equal�ty of r�ghts on account of sex, passes Congress and �s sent to the states for rat�f�cat�on.

Ms. magaz�ne appears on newsstands.

Mov�e The Godfather sets open�ng day records.

Burglars break �nto watergate headquarters of the democrat�c Party Nat�onal Comm�ttee off�ces.

1973 Pres�dent r�chard M. N�xon declares “peace w�th honor” �n V�et-nam.

evangel�sts Paul and Jan Crouch found the Tr�n�ty Broadcast�ng Network, wh�ch cla�ms to be the largest Chr�st�an broadcast�ng network �n the Un�ted states.

U.s. supreme Court overturns state abort�on restr�ct�ons �n Roe v. Wade.

People magaz�ne beg�ns publ�cat�on.

1975 Jaws �s a megah�t �n theaters.

1976 Alex Haley publ�shes Roots.

Barbara walters becomes f�rst woman to anchor a U.s. network news broadcast.

1977 F�rst �nstallment of Star Wars h�ts theaters.

xv� CHroNoLoGy

1978 woody Allen’s f�lm Annie Hall starts a new fash�on trend.

Herman wouk publ�shes War and Remembrance.

1979 Cable sports network esPN �s launched.

1980 CNN beg�ns 24-hour telev�sed news report�ng.

1981 The IBM PC enters the market.

MTV comes to cable TV.

1982 The equal r�ghts Amendment fa�ls to be rat�f�ed by the states.

Gannett launches the nat�onw�de newspaper USA Today.

M�chael Jackson’s “Thr�ller” �s a best-sell�ng album.

1985 Quantum Computer serv�ces, wh�ch became Amer�ca onl�ne, �s founded.

1986 Fox becomes Amer�ca’s fourth nat�onal TV network, along w�th ABC, CBs, and NBC.

1987 Ton� Morr�son publ�shes Beloved.

1990 Un�ted states sends troops to l�berate Iraq�-occup�ed Kuwa�t �n the Pers�an Gulf war.

1991 Condoms advert�sed on Amer�can telev�s�on for the f�rst t�me.

1992 race r�ot breaks out �n Los Angeles when pol�ce are acqu�tted of beat�ng rodney K�ng, an Afr�can Amer�can man.

1993 Terror�sts set off a car bomb �n the garage of the world Trade Center �n New york C�ty.

The m�l�tary adopts a “don’t ask, don’t tell” pol�cy �n regard to homosexuals �n the serv�ce.

1995 Toy Story �s the f�rst d�g�tally an�mated full-length feature f�lm.

1996 The defense of Marr�age Act, wh�ch does not recogn�ze same-sex marr�age, becomes federal law.

1997 Blogs f�rst appear on the Internet.

1999 Pres�dent B�ll Cl�nton �s acqu�tted �n h�s �mpeachment tr�al.

2001 Terror�sts attack the world Trade Center �n New york C�ty and the Pentagon.

Un�ted states �nvades Afghan�stan �n operat�on endur�ng Freedom.

CHroNoLoGy xv��

2002 Playwr�ght suzan Lor�-Parks w�ns the Pul�tzer Pr�ze for drama for Topdog/Underdog.

2003 Un�ted states �nvades Iraq �n operat�on Iraq� Freedom, and Pres-�dent George w. Bush soon declares the m�ss�on accompl�shed.

2006 The populat�on of the Un�ted states h�ts 300 m�ll�on.

Broad republ�can defeat �n the November elect�ons v�ewed as repud�at�on of Bush adm�n�strat�on’s handl�ng of the Iraq� war.

xv��

The hope for new l�ves w�th new opportun�t�es that brought m�ll�ons of �mm�grants to the Un�ted states �n the past cont�nues today. The Un�ted states has always been a nat�on of �mm�grants and therefore constantly �n flux as new waves of m�grat�on from w�thout and w�th�n redef�ned the Amer�can exper�ence.

The Un�ted states �s not the world’s b�ggest country, but most Amer�cans l�ke to th�nk �t �s and act as �f �t were. The r�chness and enorm�ty of Amer�can resources make the nat�on v�rtually self-suff�c�ent �n many areas, most nota-bly �n agr�culture. w�th such abundance, Amer�cans are b�g consumers w�th generally h�gh �ncomes, at least by world standards.

“Amer�ca the Beaut�ful,” a patr�ot�c poem and song by Kathar�ne Lee Bates, sums up Amer�cans’ emot�on about the�r homeland: from sea to sh�n-�ng sea, beaut�ful, spac�ous sk�es overlook majest�c purple mounta�ns, amber waves of gra�n, and fru�ted pla�ns. God shed h�s l�ght on the Un�ted states, where freedom spreads across the w�lderness and alabaster c�t�es gleam. when th�s song �s sung at publ�c funct�ons, �t �s not unusual for the aud�ence to s�ng along, many w�th tears �n the�r eyes.

For many Amer�cans, the land �tself �s proof of a good God and a God-g�ven dest�ny. space—unknown and often unowned—gave early Amer�cans �n real terms a sense of �nd�v�dual freedom. Th�s �s an old trad�t�on. when the reverend roger w�ll�ams of the Church of england arr�ved �n Boston �n 1631, he refused to serve the church there because he no longer bel�eved �n an establ�shed church. In fact, he had become, l�ke the Pur�tans he later served

Introduct�on

x�x

xx INTrodUCTIoN

for a wh�le, a separat�st, but too rad�cal even for them. He cr�t�c�zed the Mas-sachusetts Bay Company—even quest�on�ng the legal�ty of �ts charter—and the churches. He befr�ended the nat�ves and supported the�r ownersh�p of the land. w�ll�ams refused to qu�et h�mself or retract h�s pos�t�ons and was g�ven s�x weeks to remove h�mself from Massachusetts. He found h�s own space, Prov�dence, where he could pract�ce h�s own �deas the way he wanted. e�ght years later, he had a royal patent for a un�ted rhode Island. For colon�sts and the �mm�grants who followed them, the New world was freedom from the constra�nts of the old world and freedom to pursue �nd�v�dual wants and des�res �n a bount�ful land.

It has been sa�d that �f someth�ng—anyth�ng—ex�sts, �t can probably be found �n the Un�ted states. The Un�ted states seems to have �t all, from all the extremes and everyth�ng �n between. Amer�cans take pr�de �n th�s. They are an �ndustr�ous and �nvent�ve people on the go, who value r�sk tak�ng and �ts rewards. They l�ke to th�nk that any person born �n the Un�ted states can grow up to be pres�dent, a bel�ef attr�butable to the�r sense of �ndependence, self-rel�ance, fa�r play, and hard work.

yet the culture of the Un�ted states seems to be f�lled w�th contrad�ct�on. Amer�ca fash�ons �tself to be a peace-lov�ng nat�on, but �ts armed forces have been �nvolved �n some 250 �nternat�onal m�l�tary act�ons s�nce the end of the e�ghteenth century, from Peru to Turkey, the F�j� Islands to Tr�pol�, sumatra to Uruguay, and nearly everywhere �n between. The U.s. Const�tut�on g�ves c�t�zens the r�ght to bear arms but does not recogn�ze equal r�ghts for women. Hollywood f�lms have def�ned Amer�can culture �nternat�onally, however er-roneously, but have never been beyond censorsh�p at home, r�ghts to freedom of art�st�c express�on and free speech as�de. In the so-called Land of equal�ty, Afr�can Amer�cans and Lat�nos earn less than wh�tes, and women earn less than men. wh�te educat�onal atta�nment far surpasses that of most m�nor-�ty groups. In a soc�ety that values sc�ent�f�c advancement, debates about the teach�ng of evolut�on �n publ�c schools stubbornly pers�st �n school boards across the country. even pres�dent�al cand�dates have to declare themselves for or aga�nst evolut�on.

These often deep ethn�c, econom�c, pol�t�cal, soc�al, educat�onal, and rel�-g�ous d�v�s�ons are, however, sources of v�tal�ty �n Amer�can culture. In the end, the culture of the Un�ted states �s based on a ser�es of comprom�ses, wh�ch, taken together, are a source of self-�dent�ty and pr�de for most Amer�cans. Indeed, the Found�ng Fathers understood th�s qu�te well, creat�ng a nat�on that, from �ts beg�nn�ng, declared freedom and l�berty for �ts c�t�zens and let slavery stand. Amer�cans bel�eve they can work out the�r problems �n t�me.

Amer�cans bel�eve that the�r country �s the best place to l�ve on earth. In sp�te of the fact that the Un�ted states of Amer�ca occup�es a space �n the

INTrodUCTIoN xx�

Amer�cas, spec�f�cally North Amer�ca, only �ts c�t�zens refer to themselves as Amer�cans. In the U.s. lex�con, Amer�cans do not �nclude Canad�ans, Ven-ezuelans, Argent�neans, Hondurans, or any other c�t�zens of nat�ons �n the Amer�cas. Throughout th�s work, the pred�lect�on for U.s. l�ngu�st�c hege-mony �s ma�nta�ned by us�ng the terms America and Americans to refer only to the Un�ted states and �ts res�dents.

xx��

The Un�ted states themselves are essent�ally the greatest poem.—walt wh�tman

The United states �s a vast land that features most of the geolog�cal ele-ments known to humank�nd: mounta�ns, deserts, swamps, plateaus, glac�ers, lakes, r�vers, caves, volcanoes, canyons, mesas, seashores, pla�ns, and even geysers and tar p�ts. The country was patched together over t�me, not always peaceably, out of Nat�ve Amer�can terr�tor�es that had been settled and or cla�med by england, France, Holland, sweden, spa�n, Mex�co, and russ�a. Amer�can culture was from the f�rst, therefore, a conglomerat�on of all these early �nfluences. Afr�cans, brought to Amer�ca �n slavery, and the �mm�grants who eventually poured �nto the country from other nat�ons also affected Amer�can culture and l�fe from early t�mes.

Amer�can culture, always �n a state of redef�n�t�on, can be understood �n terms of the nat�on’s �ncreas�ngly d�verse ethn�c groups and the reg�onal var�at�ons that engender d�fferences �n d�alects, food, cloth�ng, the arts, and even rel�g�on. yet beyond ethn�c and reg�onal d�fferences, there �s some-th�ng that �s d�st�nctly Amer�can. The c�t�zens of the Un�ted states, clus-tered largely around the major c�t�es, value the freedom to say what they want, dress as they l�ke, eat what they want, and l�ve where they want. They bel�eve rel�g�ously that the�r hard work w�ll be rewarded w�th a p�ece of the Amer�can p�e.

1

Context: The Land, the People, the Past, the Present

Benjamin F. Shearer

1

2 CULTUre ANd CUsToMs oF THe UNITed sTATes

the land

some bas�c �nformat�on may help to �llustrate the vastness of the Un�ted states. The Un�ted states occup�es 3,794,083 square m�les of the earth. About 79,000 square m�les of that area are �nland water areas made up mostly by the f�ve Great Lakes—Lake M�ch�gan (22,342 square m�les), Lake super�or (20,557 square m�les), Lake Huron (8,800 square m�les), Lake er�e (5,033 square m�les), and Lake ontar�o (3,446 square m�les). of all the freshwater lakes �n the country, and M�nnesota alone cla�ms to have 10,000 of them, only two others—Green Bay �n w�scons�n and the Great salt Lake �n Utah—have areas of more than 1,000 square m�les.1

The Un�ted states has 58,618 m�les of ocean shorel�ne and 3,962,830 m�les of r�vers and streams, all feasts for outdoor and sport enthus�asts. Twenty-s�x of the r�vers are over 500 m�les long, and 13 are over 1,000 m�les long. The M�ssour� r�ver �s the longest at 2,540 m�les. It flows from red rock Creek �n Montana to M�ssour�, where �t dumps �nto the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver above st. Lou�s. It has a dra�nage area of 529,000 square m�les. The M�ss�s-s�pp� r�ver, although second �n length to the M�ssour� at 2,340 m�les, dra�ns an area of 1,150,000 square m�les as �t flows from M�nnesota to Lou�s�ana. The nat�on’s most obv�ous topograph�cal feature, �t d�v�des and un�tes the country. Alaska’s yukon r�ver �s the th�rd longest at 1,980 m�les, and the st. Lawrence and r�o Grande are t�ed at 1,900 m�les.

If these k�nds of data are d�zzy�ng, �t �s not much help to break �t all down by state. Texas (268,581 square m�les), Cal�forn�a (163,696 square m�les), Montana (147,042 square m�les), Flor�da (65,255 square m�les), New Hampsh�re (9,350 square m�les), and New Jersey (8,721 square m�les) would all f�t hand�ly �nto the nat�on’s largest state, Alaska, w�th 663,267 square m�les. Imag�ne the l�berat�ng change �n m�nd-set that the western european �mm�grants who largely populated Amer�ca underwent. The Un�ted K�ngdom and Ireland together are the s�ze of New Mex�co. France, western europe’s largest nat�on �n area, denmark, Belg�um, L�echtenste�n, Luxembourg, Vat�can C�ty, Monaco, and the Netherlands all would f�t �nto Texas. Germany and sw�tzerland together are smaller than Cal�for-n�a. spa�n, Portugal, and Italy would f�t n�cely �nto Montana, Nevada, and Ar�zona, w�th room to spare. Less than half of Alaska would be needed to conta�n Norway and sweden.

Another perspect�ve m�ght be more useful. From Boston on the Atlant�c coast to Los Angeles on the Pac�f�c coast �s a 3,406-m�le dr�ve—when you get to Kansas C�ty, M�ssour�, you are about halfway there. (A commerc�al a�rl�ne fl�ght �s only s�x and a half hours.) A north–south jaunt from duluth, M�n-nesota, to san Anton�o, Texas, �s 1,415 m�les. If you dec�ded to take a dr�ve

CoNTexT 3

from seattle, wash�ngton, to Prudhoe Bay up on the Arct�c ocean �n Alaska, you could do �t, but �t m�ght be more an adventure than a l�ttle dr�ve �n the country. once you get to Anchorage, Alaska’s largest c�ty, located �n the south on the Gulf of Alaska, after 2,435 m�les, you would st�ll have another 847 m�les up to your �ntended dest�nat�on.2

It �s astound�ng that the Un�ted states rema�ns a rural country �nto the twenty-f�rst century, at least �n terms of land use. of Amer�ca’s total land surface of 1,937,700,000 acres (th�s excludes Alaska and wash�ngton, d.C.), 71.1 percent �s rural land that cons�sts of cropland (21.7%), pasture-land (6.1%), rangeland (20.9%), and forests (20.9%). The federal govern-ment owns 20.7 percent of the nat�on’s land, wh�ch �ncludes 91.9 percent of Nevada, 66.5 percent of Utah, 66.4 percent of Idaho, 50.6 percent of wyom�ng, and 50.2 percent of Ar�zona. water areas occupy 2.6 percent of the land. The rema�n�ng 5.5 percent �s developed land. Amer�ca’s large urban and bu�lt-up areas occupy only 4 percent of that developed land, and �f Alaska were �ncluded, that f�gure would, of course, shr�nk even further.

The geography and cl�mate of the Un�ted states prov�de for an almost easy abundance of bount�ful harvests and v�ews of unbr�dled natural beauty. The coastal pla�ns along the Atlant�c ocean and the Gulf of Mex�co have natural ports and �nland access through r�ver systems. wh�le the mean elevat�on of the Un�ted states �s 2,500 feet above sea level, the Atlant�c and Gulf coastal states have very low mean elevat�ons: delaware, w�th 60 feet; Georg�a, w�th 100 feet; Flor�da, w�th 150 feet; and Lou�s�ana, w�th 100 feet. The old Ap-palach�an Mounta�ns d�v�de the coastal pla�ns from the broad �nter�or pla�ns, dra�ned by the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver, that stretch to the rocky Mounta�ns. The flat to roll�ng pla�ns are home to Amer�ca’s tremendously product�ve agr�-cultural �ndustry. Above the central pla�ns, the Canad�an sh�eld, cut up by anc�ent glac�ers, descends, leav�ng one of the world’s largest depos�ts of �ron. The rock�es r�se dramat�cally above the pla�ns. Colorado’s mean elevat�on �s 6,800 feet; wyom�ng’s �s 6,700 feet. The rock�es g�ve way westward to �n-ter�or plateaus that grow w�der northward all the way to the yukon Bas�n �n Alaska. These plateaus, some carved �nto canyons, are rugged, subject to ex-treme elevat�on changes, and have l�ttle populat�on. The nat�onal parks �n th�s area—Grand Canyon, yellowstone, Glac�er—preserve these scen�c won-ders and make them access�ble. There are s�gn�f�cant o�l shale depos�ts where Utah, Colorado, and wyom�ng meet. Gold, s�lver, z�nc, lead, and uran�um have long been m�ned there.

The s�erra Nevadas and the Cascades form the western borders of the plateaus. Cal�forn�a has the h�ghest po�nt of elevat�on among the 48 con-t�guous states (Mt. wh�tney at 14,495 feet) and the lowest (death Valley


at 280 feet below sea level), both mak�ng for spectacular s�ghts. Cal�forn�a’s g�ant redwood and sequo�a forests also n�cely contrast w�th �ts Mojave desert. Between Cal�forn�a’s Coast ranges and the s�erras and Cascades l�es the Central Valley, wh�ch, w�th the Puget sound area and the w�llamette Valley, produces a var�ety of crops more d�verse than those grown on Amer�ca’s �n-ter�or pla�ns. The Cascades have a number of volcanoes, some of wh�ch, l�ke those �n Alaska and Hawa��, are st�ll act�ve.

The Un�ted states �s sa�d to have a moderate cl�mate. Generally, th�s �s true, unless stand�ng on a mounta�ntop, but there are not�ceable reg�onal var�at�ons. The average da�ly mean temperature of Boston �n New en-gland �s 51.6 degrees (Fahrenhe�t; Celsius �s another term fore�gn to Amer�-cans). The south’s prem�er c�ty of Atlanta’s �s 62.2 degrees. The m�dwest-ern hub of Ch�cago’s �s 49.1 degrees. The m�le-h�gh c�ty of denver’s �s 50.1 degrees, wh�le Phoen�x’s �s 72.9 degrees. Honolulu’s 77.5 degrees �s fa�rly constant. Averages can, however, be somewhat m�slead�ng. summer temperatures �n Phoen�x frequently r�se above 100 degrees, but because the a�r conta�ns l�ttle hum�d�ty, the deleter�ous effect on the human body �s somewhat m�t�gated. The oppos�te �s the case �n many southern c�t�es. M�am�, w�th an average da�ly mean temperature of 76.6 degrees, �s qu�te pleasant �n the w�nter, but �n the summer, when hum�d�ty levels r�se to 90 percent and the temperature to 90 degrees and more, the cl�mate be-comes nearly unbearable.

The temperatures �n the M�dwest are subject to tremendous seasonal var�a-t�on. Ch�cago, for example, has a da�ly mean temperature of 22 degrees �n January, but 73.3 degrees �n July, whereas Los Angeles has mean temperatures of 57.1 degrees �n January and 69.3 degrees �n July. The cl�mat�c cond�t�ons that make the M�dwest an agr�cultural cap�tal—hard freezes �n w�nter that help to break up the so�l �n spr�ng thaws and hot, hum�d summers—make l�fe d�ff�cult �n the extremes of summer and w�nter. Cla�ms, perhaps spur�-ous, have been made that �t �s so hot along the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver �n st. Lou�s dur�ng m�d-August that car t�res w�ll melt. At least eggs can be fr�ed on the street. In Ch�cago, summer bu�ldups of heat and hum�d�ty often lead to the deaths of those who have no a�r-cond�t�on�ng or fans. on the other hand, an early February walk down Lakeshore dr�ve, w�th the tall bu�ld�ngs on each s�de tunnel�ng the cold, st�ff breeze off Lake M�ch�gan, can only be descr�bed as an Arct�c vers�on of hell.

Prec�p�tat�on �s generally abundant across the nat�on. The m�dwestern ag-r�cultural breadbasket averages from 30 to 40 �nches of ra�n per year. Boston averages a b�t over 40 �nches per year; the southern c�t�es of Mob�le, New or-leans, and M�am� v�e for the t�tle of ra�n�est c�ty, w�th Mob�le on top at 66.29 �nches per year, beat�ng M�am� and New orleans by 8 �nches. In the ar�d

CoNTexT 5

southwest, however, Phoen�x averages only about 8 �nches of prec�p�tat�on and Los Angeles a l�ttle over 13 �nches. dams and water d�vers�ons prov�de these two major c�t�es w�th water. Many bel�eve seattle to be on top of the l�st of Amer�ca’s ra�n�est c�t�es, confus�ng fog, clouds, and dr�zzle for actual ra�nfall, wh�ch averages only about 37 �nches per year.

The Un�ted states has made s�gn�f�cant progress �n �mprov�ng a�r qual�ty s�nce 1970, even though �t has refused to become a s�gnatory to the �nter-nat�onal Kyoto Accords, wh�ch establ�sh acceptable levels of pollut�on �n an effort to prevent global warm�ng. In the last 30 years of the twent�eth century, the Un�ted states s�gn�f�cantly reduced part�culate matter and carbon mon-ox�de em�ss�ons. Lead em�ss�ons were el�m�nated. sulfur d�ox�de and volat�le organ�c compound em�ss�ons were cut �n half. only n�trogen d�ox�de em�s-s�ons rose sl�ghtly. Part�culate matter comes from m�scellaneous sources, but the s�ngle largest sources of carbon monox�de, volat�le organ�c compounds, and n�trogen d�ox�des are the m�ll�ons of gasol�ne and d�esel cars, trucks, and off-h�ghway veh�cles. sulfur d�ox�de �s produced �n fuel combust�on by �ndustr�es and electr�cal ut�l�t�es. In all of these em�ss�on categor�es, however, the amb�ent a�r concentrat�ons meet or exceed the government’s a�r qual�ty standards.

water qual�ty �s a d�fferent matter. A sampl�ng of Amer�can water qual-�ty cond�t�ons �n 2000 revealed that 39 percent of the r�vers and streams were polluted, agr�culture be�ng the largest contr�butor of the pollut�on, and another 8 percent were threatened. Forty-seven percent of the sampled lakes, reservo�rs, and ponds were found to be polluted and another 8 percent threat-ened, mostly by urban runoff and storm sewers, w�th agr�culture as a d�stant second culpr�t. Contam�nated sed�ments polluted 78 percent of the shorel�ne sampled along the Great Lakes.

The qual�ty of l�fe �n the Un�ted states, l�ke any country, �s affected by env�ronmental pol�cy as well as nature’s wh�ms, wh�ch can somet�mes turn v�olent. Amer�cans, however, tend to v�ew major natural d�sasters as th�ngs that happen only �n other countr�es, ma�nly th�rd world countr�es. They bel�eve that nature �s someth�ng that, w�th �ngenu�ty, can e�ther be harnessed or avo�ded. The 29 locks and dams on the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver between M�nneap-ol�s and st. Lou�s are a pr�me example. Bu�lt dur�ng the 1930s, the locks and dams were constructed to ma�nta�n a n�ne-foot sh�p channel for nav�gat�on and to prevent the flood�ng that had character�zed the r�ver’s h�story. Much of the nat�on’s gra�n harvest �s floated to d�str�but�on po�nts on barges up and down the r�ver when the waterway �s not frozen.

Amer�cans’ w�ll�ngness to tame nature one way or the other has m�n�-m�zed the effects of potent�ally catastroph�c events. In 2002, for example, only 49 Amer�cans lost the�r l�ves �n floods and flash floods. L�ghtn�ng k�lled


51 people. Tornadoes, wh�ch occur largely �n the south and M�dwest �n what �s called Tornado Alley, k�lled only 55. one hurr�cane h�t the ma�nland and resulted �n 51 deaths. what cannot be controlled can be known. The Un�ted states has developed excellent sources of �nstant �nformat�on through med�a—rad�o, telev�s�on, Internet, telephone, and cell phone—that can alert people to �mm�nent natural dangers so that they can seek �mmed�ate safety or prepare to evacuate.

The horrendous floods, earthquakes, and tsunam�s that have taken place around the world, end�ng tens of thousands of l�ves, are med�ated expe-r�ences for Amer�cans, who bel�eve such th�ngs could not happen �n the Un�ted states. Amer�cans typ�cally pour out the�r hearts and open the�r wallets for the v�ct�ms left beh�nd �n these traged�es. when Hurr�cane Ka-tr�na struck the Gulf Coast �n August 2005, Amer�cans saw what looked to all the world l�ke any other natural d�saster, w�th people cl�ng�ng on to loved ones and whatever belong�ngs they could carry as they tr�ed to escape the ravages of total devastat�on. Hundreds d�ed along the Gulf Coast from Alabama and M�ss�ss�pp� to Lou�s�ana, and hundreds of thousands were homeless. Most of New orleans, the place where the good t�mes rolled, was under water.

The Amer�can people were no less stunned by th�s event than they were by the 9/11 terror�st bomb�ngs �n New york and wash�ngton, d.C. The not�on that Amer�ca, so long �solated geograph�cally from the world’s trou-bles, could be attacked and thousands could lose the�r l�ves was un�mag�-nable. The blow to the Amer�can psyche was bew�lder�ng—Amer�cans had never v�ewed themselves as powerless v�ct�ms. L�kew�se, the natural devasta-t�on of New orleans aga�n made Amer�ca look and feel powerless, v�ct�m-�zed, and unprepared for someth�ng that �ts technology was des�gned to prevent. It was reported that some people from New orleans rad�o stat�ons managed to get back on the a�r �n the m�dst of the flood�ng. when one of the broadcasters referred to the wander�ng homeless as refugees, a fellow broadcaster corrected h�m w�th these words: “They are not refugees; they are Amer�cans.”

regions

suppose you wanted to do a road tr�p to see the country, got �n your car, and began travel�ng Amer�ca’s nearly 4,000,000 m�les of h�ghways. No matter where you set out, what d�rect�on you took, or where you stopped, you would exper�ence a k�nd of Amer�can megaculture created by corporate Amer�ca. It �s connected by �nterstate h�ghways and def�ned by a common med�a un�verse, where engl�sh �s spoken, dollars are traded, and peaceful commerce �s ma�nta�ned by an overarch�ng bel�ef �n Amer�can values. From

CoNTexT 7

sea to sh�n�ng sea, you could overn�ght at Hol�day Inns, ramadas, Marr�otts, Hampton Inns, days Inns, H�ltons, econo-Lodges, and sheratons. you could shop at wal-Marts (Amer�ca’s b�ggest employer), J.C. Penneys, sears, and Targets. you could sat�sfy your hunger w�th all-Amer�can hamburgers at Mcdonald’s, wendy’s, or Burger K�ng; w�th ch�cken at Ch�ck-f�l-A, Church’s, or Kentucky Fr�ed Ch�cken; w�th p�zza at P�zza Inn or P�zza Hut; w�th sandw�ches at subway or Arby’s; w�th f�sh at Long John s�lver’s; w�th steak at western-s�zzl�n or Ponderosa; w�th Mex�can food at Taco Bell; w�th Ital�an food at Fazol�’s or ol�ve Garden; w�th coffee at starbucks; and w�th dessert at Bask�n & robb�ns or da�ry Queen. If you were �n the mood for a del�ghtfully tacky yet unref�ned d�n�ng exper�ence, Hooters would hap-p�ly f�ll that need.

There �s a certa�n comfort after travel�ng hundreds or thousands of m�les that the currency has not changed, the language rema�ns understandable, and the B�g Mac at Mcdonald’s tastes the same as the B�g Mac back home. In-deed, Amer�cans take �t for granted and would even expect to converse about the same major news stor�es w�th anyone they m�ght meet along the way. Th�s layer of megaculture �s a k�nd of aff�rmat�on of Amer�ca’s greatness, values, and way of l�fe. yet at the same t�me, �t �s also a monument to mass product�on and mass market�ng des�gned to appeal to everyone and offend no one. Beyond the h�ghways and the shopp�ng mall park�ng lots, the many other layers of rac�al, ethn�c, rel�g�ous, l�ngu�st�c, and cultural d�vers�ty may be d�scovered that ex�st �n all the reg�ons of Amer�ca.

reg�ons are d�ff�cult to def�ne exactly, but there �s no doubt that there are reg�onal d�fferences w�th�n U.s. culture that are based on early m�grat�on patterns, h�stor�cal and current �mm�grat�on patterns, topography, cl�mate, and rel�g�on. These d�fferences are expressed �n language, custom, food, fash�on, arch�tecture, le�sure act�v�t�es, and the arts. on a w�de scale, most Amer�cans would agree that the nat�on d�v�des culturally �nto east, west, North, and south, although to real southerners, any fellow Amer�can not a southerner may be cons�dered just another yankee. There are �ndeed some var�at�ons �n the cultural �dent�ty of the people �n these four broad reg�ons. F�fty-f�ve percent of Afr�can Amer�cans �n the Un�ted states l�ve �n the south. Forty-n�ne percent of As�ans and 55 percent of Mex�cans l�ve �n the west. Forty percent of Amer�cans who cla�m her�tage of two or more races also l�ve �n the west.

Certa�nly, w�th�n and around these rather art�f�c�al boundar�es are un�que cultural areas. The east may be further d�v�ded between the M�d-Atlant�c states and the states of New england, each area hav�ng evolved from d�fferent h�stor�cal roots. The M�dwest, �n the center of the country, def�es the easy boundary of the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver, straddl�ng both �ts shores. southern coastal


culture d�ffers from the culture of the deep south. what m�ght be called the Northlands near the Canad�an border and �n Alaska are sparsely populated lands that are un�que and not eas�ly classed �nto four reg�ons. some have spoken of the space between Boston and wash�ngton, d.C., and Los Angeles and san d�ego as be�ng essent�ally densely populated megac�t�es, g�gant�c c�t�es of populat�on centers of m�ll�ons t�ed together by transportat�on l�nes and an urban culture. The mounta�n areas of Appalach�a and the ozarks have developed d�st�nct�ve cultures dur�ng years of relat�ve �solat�on. The Pac�f�c Northwest, also geograph�cally �solated dur�ng �ts early development, has de-veloped spec�al character�st�cs d�st�nct from the general western culture. Cer-ta�nly, the southwest has l�kew�se developed a reg�onal culture that �s ne�ther ent�rely western nor southern.

one problem w�th try�ng to �dent�fy reg�ons �s that they have fuzzy boundar�es. Another �s that �f you ask Amer�cans how they �dent�fy them-selves when asked where they are from, Texans w�ll say Texas and Cal�for-n�ans w�ll say Cal�forn�a. Alaskans do not �dent�fy themselves as westerners, and ne�ther do Hawa��ans. No one from a M�d-Atlant�c state w�ll �dent�fy h�mself or herself as a M�d-Atlant�can. yet New englanders, southerners, m�dwesterners, and westerners do �dent�fy strongly w�th the�r reg�ons. A buckeye from oh�o may just as well say “I’m from the M�dwest” as “I’m from oh�o.” only c�rcumstance would determ�ne the answer. If the oh�oan �s talk�ng w�th a fellow m�dwesterner, oh�o would be the obv�ous cho�ce for the answer. If, however, a New york C�ty nat�ve asks where he �s from, the buckeye w�ll answer that he �s from the M�dwest, �n deference to the known fact that that New yorkers have a skewed geograph�cal sense of anyth�ng west of the Hudson r�ver.

New England

New england �s the prototyp�cal p�cture of an �dyll�c Amer�ca to many Amer�cans. Includ�ng the states of Ma�ne, Vermont, New Hampsh�re, Massachusetts, Connect�cut, and rhode Island, New england �s home to small towns w�th steepled churches, small farms, town meet�ngs, and craggy landscapes from �ts mounta�ns to �ts shorel�ne. It �s �n many senses the b�rthplace of Amer�ca—�ts democracy, �ts l�terature, �ts poetry, �ts sp�r�t. Plymouth rock �n Massachusetts marks the land�ng of the f�rst P�l-gr�ms �n Amer�ca, and the old North Br�dge marks the beg�nn�ng of the Amer�can revolut�on. New Hampsh�re’s motto, “L�ve Free, or d�e,” sums up the sp�r�t of New england �ndependence �n stark cho�ces. New en-gland spawned Nathan�el Hawthorne, ralph waldo emerson, and Her-man Melv�lle. Another son of New england, wr�ter Henry dav�d Thoreau,

CoNTexT 9

�s a nat�onal symbol of Amer�can �ndependence and Amer�cans’ love of �ts natural landscape.

w�th 6,130 m�les of shorel�ne, l�fe �n New england has always been t�ed closely to the sea. whal�ng at one t�me was b�g bus�ness; f�sh�ng has always been. Clam chowder and codf�sh rema�n cul�nary h�ghl�ghts of New england fare. No one has ever v�s�ted Ma�ne w�thout eat�ng a lobster or v�s�t�ng one of the l�ghthouses that l�ne the rugged and rocky Ma�ne coast. Cape Cod pos-sesses m�les of beaut�ful sandy beaches and �ts own arch�tectural style. sh�p-bu�ld�ng, not surpr�s�ngly, has been a ma�nstay of New england �ndustry, supported by forests that cover the �nter�or.

The h�ghest po�nt �n New england �s Mt. wash�ngton, 6,288 feet �n el-evat�on. It �s s�tuated �n New Hampsh�re’s wh�te Mounta�ns, wh�ch, l�ke the Green Mounta�ns of Vermont and the Berksh�re H�lls �n Massachusetts, seem l�ke tame l�ttle h�llocks compared to the rock�es and the s�erra Nevadas out west. yet these beaut�ful mounta�ns and the streams that flow from them prov�de �ncred�ble outdoor recreat�onal opportun�t�es. sk��ng �s a major �n-dustry �n w�nter, and there �s usually plenty of snow. Nature walks, f�sh�ng, canoe�ng, kayak�ng, and rock cl�mb�ng are popular le�sure act�v�t�es �n the

Covered br�dges and colorful fall fol�-age add to the �dyll�c �mage of New england. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


less frozen months, but L.L. Bean w�ll certa�nly have the r�ght boots and cloth�ng for any New england outdoors enthus�ast.

Boston �s New england’s prem�er c�ty. It �s a f�nanc�al, educat�onal, and cultural center, w�th a h�story dat�ng back to 1630. Boston’s natural harbor has been the entry po�nt for m�ll�ons of new Amer�cans and the export po�nt for New england manufactured products. That harbor was the s�te of one of the colon�sts’ f�rst major protests aga�nst england, the Boston Tea Party. The Freedom Tra�l that w�nds through Boston for a couple m�les passes some of the colon�al landmarks �n the b�rth of Amer�can democracy. Boston’s n�ck-name, “Beantown,” commemorates �ts Pur�tan past—the Pur�tans were sa�d to have served and eaten beans frequently.

The Mid-Atlantic

The M�d-Atlant�c states of Pennsylvan�a, Maryland, New Jersey, and New york share a colon�al her�tage w�th the New england states. delaware declared �ts �ndependence from Pennsylvan�a and Great Br�ta�n �n 1776, thus becom-�ng the th�rteenth colony and, f�nally, the f�rst state. Although all these states were part of the or�g�nal Br�t�sh colon�es, they were much more culturally d�verse than New england. New york began as a dutch colony, delaware was full of swed�sh settlements, Quakers controlled Pennsylvan�a, and roman Cathol�cs were �n Maryland. The M�d-Atlant�c states, therefore, never shared New england’s Pur�tan her�tage.

Four very d�fferent major c�t�es dom�nate the M�d-Atlant�c states, three of them—New york C�ty, Ph�ladelph�a, and Balt�more—be�ng major ports for commerce and �mm�grat�on. wash�ngton, d.C., or the d�str�ct of Co-lumb�a, �s the nat�on’s cap�tal c�ty. New york C�ty �s Amer�ca’s truly �nterna-t�onal c�ty. w�th 578 m�les of waterfront, an excellent harbor, access to the Great Lakes from the Hudson and Mohawk r�ver systems, and serv�ce from three a�rports, New york C�ty �s a major commerc�al and transportat�on hub. There are over 1,000,000 fl�ghts from New york’s a�rports each year. It �s the f�nanc�al center of the country, �f not the world, and home to the New york stock exchange and many major banks. The c�ty gave b�rth to Amer�ca’s f�lm �ndustry, and �t rema�ns the cultural cap�tal of Amer�can theater, fash�on, art, arch�tecture, advert�s�ng, and med�a.

New york C�ty has long welcomed the “huddled masses yearn�ng to be free” to Amer�can shores. The statue of L�berty �n New york harbor �s an �mportant Amer�can �con, an endur�ng symbol of freedom. New york C�ty has never stopped accept�ng new people. Today, 36 percent the people who l�ve w�th�n the c�ty’s 303 square m�les were born outs�de of the Un�ted states, and 48 percent speak a language other than engl�sh at home. Twenty-seven percent of the people are H�span�c or Lat�no, and 10 percent are As�an. L�ke

CoNTexT 11

many �nternat�onal c�t�es around the globe, New york C�ty represents the world’s d�vers�ty �n m�crocosm. It �s home to over 400 ethn�c ne�ghborhoods, where more than 100 languages are spoken.

It seems that everyth�ng �n New york C�ty �s b�gger and better than any-where else, at least accord�ng to one noted Manhattan real estate developer. More than 40,000,000 people v�s�t the c�ty each year, stay�ng �n �ts 70,545 hotel rooms and spend�ng more than $21,000,000,000. There are over 17,300 restaurants and 12,000 l�censed tax�s; 4,465 buses make 44,550 tr�ps per day over 1,871 m�les of bus routes carry�ng 2,200,000 people on the average workday; 6,247 subway cars make 7,400 tr�ps a day over 685 m�les of track carry�ng 4,800,000 people a day to work, p�ck�ng them up and drop-p�ng them off at 490 stat�ons. The staten Island ferry makes 104 tr�ps a day w�th 70,000 passengers.3

In a very real sense, New york C�ty �s b�gger than �ts boundar�es. New york’s major art museums—the Museum of Modern Art, the Metropol�-tan Museum of Art, the wh�tney—are nat�onal treasures. The Metropol�tan opera �s Amer�ca’s prem�er opera house. Its ballet compan�es belong to the nat�on, not just to New york C�ty. Broadway plays and mus�cals, wh�ch are attended by more than 11,000,000 theatergoers each year, def�ne Amer�can theater.4 They frequently f�nd a w�der aud�ence �n f�lm and become the stuff of h�gh school, college, and commun�ty theater performances throughout Amer�ca. w�th the headquarters of trad�t�onal network telev�s�on compan�es �n New york C�ty, news and enterta�nment programm�ng as well as com-merc�als spread across Amer�ca, serv�ng to un�te the country �n a certa�n un�-verse of shared �nformat�on. There are more than 100 soundstages �n the c�ty. some 40,000 f�lms, telev�s�on shows, mus�c v�deos, and commerc�als are f�lmed there every year.

L�ke New york C�ty, Ph�ladelph�a had the advantage of a good port and an access�ble h�nterland that promoted �ts growth. Ph�ladelph�a l�es between the delaware and schuylk�ll r�vers. Independence Hall �s an �con of Amer�-can democracy—the place where �ndependence was born. wh�le there �s st�ll some ev�dence of w�ll�am Penn’s carefully la�d out rectangles �n h�s des�gn of the c�ty, Ph�ladelph�a now appears to be a sprawl�ng, meander�ng metropol�s, Amer�ca’s s�xth largest c�ty. The ev�dence, however, of Penn’s Quaker roots and the early �mm�grat�on of Germans to the Ph�ladelph�a area abounds. Quaker or Fr�ends’ meet�nghouses can be found all over the countrys�de, and soft pretzel vendors seem to be on every c�ty street corner. In Ph�ladelph�a, by the way, soft pretzels are to be eaten w�th mustard. North and west of the c�ty �s Pennsylvan�a dutch country, wh�ch, of course, �s not dutch, but deutsch, that �s, German. German and sw�ss p�et�st�c sects were welcome �n tolerant Pennsylvan�a. Today, Am�sh and Mennon�te commun�t�es thr�ve there.


Maryland shares w�th Pennsylvan�a a h�story of rel�g�ous tolerat�on. Quak-ers settled �n Maryland as well as Pennsylvan�a, and Am�sh commun�t�es re-ma�n �n both states. Balt�more, Maryland’s largest c�ty, has the d�st�nct�on of be�ng the f�rst roman Cathol�c archd�ocese �n the Un�ted states, organ�zed �n 1808. Now �n the m�dst of rev�tal�zat�on, Balt�more’s Inner Harbor has be-come a major tour�st dest�nat�on on the coast. wh�le Balt�more, w�th a popu-lat�on of 629,000, �s a major Atlant�c port, �t lacks the developed support�ng h�nterland that allowed c�t�es l�ke New york and Ph�ladelph�a to develop. Black urban m�grat�on from the south helped the c�ty’s populat�on to swell at one t�me—Afr�can Amer�cans number 64.3 percent of Balt�moreans—but the c�ty actually lost 11.5 percent of �ts populat�on �n the last decade of the twent�eth century. on the other hand, the Maryland suburbs around the nat�on’s cap�tal—s�lver spr�ng, Bethesda, Chevy Chase—seem to have grown exponent�ally and are stark contrasts to Maryland’s eastern shore, a bucol�c area on the shore of Chesapeake Bay where Maryland crab cakes are served �n abundance.

wash�ngton, d.C., only 35 m�les from Balt�more, �s surrounded by Mary- land, wh�ch donated the land for a federal cap�tal. wash�ngton, l�ke Ph�ladel-ph�a, �s a planned c�ty, but not w�th the rect�l�near clar�ty of old Ph�ladelph�a.

P�ttsburgh �s Pennsylvan�a’s second largest c�ty. Its skyl�ne �s dotted w�th skyscrapers and many br�dges, as the Allegheny and Monongahela r�vers merge to form the oh�o r�ver w�th�n the c�ty. Corb�s.

CoNTexT 13

wash�ngton �s des�gned as a ser�es of wheels (traff�c c�rcles) and connect�ng spokes (major arter�es) that serve to confound most tour�sts dr�v�ng �n the d�str�ct. Happ�ly, tour�sts do not have to dr�ve because the subway system �s easy to use and gets tour�sts to the d�str�ct’s many attract�ons as well as people to work.

It �s an Amer�can r�te of passage to v�s�t the nat�on’s cap�tal. A tr�p to wash�ngton �s often the f�rst fam�ly vacat�on many ch�ldren remember. It �s a lesson �n c�t�zensh�p. The Const�tut�on and the declarat�on of Independence are on d�splay at the Nat�onal Arch�ves �n what feels l�ke a temple’s most sacred space. V�s�ts to the neoclass�cal bu�ld�ngs that house the three bran-ches of government—the U.s. Cap�tol, the supreme Court, and the wh�te House—recall the anc�ent world’s democrac�es, wh�ch Amer�ca consc�ously replaced. The museums chron�cle the development of Amer�can technol-ogy and d�splay Amer�ca’s art�st�c r�ches and cultural her�tage. Memor�als to past pres�dents—Jefferson, L�ncoln, Frankl�n roosevelt—and the heroes of Amer�can wars make patr�ot�c hearts st�r.

reg�onal def�n�t�ons have blurred somewhat ow�ng to the extens�ve urban and suburban growth along the east Coast from north of Boston all the way to the nat�on’s cap�tal. A tr�p south down mult�lane Interstate 95 from

M�ll�ons of v�s�tors come to the V�et-nam Memor�al wall �n wash�ngton, d.C. every year. Many make pen-c�l rubb�ngs of the names of fam�ly members or loved ones whose l�ves were lost dur�ng the V�etnam war. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


Portsmouth, New Hampsh�re, around Boston and through Prov�dence, rhode Island, on further through Fa�rf�eld and stamford, Connect�cut, �nto New york and past New york C�ty to Newark, New Jersey, then r�ght through Ph�ladelph�a, past w�lm�ngton, delaware, under the Fort McHenry Tunnel at Balt�more, and f�nally to wash�ngton, d.C. w�ll prove exc�t�ng or harrow�ng, depend�ng on one’s psych�c d�spos�t�on. There �s plenty of t�me for s�ghtsee�ng from the car wh�le under way, unless trucks block the v�ew, because the mult�ple lanes of the h�ghway are randomly closed every few m�les to repa�r parts of the road that have crumbled under the we�ght of m�l-l�ons of tons of da�ly traff�c, salt to melt �ce �n the w�nter, and the natural ef-fects of w�nter freez�ng and spr�ng thaws. Thus, dur�ng the frequent stops and starts of an I-95 adventure, the s�ghtseer w�ll f�nd �t nearly �mposs�ble, save for h�ghway s�gns, to tell one c�ty from the next or where one c�ty beg�ns and another ends as suburban sprawl blends together any sense of boundar�es.

The South

The south �ncludes the states of V�rg�n�a, west V�rg�n�a, North Carol�na, south Carol�na, Georg�a, Flor�da, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, M�ss�s-s�pp�, Arkansas, Lou�s�ana, and the eastern part of Texas as well as parts of M�ssour� and oklahoma. Most of the south �s un�que among Amer�ca’s re-g�ons because �t once seceded from the Un�on to establ�sh the Confederate states of Amer�ca. The C�v�l war served to sol�d�fy from w�th�n and w�thout the �dent�ty of southerners as reg�onally separate.

Today, the south refers to �tself as the New south. The old south of wh�te-ha�red, wh�te-su�ted colonels s�tt�ng �n rock�ng cha�rs on the verandas of the�r plantat�on houses and s�pp�ng m�nt juleps w�th favored lad�es �n pas-tel hoop sk�rts ex�sts only �n tour�st attract�ons. Indeed, th�s old stereotype never expla�ned the complex�ty of the south that southern wr�ters l�ke w�ll�am Faulkner, eudora welty, and Flannery o’Connor understood and portrayed so well. There was never one south. w�th�n the southern reg�on, there are cul-tural var�at�ons among the Gulf Coast, the southern h�ghlands, the Georg�a-Carol�nas P�edmont, and the northern �nter�or. Certa�nly the Creoles and Cajuns �n French Cathol�c Lou�s�ana never qu�te f�t the old stereotype.

some remnants of the old south do pers�st. The New south �s st�ll f�lled w�th cotton f�elds, peanut f�elds, and farms w�th tobacco allotments. southern hosp�tal�ty rema�ns a valued commod�ty that �s only enhanced by a southern drawl. Gr�ts, b�scu�ts, and red-eye gravy can st�ll be found on southern breakfast menus, pork �s st�ll more popular than beef, and Carol�na-grown r�ce �s st�ll preferred to potatoes. Country mus�c, centered �n Nashv�lle, Tennessee, �s st�ll preferred on the reg�on’s rad�o stat�ons. yet the New south �s be�ng rad�cally transformed. The south has, for the f�rst

CoNTexT 15

t�me s�nce �t was settled by wh�tes mostly of Br�t�sh extract�on and blacks ex-tr�cated from the�r homelands to be New world slaves, become a preferred dest�nat�on for �mm�grants of all k�nds. The t�red, pastoral, slow old south has g�ven way to a New south of broad d�vers�ty and opportun�ty that �s on the go. Amer�ca’s corporate megaculture �s as much part of the New south as any other reg�on. Northerners have flocked to the sunbelt for jobs and warmer weather �n what �s now a d�vers�f�ed southern economy. even Afr�-can Amer�cans whose fam�l�es earl�er forsook the black codes and hopeless-ness of the old south have begun return�ng. The �nternal m�grat�on to the south, at the expense of northern c�t�es, has been so extens�ve as to endanger the famed southern accent �n the boom�ng southern c�t�es. The south has f�nally become �ntegrated �nto the rest of the nat�on.

The c�ty of Atlanta, left �n flames after the C�v�l war, �s the symbol and the proof of southern renewal. All roads �n the south seem to lead to Atlanta, whose metropol�tan populat�on grew over 38 percent from 1990 to 2000 and whose skyscrapers put to rest the stereotype of the old south and the Atlanta of Gone with the Wind. Atlanta, w�th over 4,600,000 people, was the center of Amer�ca’s c�v�l r�ghts movement and �s now Amer�ca’s n�nth largest metro area, w�th more than 1,000 �nternat�onal bus�nesses located there.5 The Coca-Cola Company, whose trademarks have worldw�de recogn�t�on, has long been head-quartered �n Atlanta. Many southerners cons�der a Coke a su�table �f not prefer-able alternat�ve to a morn�ng cup of coffee. Coke became so ub�qu�tous �n the south that many southerners st�ll use the word “Coke” to refer to any soft dr�nk. entrepreneur Ted Turner, who founded Turner Broadcast�ng Company, made Atlanta a cable-broadcast�ng center w�th CNN and aff�l�ated networks. The Hartsf�eld-Jackson Atlanta Internat�onal A�rport �s one of Amer�ca’s bus�est, w�th over 83,000,000 passengers pass�ng through �t each month.6

wh�le Atlanta �s the south’s �nland hub, the south also enjoys a number of �mportant seaports. Norfolk and Newport News, V�rg�n�a, are s�tuated at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. on down the Atlant�c coast, w�lm�ngton, North Carol�na, Charleston, south Carol�na, and savannah, Georg�a, are major ports. Charleston, a planned c�ty dat�ng from 1680, and savannah have managed to preserve the feel and arch�tecture of the old south. Flor�da has two major seaports on the Atlant�c: Jacksonv�lle and M�am�. Jacksonv�lle, a f�nanc�al cap�tal, has the d�st�nct�on of be�ng Amer�ca’s largest c�ty �n terms of area—841 square m�les. M�am� can be sa�d to be one of Amer�ca’s �nterna-t�onal c�t�es, but w�th a dec�ded southern or�entat�on. It �s the po�nt of entry for Car�bbean and south Amer�can tour�sm and �mm�grat�on. M�am�, w�th a heavy �nfluence of Cuban culture, has become a center of span�sh language broadcast�ng and H�span�c fash�on �n Amer�ca. M�am� has also exper�enced a large Ha�t�an �mm�grat�on.


Flor�da real estate was the subject of skept�cal humor even before the Marx brothers made fun of �t �n the�r 1929 mov�e The Cocoanuts. yet buy�ng “some swamp land �n Flor�da” turned out to be a good �nvestment for most. Flor�da beaches are among the best �n the world, and there are m�les and m�les of them. ret�rees have flocked to south Flor�da from the cold North. About 18 percent of Flor�da’s populat�on �s age 65 or older. orange groves �n central Flor�da have been d�m�n�sh�ng to make way for tour�st attract�ons that draw �nternat�onal cl�entele. orlando �s now a golf�ng mecca that �s also home to walt d�sney world resort, the Un�versal orlando resort, sea world or-lando, d�scovery Cove, and Cypress Gardens. Tour�st dollars fuel Flor�da’s economy and make a state �ncome tax anathema to Flor�da leg�slators.

Tampa �s a major port on Flor�da’s Gulf Coast, wh�ch features Busch Gar-dens among �ts many tour�st attract�ons. Mob�le, Alabama, New orleans, and Houston are other �mportant ports along the Gulf of Mex�co. w�th the except�on of these c�t�es, the Gulf Coast �s generally populated sparsely. F�sh-�ng has trad�t�onally been a major enterpr�se �n the small towns along the coastl�ne. The d�scovery of o�l and natural gas depos�ts �n the gulf, however,

M�am�’s beaches �n Flor�da are an Amer�can parad�se for travelers. Getty Images/Photod�sc.

CoNTexT 17

have made the energy �ndustry and related �ndustr�es the bas�s of most of the coast’s economy. ref�ner�es and chem�cal and paper plants surround the coast from Mob�le to Corpus Chr�st�. Unfortunately, the hot and hum�d Gulf Coast, wh�ch r�ses l�ttle above sea level, has a cont�nu�ng h�story of be�ng ravaged by hurr�canes. when the 2005 hurr�cane season knocked out part of the Gulf Coast’s energy explorat�on, ref�n�ng, and transportat�on capab�l�t�es, the ent�re nat�on felt the squeeze of h�gher fuel pr�ces and shortages.

The Gulf Coast from Mob�le through Lou�s�ana shared a very d�fferent h�story from the �nter�or south. Mob�le and New orleans were French c�t-�es, wh�ch meant that roman Cathol�c�sm took root there from the earl�est colon�al t�mes, rather than the evangel�cal Protestant�sm that flour�shed �n most of the south. By 1820, French Jesu�ts were operat�ng a roman Cathol�c college �n Mob�le. Along the coast and most notably around New orleans, French, span�sh, wh�te, black, and nat�ve cultures created an ethn�c jamba-laya unl�ke anywhere else �n Amer�ca or, for that matter, �n the world.

The east Texas c�t�es of Houston and dallas are major cultural and f�nan-c�al centers whose tall bu�ld�ngs reflect the gleam�ng Texas sun. Thanks �n great part to the telev�s�on ser�es Dallas, we tend to th�nk of b�g o�l and b�g cattle when we th�nk of th�s part of Texas, but agr�culture and �ndustry have

The Alamo �n san Anton�o, Texas rema�ns a symbol of l�b-erty and freedom even today. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


bu�lt these g�gant�c and grow�ng c�t�es, too. The dallas–Fort worth metro-pol�tan area �s the f�fth largest �n Amer�ca; Houston’s �s the e�ghth largest. In Texas, we beg�n to see a trans�t�on from southern culture �nto southwestern culture, and not just �n the subst�tut�on of boots for dress shoes and stetsons for baseball caps. In the c�t�es of Houston and dallas, the wh�te populat�on �s about 50 percent, and the Afr�can Amer�can populat�on �s about 25 percent, but over one-th�rd of each c�ty’s populat�on cla�ms a H�span�c or Lat�no her�-tage. In san Anton�o, a c�ty of 1,200,000 people about 200 m�les southwest of Houston, the wh�te populat�on approaches 68 percent, the Afr�can Amer�-can populat�on �s less than 7 percent, and 59 percent of the populat�on are of H�span�c or Lat�no or�g�n.

The Midwest

The states of oh�o, M�ch�gan, Ind�ana, w�scons�n, M�nnesota, Ill�no�s, Iowa, Nebraska, North dakota, south dakota, Kansas, eastern Colorado, and parts of M�ssour� and western Pennsylvan�a make up Amer�ca’s M�dwest, �ts breadbasket. Ch�cago �s �ts center. The �nfluence of the many Germans who settled �n oh�o, Ill�no�s, M�ssour�, and w�scons�n, the swedes and Norwe-g�ans �n w�scons�n and M�nnesota, and southern Afr�can Amer�cans �n the larger M�dwestern c�t�es can st�ll be felt. Ch�cago has the largest Pol�sh popu-lat�on of any c�ty outs�de of Poland. Huck F�nn and Tom sawyer were, �n a sense, born on the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver. M�dwesterners are down-to-earth folks who speak pla�nly and stra�ghtforwardly �n the preferred accent of the nat�onal med�a. M�dwesterners w�ll tell you they have no accent. The M�dwest �s steak and potatoes country.

If �t �s true that southerners would have to go through Atlanta even to get to heaven, M�dwesterners would have to go through Ch�cago. Incorporated as a town w�th a populat�on of 350 �n 1833, �t was a c�ty of over 4,000 people four years later. Now w�th a populat�on of nearly 3,000,000 l�v�ng on 228 square m�les of land, Ch�cago cla�ms the world’s bus�est a�rport, o’Hare Internat�onal, the world’s largest convent�on center, McCorm�ck Place, the world’s largest food fest�val, the Taste of Ch�cago, and the world’s b�ggest paroch�al school system, wh�ch �s run by the roman Cathol�c archd�ocese of Ch�cago.

Ch�cago’s geograph�cal locat�on �n the m�ddle of the country and �ts 29 m�les of lakefront on Lake M�ch�gan helped to make �t a transportat�on hub and a g�gant�c manufactur�ng and �ndustr�al power. Long the nat�on’s second c�ty to New york C�ty, Ch�cago has typ�f�ed the trend among large M�dwestern c�t�es of los�ng populat�on as southern, southwestern, and west-ern c�t�es cont�nue to grow. Ch�cago lost �ts second c�ty status to Los Angeles �n the later twent�eth century, but the years of New york–Ch�cago r�valry

CoNTexT 19

caused Ch�cagoans to start count�ng everyth�ng �n s�ght to prove the�rs was no t�ny toddl�n’ town. They counted 148,000 manholes and 47,330 f�re hy-drants on 3,780 m�les of streets. They found 4,300 m�les of sewer ma�ns, 4,290 m�les of water ma�ns, and even 6,400 b�ke racks. Ch�cago’s 30,000,000 v�s�tors each year could enjoy 560 parks, 200 l�ve theaters, 49 museums, and more than 7,000 restaurants and 200 annual parades.7

The M�dwest �ncludes what �s commonly called America’s industrial heart-land or, perhaps somewhat pejorat�vely, the Rust Belt. The fact �s that �n the M�dwest, manufactur�ng and farm�ng l�ve closely together. In add�t�on to Ch�cago, the c�t�es of Cleveland, oh�o, P�ttsburgh, Pennsylvan�a, M�lwaukee, w�scons�n, C�nc�nnat�, oh�o, and detro�t, M�ch�gan, grew to become large manufactur�ng centers. The oh�o r�ver Valley and the Great Lakes helped to create these �ndustr�al c�t�es, empowered by the needs of local agr�culture. P�ttsburgh means steel; detro�t means automob�les; M�lwaukee means beer; Kansas C�ty means beef; and st. Lou�s �s the gateway to the west.

The M�dwest �s also called Middle America and �ncludes the Corn Belt, f�lled w�th small towns separated by lots of open space. The towns are popu-lated w�th people who have sol�d and �ndependent values. Hot summers and cold w�nters comb�ne w�th rather flat land and generally good so�l to create some of the most abundant agr�cultural land �n the world. Corn, wheat, and soybeans are the major crops. ra�s�ng hogs and cattle augment �ncome from gra�n farm�ng. There �s extens�ve da�ry farm�ng �n w�scons�n and M�nne-sota above the pla�ns. w�scons�n produces about 50 percent of the cheese �n Amer�ca. Fru�t orchards dot the western Great Lakes. The fam�ly farm �s d�sappear�ng, but the Corn Belt �s st�ll about 80 percent farmland, notably �n places l�ke Ill�no�s and Iowa.8

The M�dwestern states of Kansas, Nebraska, south dakota, and North dakota l�e �n the Great Pla�ns. The pla�ns extend from Texas up �nto Can-ada, w�th eastern boundar�es that roughly straddle the western l�m�ts of Lou�s�ana, Arkansas, M�ssour�, Iowa, and M�nnesota. Port�ons of eastern New Mex�co, Colorado, wyom�ng, and much of Montana also l�e w�th�n the pla�ns. The H�gh Pla�ns stretch from south Texas �nto southern Nebraska. Tornadoes and tremendous thunderstorms rule th�s area, wh�ch �s hot �n summer and cold �n w�nter. Buffalo herds once roamed these grassy pra�r�es. Not even the Ind�ans much settled there. ranch�ng became the th�ng—hard w�nter wheat �n the south and spr�ng wheat �n the north pla�ns. In the north, barley and oats are major second crops, along w�th sunflowers.

The West

The west covers a lot of terr�tory: the �nter�or states of wyom�ng, Montana, Utah, Idaho, and western Colorado; the Pac�f�c Northwest states of oregon,


wash�ngton, and Alaska; Hawa��; and most of Cal�forn�a. The �nter�or states of the west are perhaps most emblemat�c of the Amer�can p�oneer trad�t�on. They have small populat�ons that are largely wh�te and non-H�span�c. wyom�ng, for example, �s typ�cal of the area, w�th a l�ttle over 500,000 people, 89 percent of whom are non-H�span�c wh�tes. The land does not g�ve way to an easy ex�s-tence, but the people there seem to have a certa�n open and welcom�ng fr�endl�-ness that leaves no room for pretens�on. wyom�ng gave women, equal to�lers on the front�er, the r�ght to vote �n 1869. The rocky Mounta�ns r�se out of the Great Pla�ns �n wyom�ng, and the Cont�nental d�v�de cuts d�rectly through �t. Although ra�s�ng cattle and sheep and grow�ng a few crops have always been essent�al parts of wyom�ng l�fe, agr�culture lags beh�nd m�n�ng and m�neral extract�on �n wyom�ng’s economy. wyom�ng �s the nat�on’s largest coal pro-ducer. Its nat�onal parks—yellowstone and Grand Teton—and �ts nat�onal monuments—dev�l’s Tower and Foss�l Butte—help to place tour�sm second �n �mportance to the state’s economy. M�ll�ons of acres of nat�onal forests are also located �n wyom�ng. wyom�ng �s truly the land where the antelope roam.

Montana, stretch�ng to 559 m�les east to west along the Canad�an border and 321 m�les north to south, calls �tself B�g sky Country. Its western th�rd l�es �n the rocky Mounta�ns, where the Cont�nental d�v�de descends; the rema�n�ng part of the state l�es �n the Great Pla�ns. Around 65 percent of Montana �s occup�ed by ranches and farms whose major products are wheat and beef. Twenty-f�ve percent of the state �s covered by forests, thus mak�ng the t�mber �ndustry �mportant to the local economy, but tour�sm �s second only to agr�culture. Glac�er Nat�onal Park �s an �mportant dest�nat�on, but Montana has over 17,000,000 acres of publ�c land and seven Ind�an reserva-t�ons. Montana also conta�ns �mmense coal depos�ts.9 Idaho, on the western s�de of the Cont�nental d�v�de, �s f�lled w�th scen�c r�vers and streams that make wh�tewater raft�ng a s�mple pleasure.

Utah has some of the nat�on’s h�ghest peaks but �s better known for the Great salt Lake, a br�ny remnant of an anc�ent freshwater lake, and the desert next to �t. For most p�oneers, Utah held l�ttle prom�se for settlement. For the members of the Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts, however, Utah became the Prom�sed Land on earth after a long and arduous exodus from persecut�on �n Ill�no�s.

California

Cal�forn�a �s larger �n area and has a larger gross domest�c product than most nat�ons. L�ke the northeast coast’s megac�ty, the area between santa Barbara and san d�ego �s Cal�forn�a’s answer, a blur of c�t�es and suburbs that seem to make one g�gant�c metropol�s w�th almost �mpercept�ble boundar�es.

CoNTexT 21

Cal�forn�a �s a land of beaut�ful coasts along the Pac�f�c ocean, mounta�ns, broad valleys, southeastern deserts, and northern forests. The Coast ranges l�ne the coast along fault zones that make Cal�forn�a prone to earthquakes. The Central Valley, wh�ch �s east of the ranges, �s agr�culturally r�ch. The val-ley �s a d�st�nct geolog�cal feature that was formed between the Coast ranges and the rugged s�erra Nevadas by dra�nage of the sacramento and san Joa-qu�n r�vers. More than 430 m�les long and, on average, 50 m�les �n w�dth, thanks to the damm�ng of r�vers and streams and �rr�gat�on, the valley �s one of Amer�ca’s r�chest agr�cultural reg�ons. The abundance of crops grown there �nclude almonds, barley, corn, cotton, grapes, oats, p�stach�os, r�ce, sorghum, sugar beets, sunflowers, tomatoes, walnuts, and wheat.10 ra�lroads and the d�scovery of o�l also fueled the valley’s growth and the development of �ts c�t�es—Bakersf�eld, Fresno, Merced, stockton, sacramento, Ch�co, and red-d�ng. North of the Central Valley �s a plateau that conta�ns volcanoes, notably Mount shasta and Mount Lassen. Northern Cal�forn�a gets more prec�p�ta-t�on than the south, where �rr�gat�on �s needed to support agr�cultural crops. In fact, water for Los Angeles �s suppl�ed through two aqueducts. The 1913 aqueduct �s 223 m�les long; the 1970 aqueduct �s 137 m�les long. F�res �n dry southern Cal�forn�a, where there are major o�l f�elds, are somet�mes dr�ven by strong w�nds. The Imper�al Valley �n southern Cal�forn�a can grow crops all year. Grapes are grown around san Franc�sco �n Cal�forn�a’s famed w�ne country; flowers are grown �n the Lompoc Valley; oranges and lemons are grown around the Los Angeles Bas�n. spec�alty crops add to the fresh cu�s�ne of Cal�forn�a.

Los Angeles and san Franc�sco are Cal�forn�a’s two ma�n urban hubs. They are very d�fferent c�t�es. Los Angeles, Amer�ca’s second largest c�ty, w�th 3,800,000 people and a metro populat�on of almost 13,000,000, �s a coagula-t�on of c�t�es connected by freeways w�th no real center. The manmade port of Los Angeles–Long Beach �s the major west Coast �mport-export po�nt. wh�le Hollywood and the enterta�nment �ndustry g�ve �t �ts gl�tter, Los An-geles reta�ns �ts aff�n�ty w�th the southwest. Although the As�an populat�on �s 10 percent of the total, some 47 percent of the populat�on cla�ms H�span�c, mostly Ch�cano, her�tage; 58 percent of the people do not speak engl�sh at home; and 41 percent were born outs�de of the country. The Los Angeles barrio, a word that s�mply means “ne�ghborhood,” has an area of 193 square m�les and a populat�on of almost 2,000,000 people.

san Franc�sco �s a more trad�t�onal c�ty of a b�t more than 750,000 people and a metro populat�on of 4,100,000. san Franc�sco’s H�span�c populat�on �s only about 14 percent, �n sharp contrast to Los Angeles. Its As�an populat�on, however, �s nearly 31 percent. The san Franc�sco Bay area, home to s�l�con


Valley and award-w�nn�ng w�nes, �s one of Amer�ca’s most scen�c places, w�th an excellent harbor that �s a gateway for As�an �mm�grat�on.

Hawaii

Hawa��, an arch�pelago of volcanoes that stretches west from the b�g �sland more than 1,800 m�les, has long been an entry po�nt for As�an �mm�gra-t�on. only about 114,000 of �ts 1,263,000 �nhab�tants are nat�ve �slanders. As�ans outnumber wh�tes f�ve to three. Hawa��, the b�g �sland, �s two-th�rds of the landmass. Nearly all the populat�on l�ves on the e�ght ma�n �slands: Hawa��, oahu, Mau�, Kaua�, Lana�, Moloka�, N��hau, and Kahoolawe. The state controls most of the land, about 80 percent. Hawa�� s �n the m�ddle of nowhere: some 3,600 m�les from Tokyo and 2,100 m�les from san Fran-c�sco. K�lauea and Mauna Loa are the most famous volcanoes on the b�g �sland. w�th a cons�stently temperate cl�mate, tour�sm �s a central econom�c force. Hawa��an mus�c, the hula, and the luau have long been a staple of Amer�can culture that �s constantly re�nforced �n f�lm and on telev�s�on. when ma�nland Amer�cans th�nk about Hawa��, they typ�cally p�cture the b�g blue waves offshore—surf�ng �s the state �nd�v�dual sport—and recall the tastes of p�neapples, Kona coffee, and macadam�a nuts.

The Pacific Northwest

The three states of the Pac�f�c Northwest are home to about 10,000,000 Amer�cans. Portland, oregon, and seattle, wash�ngton, are the ma�n c�t-�es, character�zed by wh�te populat�ons of over 70 percent. Both have good harbors, and both are �ndustr�al centers. There �s h�gh ra�nfall along the rug-ged coast that produces tall evergreens—douglas f�rs, red cedar, and s�tka spruce—and the valleys created between the Coast ranges and the volca-n�c Cascades, the w�llamette �n oregon and the Puget sound lowlands �n wash�ngton, prov�de agr�cultural opportun�t�es. east of the Cascades, wh�ch make up two-th�rds of oregon and half of wash�ngton, the cl�mate �s rather ar�d. The Columb�a r�ver prov�des needed �rr�gat�on as well as hydroelectr�c power. L�ke the dams on the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver, the 11 dams on the Colum-b�a, �nclud�ng Bonnev�lle and Grand Coulee, are further tr�butes to Amer�can can-do eng�neer�ng �n the conquer�ng of nature.

Lumber and the fur trade bu�lt the Pac�f�c Northwest, �solated as �t once was on the northwest t�p of the country, but Boe�ng and M�crosoft now help to susta�n �t. The sp�r�t of �ndependence that relat�ve �solat�on promoted can st�ll be felt there. It �s as �f the Pac�f�c Northwest were �ts own separate country. It could produce everyth�ng from apples to m�lk and cheese, hops to spearm�nt, and even grapes to grow �ts own w�ne �ndustry. wheat �s a major crop �n the h�lly Palouse of wash�ngton, and farm�ng �s a major undertak�ng

CoNTexT 23

�n the Columb�a Plateau on the oregon-wash�ngton border. even w�th the d�m�nut�on of the �mportance of the salmon bus�ness, the Pac�f�c Northwest nonetheless has created �ts own cu�s�ne based on the fresh foods ava�lable there. It �s an env�ronmentally fr�endly place where strangers are welcome, but not asked to stay.

Alaska, the largest state �n the Un�ted states �n terms of land, �s popu-larly thought to be the land of esk�mos, wh�ch, of course, �t �s. yet today, these nat�ve people account for only about 22 percent of the state’s sparsely populated terr�tory. wh�tes const�tute some 71 percent of the total popula-t�on, and the c�ty of Anchorage conta�ns some 40 percent of the state’s ent�re populat�on. wh�le the f�sh�ng and o�l and gas �ndustr�es are very �mportant to the Alaskan economy, the vast major�ty of Alaska’s people are engaged �n the serv�ce sector. Alaska �s a gorgeous yet forb�dd�ng land. Tour�sm �s a major summer �ndustry as v�s�tors come to the Land of the M�dn�ght sun to see the wonders of �ts many nat�onal parks and preserves, �ts thousands of lakes and glac�ers, and �ts hundreds of �slands. Mt. McK�nley �n the Alaska range reaches 20,320 feet, the h�ghest elevat�on �n the Un�ted states. Alaska truly �s Amer�ca’s Last Front�er.

The Southwest

The southwest �ncludes the states of New Mex�co, Ar�zona, and Nevada as well as southern �nter�or Cal�forn�a, west Texas, and parts of oklahoma. The r�o Grande r�ver �s one of �ts def�n�ng character�st�cs. Flow�ng south out of snow-packed mounta�ns �n Colorado, the r�o Grande cuts through New Mex�co and, north of el Paso, Texas, forms a 1,250-m�le border w�th Mex�co as �t makes �ts way southeasterly to the Gulf of Mex�co near Brownsv�lle.

Alaska �s one of Amer�ca’s many natural treasures, full of nat�onal parks, lakes, and glac�ers. Mt. McK�nley, found �n Alaska, �s North Amer�ca’s tallest mounta�n. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


The Falcon dam above M�ss�on and the Am�stad dam above del r�o have helped to m�t�gate the severe flood�ng that had been common downstream. In New Mex�co, the reservo�rs formed by the elephant Butte and Caballo dams prov�de sources for �rr�gat�on. The r�o Grande rema�ns the l�feblood of th�s part of the reg�on, one of the few ava�lable sources of water to susta�n human, an�mal, and plant l�fe.

The pla�ns, mounta�ns, deserts, r�vers, and canyons of the generally ar�d southwest prov�de some of Amer�ca’s most dramat�c landscapes and v�tal natural resources. The pla�ns that stretch northwest beyond the Texas border from san Anton�o and dallas through M�dland and Lubbock are cowboy country and home to �mmense herds of cattle, even some of the famous Texas longhorn cattle, on g�gant�c ranches. It �s also o�l country. Texas cont�nues to be a major o�l and natural gas producer, espec�ally s�nce the development of resources off the coast �n the Gulf of Mex�co. o�l bu�lt both M�dland and Houston.

New Mex�co calls �tself the Land of enchantment w�th good reason. Its eastern pla�ns, punctuated by the Carlsbad Caverns to the south, g�ve way to the red sangre de Cr�sto (blood of Chr�st) Mounta�ns �n the north and the san Andres Mounta�ns west of the Pecos r�ver as �t wends southward. The wh�te sands Nat�onal Monument southwest of Alamogordo appears as mounds and mounds of sugar dunes, but �t �s really gypsum. on the western s�de of the r�o Grande, the Jemez Mounta�ns and the Black range cozy up to the Cont�nental d�v�de, wh�ch roughly parallels the r�o Grande. As the desert cont�nues from the southwestern part of the state, forests of p�nes and f�rs l�e along the h�lls to the Black range and the Mogollon Mounta�ns. The northwestern New Mex�co desert �ncludes Ind�an lands and the otherworldly B�st� Badlands w�lderness Area.

In New Mex�co, perhaps more than �n any other southwestern state, the m�x of nat�ve, Mex�can, and Anglo cultures has coex�sted for so long that �t �s often �mposs�ble to �dent�fy wh�ch culture contr�buted what. New Mex�co had the greatest number of H�span�c settlers of all the old span�sh terr�tory Amer�ca took after the Mex�can war. ev�dence rema�ns of the�r adobe homes as well as the pueblos of the nat�ves. Beans, corn, and ch�l�s are the bas�c staples of the cu�s�ne of both cultures. In fact, red ch�l�s are one of New Mex�co’s major crops. Four tr�bes have reservat�ons of over 400,000 acres �n New Mex�co: the J�car�lla Apache, the Keresan, the Mescalero Apache, and the Zun�. Although the Anglo culture predom�nates overall, �t developed �ts own d�st�nct�ve southwestern flavor.

Ar�zona �s the Grand Canyon state. The Colorado r�ver cuts across northwestern Ar�zona to the Nevada l�ne, then to the Hoover dam, where �t flows south eventually to form Ar�zona’s border w�th Cal�forn�a. The Grand

CoNTexT 25

Canyon �s perhaps Amer�ca’s best-known, most photographed and pa�nted natural wonder, but Ar�zona �s f�lled w�th natural wonders. G�ant saguaro cact� populate the southeast. The Canyon de Chelly on the Navajo reser-vat�on �n northeast Ar�zona �s as breathtak�ng as the Grand Canyon. The Petr�f�ed Forest east of Holbrook and the Pa�nted desert above Flagstaff are un�quely beaut�ful. The burgeon�ng c�ty of Phoen�x �s surrounded by des-ert, copper m�nes, and Ind�an reservat�ons. There are 18 federal reservat�ons �n the state. The Navajo reservat�on �s by far the largest, occupy�ng nearly 14,000,000 acres. The Tohono o’odham (Papago) reservat�on �s almost 2,800,000 acres; the san Carlos reservat�on of the Apache tr�be �s 1,800,000 acres; the Fort Apache reservat�on �s 1,600,000 acres; and the Hop� reserva-t�on �s 1,500,000 acres. The rest are cons�derably smaller.

Nevada �s s�tuated �n the anc�ent seabed called the Great Basin. It �s ex-tremely dry, w�th a landscape that somet�mes resembles Mars w�th scrub brush. yet the Great Bas�n Nat�onal Park shows off the natural beauty of the bas�n, and Lake Tahoe’s forests and clear water are jolt�ng contrasts from the desert. s�lver and gold made Nevada; the gambl�ng and tour�sm �ndustr�es susta�n �t. Gl�tter�ng Las Vegas r�ses out of the desert on borrowed water, promot�ng �tself as a place where what happens there, stays there—as �f the

Known around the world for �ts beauty, the Grand Canyon �s only one of the southwest’s prec�ous s�tes. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


tour�sts were prospectors who had just h�t the mother lode and came to town to have a n�ght on the town. The w�ld west l�ves on.

The Appalachians and Ozarks

of spec�al note are two cultural reg�ons that l�e w�th�n the larger reg�ons. They are notable for the�r trad�t�onally �solated mounta�n culture. The Ap-palach�an Mounta�ns are a ser�es of what the locals call h�lls that stretch from northeastern Alabama to southern New york. They encompass western port�ons of North Carol�na and V�rg�n�a, northern Georg�a, eastern Ten-nessee and Kentucky, southeastern oh�o, all of west V�rg�n�a, and central and northeastern Pennsylvan�a. The Blue r�dge Mounta�ns form the eastern boundary. The Central Valley then g�ves way to the Appalach�an Plateau, w�th the Allegheny Front to the east of the valley. The shenandoah Val-ley prov�des the only v�able agr�cultural land �n Appalach�a. Coal m�n�ng �n southeastern Kentucky, west V�rg�n�a, Pennsylvan�a, and western V�rg�n�a has prov�ded a means of �ncome for th�s otherw�se poor area of small farms, but at no small cost to the health and safety of the m�ners. The Appalach�ans began to be populated �n the 1730s by engl�sh, scott�sh, and welsh settlers. They were later jo�ned by the scotch-Ir�sh from Ulster. The�r enthus�ast�c Protestant rel�g�on prol�ferated �nto tens of sects just among Bapt�sts. The Appalach�ans became �nvolved �n the Great Awaken�ng that began �n the 1740s and lasted for about 80 years. Camp meet�ngs—tent rev�vals were a ma�nstay of Appalach�a by the early 1800s—and the emot�ve gospel mus�c, featur�ng old world f�ddles, merged w�th bluegrass and became what we call today country mus�c. The ozarks were settled largely by Appalach�an people who m�grated westward. The ozarks extend from central M�ssour� through northern Arkansas and �nto eastern oklahoma and mark the only s�gn�f�cant h�lls �n Amer�ca’s m�dsect�on. ozark culture features many of the same char-acter�st�cs as Appalach�an culture, and both have preserved folk crafts and mus�c from an earl�er per�od.

the PeoPle

There are about 300,000,000 people �n the Un�ted states now, rank-�ng �t th�rd beh�nd Ch�na and Ind�a, each w�th populat�ons of more than 1,000,000,000 people. However, the populat�on dens�ty of Ch�na �s 359 per square m�le, and of Ind�a, 914 per square m�le. In the Un�ted states, on the other hand, there are only 82 people per square m�le, well below the world f�gure of 125. Th�s �s attr�butable not only to the vastness of the country, but also to �ts generally temperate cl�mate save for �nter�or and northern Alaska. russ�a, for example, has almost tw�ce the landmass of the Un�ted states, but

CoNTexT 27

much of the land �s un�nhab�table, thus leav�ng �t w�th only 22 people per square m�le. Canada, w�th about the same area as the Un�ted states, has only n�ne people per square m�le.

Cal�forn�a �s the most populous state, w�th 35,484,000 people (228 per square m�le), followed by Texas, w�th 22,119,000 (84.5 per square m�le); New york, w�th 19,190,000 (407 per square m�le); Flor�da, w�th 17,019,000 (316 per square m�le); and Ill�no�s, w�th 12,654,000 (228 per square m�le). New Jersey �s the most crowded state, w�th 1,165 people per square m�le, and rhode Island �s a close second, w�th 1,030 people per square m�le. wyom�ng has the least populat�on of all the states at 501,000, w�th only 5.2 people per square m�le. Alaska has the most w�de open spaces, w�th only 1.1 persons per square m�le.

The legacy of spac�ousness can be found �n Amer�cans’ personal sense of d�stance, wh�ch �s comfortable at about two feet. Gett�ng any closer would cause v�s�ble unease and be cons�dered an affront, �f not an assault, most l�kely result�ng �n an angry request that the offend�ng party “get out of my face” and “stop breath�ng my a�r” before push�ng and shov�ng beg�ns. yet wh�le Amer�cans enjoy hav�ng room to roam and a personal sacrosanct space, the vast major�ty l�ve �n urban�zed areas.

The new m�llenn�um f�nds 19,450 �ncorporated places �n the Un�ted states w�th a total populat�on of nearly 180,000,000. N�ne of those places are c�t-�es of more than 1,000,000 people, wh�ch are home to 23,300,000 people. New york C�ty, the largest of them, w�th over 8,000,000 c�t�zens, has 26,403 people per square m�le. sprawl�ng Los Angeles, w�th 3,800,000 people, has a populat�on dens�ty of 7,877 per square m�le, but Ch�cago’s 2,800,000 people are packed �nto the c�ty at the rate of 12,633 per square m�le. Houston’s 2,000,000 c�t�zens have 3,372 ne�ghbors �n every square m�le, but Ph�la-delph�a’s 1,500,000 c�t�zens have 11,234. Phoen�x (1,400,000), san d�ego (1,300,000), san Anton�o (1,210,000), and dallas (1,200,000) round out the l�st of Amer�ca’s largest c�t�es, all w�th populat�on dens�t�es of more than 2,700 per square m�le.11

Fourteen m�ll�on Amer�cans l�ve �n the 22 c�t�es w�th populat�ons between 500,000 and 1,000,000. More than 40,000,000 l�ve �n the 214 c�t�es w�th populat�ons of 100,000–500,000. Almost 28,000,000 l�ve �n the 397 c�t�es w�th populat�on between 50,000 and 100,000. small-town Amer�ca, how-ever, �s very much al�ve. Nearly 52,000,000 Amer�cans l�ve �n the 18,143 c�t-�es and towns w�th populat�ons of less than 25,000. of those c�t�es and towns, 16,683 have populat�ons under 10,000 and are home to about 10 percent of all Amer�cans.

The c�t�es alone do not tell the whole story of where and how most Amer�cans l�ve. An ent�rely d�fferent k�nd of automob�le-enabled culture has


developed �n the suburban areas that surround Amer�ca’s great c�t�es. when the suburban and other areas that are dependent largely on core c�t�es are cons�dered as metropol�tan areas, a clearer p�cture emerges. The metropol�tan area of New york C�ty, wh�ch �ncludes parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvan�a, swells to 18,600,000 people, more than tw�ce the number �n the c�ty �tself. The Los Angeles metropol�tan area, w�th 12,800,000 people, �s more than three t�mes the populat�on of the c�ty alone. Ch�cago’s metropol�tan area has 9,300,000 �nhab�tants, Ph�ladelph�a’s has 5,800,000, and dallas’s has 5,600,000. These are Amer�ca’s largest f�ve metropol�tan areas, topp�ng the l�st of 50 metropol�tan areas w�th populat�ons of more than 1,000,000.

Today, 79 percent of Amer�cans l�ve �n urban�zed areas—more than half of them �n urban�zed areas of over 1,000,000. The urban populat�ons of Cal�-forn�a, Hawa��, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, and rhode Island exceed 90 percent. only about 2 percent of Amer�cans l�ve on farms.

so who are these Amer�cans? Amer�ca �s now more rac�ally and ethn�cally d�verse than at any t�me �n �ts h�story. Nearly 2 percent of the populat�on cla�ms the her�tage of two or more races. of those cla�m�ng a s�ngle race, wh�tes st�ll compr�se the major�ty at over 75 percent. Afr�can Amer�cans are a l�ttle over 12 percent of the populat�on, Amer�can Ind�ans and Alaska nat�ves a b�t under 1 percent, As�ans 4.2 percent, and 2 percent cla�m some other race. over 14 percent of the total populat�on of any race cla�m Lat�no or H�s-pan�c her�tage.12 F�fty percent of H�span�cs are Mex�can �n or�g�n; 36 percent l�ve �n Cal�forn�a, w�th large cont�ngents of Cubans �n Flor�da, and others �n Ill�no�s, Texas, and New york. of wh�tes, most cla�m a Br�t�sh ancestry, but about 22 percent are of German descent, and 18 percent are of Ir�sh descent.

The m�x keeps chang�ng. Around 1,000,000 legal �mm�grants are ad-m�tted each year, 70 percent of them relat�ves of U.s. c�t�zens. In 2002, for example, of the 1,063,700 adm�tted �mm�grants, 174,200 came from europe; 342,100 from As�a; 60,300 from Afr�ca; 404,400 from North Amer�ca, of whom 219,400 were Mex�can; and 74,500 from south Amer-�ca. The number one dest�nat�on for Mex�can, Ind�an, Ch�nese, F�l�p�no, and V�etnamese �mm�grants was Cal�forn�a. Most Cubans went to Flor�da. New �mm�grants have tended to cluster �n the large c�t�es—Los Angeles, san Franc�sco, New york, Ch�cago, and Houston, for example—where others of the same her�tage are already ensconced. However, c�t�es such as Las Vegas, Atlanta, salt Lake C�ty, and M�nneapol�s have grow�ng H�s-pan�c populat�ons. As�an populat�ons are grow�ng �n denver, seattle, Bos-ton, detro�t, and M�am�. In add�t�on to th�s legal �mm�grat�on, est�mates are that there are 7,000,000 unauthor�zed �mm�grants l�v�ng �n the Un�ted states: 4,808,000 from Mex�co, w�th s�zable numbers also from el salvador

CoNTexT 29

(189,000), Guatemala (144,000), Colomb�a (141,000), and Honduras (138,000). of these 7,000,000 unauthor�zed �mm�grants, 2,209,000 were �n Cal�forn�a; 1,041,000 were �n Texas; and 489,000 were �n New york.

About 12 percent of the people �n the Un�ted states were born elsewhere. Not surpr�s�ngly, 49,600,000 people, 18.7 percent of the U.s. populat�on f�ve years old and older, speak a language other than engl�sh at home. wh�le some nat�ve-born Amer�cans f�nd th�s s�tuat�on alarm�ng, corporate Amer�ca has welcomed these new consumers, espec�ally those who speak span�sh, now Amer�ca’s second language. span�sh can be heard frequently �n Los Ange-les, san Anton�o, and M�am�, but all over Amer�ca, packag�ng has suddenly appeared �n span�sh and engl�sh, vot�ng ballots may be obta�ned �n span�sh, and b�l�ngual s�gns have sprung up �n reta�l stores, even �n suburb�a.

It �s not just a plat�tude that Amer�ca �s a land of �mm�grants. It always has been and cont�nues to be a dest�nat�on for refugees and those seek�ng a better l�fe. The real story about Amer�ca �s not �ts grow�ng and chang�ng popula-t�on, but �ts ab�l�ty to ass�m�late new �mm�grants �nto the Amer�can dream. To be sure, the process �s seldom qu�ck and somet�mes d�ff�cult. somehow though, the once undes�rable ne�ghborhoods of Amer�ca’s b�ggest and oldest c�t�es segregat�ng Ital�ans, Ir�sh, Jews, Afr�can Amer�cans, Ch�nese, Puerto r�-cans, and Poles became centers for the pursu�t of happ�ness Amer�can style.

Amer�ca’s publ�c educat�on system, des�gned at the outset to teach c�t�zen-sh�p as well as read�ng, wr�t�ng, and ar�thmet�c, �s perhaps one of the unher-alded causes of th�s transformat�on. As Amer�ca expanded westward, land was set as�de for schools, grade school through college. Today, the Un�ted states �s a h�ghly educated nat�on: 186,500,000 Amer�cans (83.9%) who are at least 25 years old are h�gh school graduates, and 27 percent have bachelor’s degrees or further h�gher educat�on.

Amer�cans l�ke to th�nk they l�ve �n a classless soc�ety. No one �s better than anyone else—everybody puts h�s pants on one leg at a t�me. Amer�cans do not bow, curtsey, or nod the�r heads when they meet fr�ends or strangers. w�th a f�rm gr�p and a handshake, Amer�cans look �nto the eyes of the people they meet and �mmed�ately beg�n a new relat�onsh�p on an equal, f�rst-name bas�s. yet the self-conf�dence and �ndependence th�s behav�or connotes �s also the power beh�nd the �nnovat�on and �nvent�veness that Amer�cans cher�sh, and entrepreneur�al r�sk tak�ng can lead to �ncred�ble wealth. B�ll Gates of M�cro-soft, M�chael dell of dell Computer, and serge� Br�n of Google are to the computer age what Andrew Carneg�e, J. P. Morgan, and John d. rockefeller were to the �ndustr�al age. There are about 70 personal computers for every 100 Amer�cans.

somet�mes pol�t�c�ans runn�ng for off�ce can f�nd just the r�ght slogan that resonates w�th a fundamental bel�ef nearly everyone holds closely. B�ll


Cl�nton prom�sed good th�ngs to those who work hard and play by the rules, much l�ke a preacher prom�s�ng heaven to those who pray and keep the 10 Commandments. Most Amer�cans bel�eve that hard work, whether backbreak�ng phys�cal labor or long hours at the off�ce (some 45,000,000 people l�st the�r occupat�on as managers or profess�onals, the largest s�ngle oc-cupat�onal category), �s the path to the Amer�can dream. It �s understood that salar�ed employees who work only 40 hours a week w�ll not move up �n the organ�zat�on. do�ng the m�n�mum shows no �n�t�at�ve. The good th�ngs hard work �s expected to br�ng are f�nanc�al �ndependence, wh�ch �s tantamount to personal �ndependence, new homes, new cars, n�ce vacat�ons, and a l�festyle of cho�ce. Amer�cans seem to enjoy show�ng off the bounty of the�r success. A b�g house, a b�g car, season t�ckets to football games—the th�ngs money can buy—tell everyone “I made �t.” It �s as �f there were an �mag�nary ladder of success Amer�cans try to cl�mb, and near the top rung, money talks.

Cl�nton cleverly juxtaposed the not�on of work and play. Amer�cans work hard and play hard, too, as we shall see, but what absolutely galls most Amer�-cans �s anyone who tr�es to get ahead by cheat�ng. Play�ng by the rules at work, at play, and �n l�fe �s a bas�c expectat�on. what the rules are �s not part�cularly �mportant, and they are always subject to change. The �dea that someone who was undeserv�ng would get someth�ng for noth�ng �s, however, almost too much to bear. Th�s was v�ewed as the problem w�th the welfare system; people who could have worked were gett�ng checks for not work�ng—not play�ng by the rules. on the other hand, Amer�cans pour out the�r hearts and w�ll�ngly open the�r wallets for people who cannot help themselves or are v�c-t�ms of d�sasters. Amer�can generos�ty �s legendary. M�ll�ons of dollars from �nd�v�dual Amer�cans have gone to surv�vors of tsunam�s, earthquakes, and terror�st attacks. L�kew�se, m�ll�ons of Amer�cans volunteer �n var�ous soc�al and rel�g�ous organ�zat�ons to help the less fortunate.

you do not have to be r�ch to part�c�pate �n the Amer�can dream. read-�ly ava�lable cred�t allows dreams to come true. Amer�cans are carry�ng $9,709,000,000 �n personal debt. It starts for many w�th college. The med�an educat�onal loan for graduates �s $16,500. The average amount f�nanced for a new car �s more than $24,000. The average household has cred�t and car loan debt of $18,700. Then there �s the mortgage on the house. Amer�cans carry more than $7 tr�ll�on �n mortgage debt. Payment of debt accounts for 13.6 percent of Amer�cans’ after tax �ncome, but only about 5 percent fa�l to keep up w�th the�r payments. easy cred�t �s an �nv�tat�on to a l�fe of hard work.

recent surveys have shown that the vast major�ty of Amer�cans v�ew them-selves as hard work�ng, �nvent�ve, and honest. A major�ty of Amer�cans also v�ew the�r compatr�ots as greedy and not rel�g�ous enough. one �n f�ve Amer-�cans, on the other hand, th�nks Amer�ca �s too rel�g�ous. Nearly half v�ew

CoNTexT 31

the country as v�olent, and over one-th�rd v�ew the�r fellow Amer�cans as �m-moral and rude.13 Hard work, �nvent�veness, and honesty are core Amer�can values that have pers�sted over t�me and are elemental to the format�on of Amer�can character. These values are also expectat�ons that Amer�cans have for each other and certa�nly for �ts newest c�t�zens.

It �s not surpr�s�ng that Amer�cans are often v�ewed by others as too b�g for the�r br�tches. Amer�cans’ expectat�on for th�ngs be�ng done �n the Amer�can way, whatever that may be, appears as arrogance. In fact, the Amer�can pen-chant for eff�c�ent use of t�me—gulp�ng down fast food, always on t�me for appo�ntments—seems to have created a robot�c soc�ety tuned to the clock as �f �n the last two m�nutes of a football game. when expectat�ons are not met—�f a traff�c jam causes one to be late, for example—Amer�cans feel a certa�n stress that may man�fest �tself as haught�ness. yet as self-rel�ant prob-lem solvers, they also bel�eve that whatever caused the system to go awry can be f�xed.

we w�ll see �n more deta�l later that Amer�cans are generally a rel�g�ous people, and Amer�ca �s home to perhaps 150 or more rel�g�ous groups. There �s a d�vers�ty of rel�g�ous values and bel�efs among Amer�cans, but that rel�-g�on plays a role �n bu�ld�ng Amer�can character �s �nd�sputable. Ne�ther can �t be d�sputed that v�olence �s part of everyday Amer�can l�fe, wh�ch seems to contrad�ct the rel�g�ous and c�v�c values that hold the nat�on together. In 2003, for example, 1,381,000 v�olent cr�mes were known to pol�ce across Amer�ca: 17,000 murders; 93,000 forc�ble rapes; 413,000 robber�es; and 858,000 aggravated assaults. over 10,400,000 property cr�mes were also re-ported. N�nety percent of the v�olent cr�mes occurred �n large metropol�tan areas. Handguns were the weapons used �n more than half of the murders.

The off�c�al language of the Un�ted states of Amer�ca �s . . . well, there �s no off�c�al language. That �s probably a good th�ng because �f Congress declared an off�c�al language, most Amer�cans would refuse to speak �t. Government and government mot�ves have always been v�ewed w�th a certa�n susp�c�on, and any attempt to regulate language would probably be cons�dered a v�olat�on of cher�shed �nd�v�dual r�ghts. Thus, �n a sense, there are some 300,000,000 d�alects of Amer�can engl�sh �n the Un�ted states. The fact �s, however, that language may be a clue to what reg�on a person grew up �n or l�ves �n. It also may h�nt at soc�al class, age, educat�on, and ethn�c�ty. when Amer�cans hear express�ons l�ke these, they can usually s�ze up the speaker’s background:

was you go�n’ to town?L�ke eeeeyoooo, that’s gross!They are vacat�on�ng �n warsh�ngton!The delegat�on arr�ved �n Cuber to see Castro!


How ya’ll do�n’?Leave the paper on the stoop!He’s all hat and no cattle!Are you go�ng to the shore th�s weekend?do she have the book?so, yous wanna go get a cheesesteak?That maht could work!you betcha!Let’s get a gr�nder for lunch!I’ve got to red up the house already!I asked for a soda, not a Coke!dame un b�peo later!The mach�ne’s all tore up!Go out to the bahn and check on the horses.dose doyty boyds are nest�ng r�ght under my w�ndow!

Broadly cons�dered, there are only two general d�alects �n the Un�ted states, northern and southern, each w�th numerous var�at�ons. The general northern d�alect �s spoken �n all areas of the country outs�de the old south of the Confederacy. Greatly �nfluenced by the language of New england, further d�alects of the general northern d�alect developed w�th westward expans�on. The Great Lakes d�alect �s spoken from syracuse to M�lwaukee, and �ts nasal As can be heard �n Ch�cago, detro�t, Buffalo, and Cleveland. The North M�dland d�alect, w�th full Rs pronounced, stretches from south Jersey and northern Maryland across most of oh�o, Ind�ana, Ill�no�s, Iowa, M�ssour�, Nebraska, and eastern oklahoma. The western d�alect, also w�th general northern d�alect roots, �s relat�vely new �n l�ngu�st�c h�story terms and �s m�xed w�th reg�onal sounds. subsets or subd�alects of the western d�alect �nclude the southwest, the Pac�f�c Northwest, central and northern Cal�for-n�a, and the �nter�or western states. The general southern d�alect has only two d�v�s�ons. The southern d�alect �s spoken �n the southeast from Maryland south to Flor�da and �n the lowlands of Georg�a, Alabama, M�ss�ss�pp�, Lou�-s�ana, and east Texas. The south M�dland d�alect �s spoken �n the h�ghlands and �nland from southern oh�o through the Texas panhandle.14

such broad class�f�cat�ons hardly do just�ce to the var�ety of the Amer�-can language. ethn�c groups br�ng the�r own flare to the language—Afr�can Amer�cans, Cajuns, Ch�canos—and Amer�ca’s major c�t�es, notably Boston, New york, and san Franc�sco, have developed a d�st�nct�ve pato�s. Teenagers of all ethn�c groups cont�nue to make and remake the�r own languages. yet

CoNTexT 33

even �n the face of th�s complex�ty and d�vers�ty, �t has been argued that Amer-�cans’ mob�l�ty and the constant, flat sounds of so-called standard Amer�can over rad�o and telev�s�on w�ll w�pe out reg�onal l�ngu�st�c var�at�ons. L�n-gu�st�c boundar�es may change and blur, but the fact rema�ns that people �n Boston do not sound anyth�ng l�ke people �n New orleans. what �s really �mportant to the fabr�c of Amer�can l�fe, however, �s that Boston�ans and New orlean�ans, Texans and M�ch�ganders, can all understand each other. Any engl�shman w�ll tell you that there �s an Amer�can accent.

the Past

the natives and European Exploration

The earl�est �mm�grants to Amer�ca began arr�v�ng perhaps 30,000 years ago from As�a over a land br�dge that connected s�ber�a w�th the North Amer�can cont�nent. Archaeolog�cal ev�dence also suggests that �nd�genous populat�ons �n south Amer�ca m�grated northward. By the t�me europeans d�scovered th�s New world at the end of the f�fteenth century, there were anywhere from 1,500,000 to 6,000,000 nat�ves �n the cont�nental Un�ted states and probably around 75,000,000 �n the ent�re New world. M�grat�ons to North Amer�ca and w�th�n the cont�nent cont�nued for thousands of years. These �mm�grants spread from the west to the Atlant�c ocean. There was a substant�al m�grat�on from establ�shed Mex�can cultures northward �nto the M�ss�ss�pp� Valley and beyond through wh�ch the cult�vat�on of ma�ze spread. They created emp�res, trad�ng routes, and a great number of d�st�nct languages and cultures. They were art�sts, art�sans, farmers, hunters, and trad-ers who ra�sed fam�l�es �n rel�g�ous trad�t�ons w�th soc�al values.

The complex�ty of the nat�ve cultures was lost on early european explor-ers. Indeed, we st�ll l�ve w�th Chr�stopher Columbus’s confus�on that he had found Ind�a and therefore named these Amer�can nat�ves Ind�ans. These explorers were confronted by people who spoke languages un�ntell�g�ble to them, who were naked, who were susp�c�ous of the�r mot�ves, and who ap-proached them carefully. one voyager chron�cled h�s aston�shment that the women could sw�m and run faster than the men. women athletes had been d�scovered. The explorers referred to themselves as the Chr�st�ans and to the naked nat�ves as savages.

These european att�tudes �nformed what qu�ckly became a european race to cla�m whatever r�ches the New world had to offer. To the m�nds of the c�v�l�zed Chr�st�an europeans, the nat�ves owned no cla�ms to the land. Chr�stopher Columbus, sa�l�ng for spa�n, d�scovered Amer�ca �n 1492, but never saw what would become the Un�ted states. John Cabot made cla�ms for england to North Amer�ca �n 1497. The span�sh, however, seemed to have


a leg up on the Br�t�sh. Juan Ponce de Léon explored the coasts of Flor�da �n 1513. After Cortés conquered the Aztecs and Mex�co �n 1522, span�sh explorers went north from there and from Cuba. Cabeza de Vaca explored the Gulf Coast from Flor�da to the southwest from 1528 to 1536. Hernando de soto explored what would be 14 states from Flor�da to M�ch�gan and west between 1539 and 1542. Franc�sco Vásquez de Coronado explored the southwest from 1539 to 1541 and d�scovered the Grand Canyon. Juan rodr�guez Cabr�llo explored Cal�forn�a �n 1542. In 1565, the span�sh estab-l�shed the f�rst c�ty �n the future Un�ted states, st. August�ne, Flor�da. s�rs walter rale�gh and Humphrey G�lbert d�d not establ�sh roanoke Island, the lost colony, unt�l 1585. Jamestown, establ�shed �n 1607, was england’s f�rst successful settlement.

France, the Netherlands, and sweden were also �n the race. France com-m�ss�oned G�ovann� de Verrazanno to seek the fabled Northwest Passage �n 1524, but �t was Jacques Cart�er who establ�shed French North Amer�-can cla�ms �n 1535. The span�sh el�m�nated French settlements �n Flor�da. In 1673, Lou�s Jol�et and Jacques Marquette explored the upper M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver, and �n 1698, s�eur de Lasalle explored Lake M�ch�gan and the upper M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver. s�eur de B�env�lle establ�shed New orleans �n 1698, and a year later, s�eur d’Iberv�lle was the f�rst european to enter the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver from the Gulf of Mex�co.

Henry Hudson made a cla�m for the Netherlands for all the land from the r�ver named for h�m to Albany �n 1609, but about 30 years later, the dutch government �ssued a patent to the New Netherlands Company for the area between V�rg�n�a and New France. sweden establ�shed a colony near w�lm-�ngton, delaware, �n 1638, but the dutch took �t from them �n 1655. N�ne years later, however, the dutch surrendered New Amsterdam to the engl�sh ow�ng to a b�t of engl�sh br�nksmansh�p. New Amsterdam became the engl�sh colony of New york, and the dutch were out of bus�ness �n North Amer�ca.

By 1700, england’s colon�es, hugg�ng the Atlant�c coast, were surrounded by French terr�tory to the north and west and span�sh terr�tory to the south. New France was an �mmense land that extended from Newfoundland and Nova scot�a all the way to Lake super�or, southward down the M�ss�ss�pp� to the Gulf of Mex�co, w�th eastern borders along the engl�sh colon�es. wars would make dramat�c changes. england took Nova scot�a and Newfound-land from France �n the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, wh�ch ended Queen Anne’s war. england found �tself p�tted aga�nst France and spa�n �n the French and Ind�an war that lasted from 1756 unt�l 1763 and thus �s also known also as the seven years’ war. w�th england’s v�ctory, �n part thanks to �ts Amer�can colon�sts, the so-called F�rst Treaty of Par�s �n 1763 gave england all of New France as well as the Flor�das, wh�ch had been owned by spa�n.

CoNTexT 35

even w�th england’s tremendous v�ctory, the war d�d not settle the so-called Ind�an quest�on. settlers were mov�ng �nto Ind�an terr�tory rap�dly and ceaselessly. K�ng George III tr�ed to stop them by draw�ng the 1763 L�ne of demarcat�on along the backbone of the Appalach�an Mounta�ns, a l�ne wh�ch settlers were forb�dden to cross. It d�d not work. The great ch�ef Pon-t�ac rebelled aga�nst the constant encroachment of the europeans onto nat�ve lands from 1763 unt�l he was defeated �n 1766.

the birth and development of the United States

when the next Treaty of Par�s was s�gned on september 3, 1783, end-�ng the Amer�can revolut�onary war, the Un�ted states’ borders suddenly stretched to the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver. england was out of the south as spa�n had all�ed w�th France and the colon�es and repossessed the Flor�das. when the Const�tut�on replaced the Art�cles of Confederat�on, wh�ch had not been ap-proved unt�l 1781, George wash�ngton became the nat�on’s f�rst pres�dent �n 1789. He became the leader of 3,893,874 Amer�cans, of whom 694,207 were slaves, accord�ng to the 1790 census. The new nat�on set out on �ts own, no longer under Br�t�sh control, but w�th the legac�es of hav�ng been Br�t�sh c�t�zens: a Protestant Chr�st�an rel�g�on, common law, democrat�c �nst�tu-t�ons, statements of r�ghts, the engl�sh language, and engl�sh manners and customs.

Already �n 1780, Congress env�s�oned new states �n the new terr�tory. states began ced�ng the�r land cla�ms to the federal government. In 1785, Congress prov�ded funds for surveys to lay out townsh�ps �n 36 numbered subd�v�-s�ons of one m�le each. Lot 16 was reserved for publ�c schools. No land was to be sold for less than $1 an acre. The 1787 Northwest ord�nance set �nto operat�on the development of the states of oh�o, M�ch�gan, Ill�no�s, Ind�ana, and w�scons�n. sell�ng land would help the bankrupt federal government. In 1796, Congress approved the sell�ng of one square m�le (640 acres) for $2 an acre. In 1800, you could buy 320-acre plots for $2 an acre on four years of cred�t. In 1804, 160-acre plots went for $1.64 an acre. In 1820, 80-acre plots went for $1.25 an acre.

Pres�dent Thomas Jefferson just wanted to buy New orleans. Control of that port c�ty was v�tal to Amer�can commerce. Much to h�s surpr�se, Na-poleon was w�ll�ng to sell not only the port c�ty, but also all of Lou�s�ana Terr�tory, wh�ch spa�n had qu�etly ceded to France. For a purchase pr�ce of $15,000,000, the Un�ted states got 800,000 square m�les of land, wh�ch would �nclude the future states of Lou�s�ana, Arkansas, M�ssour�, Iowa, Ne-braska, south dakota, and parts of seven other western states.

The Un�ted states cont�nued to t�dy up �ts borders. In 1818, the Un�ted states and england agreed to a 49 degree lat�tude northern border and jo�nt


occupat�on of oregon country. In 1819, the Un�ted states pa�d spa�n $5,000,000 for Flor�da and establ�shed a southwest boundary that cut spa�n off at the 42nd parallel, thus w�th no cla�m to the Pac�f�c Northwest. In return, the Un�ted states gave up the Texas Gulf Coast. Mex�co became Amer�ca’s new ne�ghbor �n 1821 when �t became �ndependent of spa�n. The republ�c of Texas, �ndependent of Mex�co s�nce 1836, was annexed �n 1845 at �ts behest. In 1846, the Un�ted states and Br�ta�n s�gned an agree-ment to settle the oregon country border along the 49th parallel, wh�ch perm�tted establ�shment of the states of wash�ngton, oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and wyom�ng.

The treaty settl�ng the Mex�can war �n 1848 gave Texas �ts r�o Grande border as well as south and west Texas. The Un�ted states rece�ved Cal�forn�a, Ar�zona, the oklahoma panhandle, and the southwestern corners of Kansas and wyom�ng. In just 60 years s�nce wash�ngton took off�ce, the Un�ted states stretched from sea to sea. yet as the Un�ted states reached the long-sought dream of what some thought to be �ts man�fest dest�ny, the year 1848 also marked the st�rr�ngs of a revolut�on �n Amer�ca.

women had stead�ly been mak�ng headway along the avenues long closed to them. They were gradually gett�ng legal control of the�r own property �n marr�age, and teach�ng grade school had become an acceptable call�ng. educat�on beyond elementary school was beg�nn�ng to open up—Mount Holyoke College became the nat�on’s f�rst women’s college �n 1837. women were beg�nn�ng to emerge as leaders �n educat�on, soc�al �ssues, l�terature, and journal�sm, but they lacked c�v�l r�ghts equal to men’s as well as the equal opportun�t�es men enjoyed. In 1848, delegates to the f�rst women’s r�ghts Convent�on assembled �n seneca Falls, New york. In the convent�on’s “declarat�on of sent�ments and resolut�ons,” the delegates declared that men had establ�shed “absolute tyranny” over women, and the facts proved �t. Men d�d not perm�t women to vote, and women were forced to l�ve under laws �n wh�ch they had no vo�ce. Marr�ed women were “c�v�lly dead,” and men had usurped women’s r�ghts to the�r own property and wages. Men had taken the good jobs for themselves and left to women only poorly pay�ng pos�t�ons. Men had blocked women from educat�onal opportun�t�es and created a d�ffer-ent “code of morals” for women. Perhaps most appall�ngly, men had tr�ed to destroy women’s conf�dence �n themselves, lessen the�r self-respect, and make them “w�ll�ng to lead a dependent and abject l�fe.”15 Th�s was the f�rst volley �n a cont�nu�ng struggle for c�v�l r�ghts, wh�ch, l�ke the Afr�can Amer�can struggle for bas�c r�ghts, would have a long and cont�nu�ng h�story. wh�te men were not �nterested �n lett�ng people unl�ke themselves �nto the�r pr�vate club.

The westward expans�on of the Un�ted states took place w�th�n the frame-work of sect�onal controversy, wh�ch was expl�c�tly played out �n the U.s.

CoNTexT 37

senate. southern senators had long t�red of what they saw as the attempts of northern senators to usurp power by l�m�t�ng the expans�on of slavery and the southern way of l�fe. The southerners felt left beh�nd pol�t�cally. Northern senators, many of whom bel�eved the ex�stence of slavery �n the Un�ted states was �n �tself an abom�nat�on, also were d�sgusted by the fact that southern pol�t�cal power �n the House of representat�ves was propped up by the con-st�tut�onal prov�s�on that slaves be counted as three-f�fths of a person �n the decenn�al census. (Nat�ve Ind�ans were not counted at all because as mem-bers of separate nat�ons, they were not c�t�zens. women were counted on both s�des, but not allowed to vote or even hold property �n most states.) Th�s meant that southerners could cla�m greater representat�on based on a populat�on w�th no r�ght to vote. Thus, as the south stagnated �n a largely rural, plantat�on economy w�th l�ttle urban�zat�on and poor transportat�on, the North was burst�ng w�th new populat�ons and grow�ng �ndustry, and excellent transportat�on routes had developed to market �t products.

The great senate comprom�se that allowed new states to enter the Un�on traded slave states for free states once the old Northwest Terr�tory entered the Un�on w�th slavery banned. The C�v�l war, fought from 1861 to 1865, ended that comprom�se and, more �mportantly, gave former slaves freedom and vot-�ng r�ghts, at least const�tut�onally. real�ty was qu�te a d�fferent th�ng. Black slaves from the west Ind�es and Afr�ca were some of the very f�rst Amer�cans, hav�ng been �mported �n large numbers �n the early 1700s and present early �n the preced�ng century. The �mportat�on of slaves �nto the country ceased �n 1808 (th�s was another comprom�se that helped to pass the Const�tut�on), and thus the Afr�can Amer�can populat�on became �nd�genous. yet Afr�can Amer�cans’ efforts to enjoy the fullness of Amer�can c�t�zensh�p rema�n a con-t�nuous struggle. Amer�ca and Amer�cans cannot be fully understood w�thout cons�der�ng what �s popularly called the race question. wh�le no Amer�can al�ve today can �mag�ne that people of any color were once bought and sold as property �n th�s nat�on conce�ved �n l�berty, ne�ther has any Amer�can been untouched by th�s legacy.

The C�v�l war was horr�f�c. The 1860 census counted 31,400,000 Amer�-cans. over 3,800,000 troops (2,800,000 Un�on sold�ers; 1,000,000 Con-federate sold�ers) had served �n the war by �ts end, and 558,052 were k�lled (359,528 Un�on sold�ers; 198,524 Confederate sold�ers). More than 412,000 sold�ers were wounded and surv�ved.16 Fam�l�es were dec�mated and d�v�ded. Much of the south was left �n ru�ns. The conclus�on of the war left two major quest�ons: what would become of the suddenly freed former slaves, and how would the south be repatr�ated �nto the Un�on? Congress, for �ts part, outlawed slavery and created the Freedmen’s Bureau �n 1865. The bu-reau was to prov�de educat�on, food, cloth�ng, and adv�ce to the freed slaves.


It was also to d�str�bute conf�scated land, but th�s proved mostly a fut�le ef-fort. w�dely hated �n the south, the bureau d�d, however, prov�de the only educat�onal opportun�t�es ava�lable to Afr�can Amer�cans at that t�me �n the south. The bureau was also help�ng Afr�can Amer�cans negot�ate contracts for the�r labor, an ent�rely new concept for former slaves, and the bureau also began record�ng the legal marr�ages of the former slaves, also someth�ng new. By 1872, however, the Freedmen’s Bureau was gone.

Pres�dent Andrew Johnson, l�ke h�s predecessor Abraham L�ncoln, wanted to br�ng the southern states back �nto the Un�on qu�ckly, requ�r�ng only that 10 percent of a seceded state’s voters take an oath of alleg�ance to the Un�on and accept the proh�b�t�on of slavery before a new state government be cre-ated, wh�ch would then be recogn�zed as leg�t�mate. Johnson acted qu�ckly to use L�ncoln’s formula to br�ng �n some states and then �ssued h�s own somewhat more d�ff�cult 10 percent solut�on. The recogn�zed states then began to pass the �nfamous Black Codes, wh�ch placed Afr�can Amer�cans �nto second-class status by law, w�thout the �nst�tut�on of slavery yet st�ll w�thout the r�ght to vote. In react�on, Congress passed the 14th Amendment to the Const�tut�on �n 1866, wh�ch was adopted �n 1868. Th�s const�tut�onal amendment declared “all persons born or natural�zed �n the Un�ted states,” notably former slaves, to be c�t�zens. Furthermore, �t prov�ded that no state “shall make or enforce any law wh�ch shall abr�dge the pr�v�leges or �mmun�-t�es of c�t�zens of the Un�ted states.” The amendment also forbad states to “deny to any person w�th�n �ts jur�sd�ct�on the equal protect�on of the laws,” yet �t stopped short of expl�c�tly g�v�ng Afr�can Amer�cans the r�ght to vote. That would not come unt�l 1870 w�th adopt�on of the 15th Amendment to the Const�tut�on.

The pol�t�cal squabbles among Congress, the pres�dent, and recalc�trant state governments led, �n 1867, to Congress’s plac�ng the old Confederate states, w�th the except�on of Tennessee, under m�l�tary rule �n f�ve d�str�cts. Under m�l�tary jur�sd�ct�on, all of the 10 formerly rebell�ous states were re-adm�tted to the Un�on by 1870, and new governments under new and better const�tut�ons were �n place three to four years after readm�ss�on. It was not unt�l 1877, however, that all the m�l�tary d�str�cts �n the old Confederacy were closed. Thus ended the reconstruct�on of the south. The federal government gave up any effort to reform southern rac�al th�nk�ng or enforce the laws �t had passed to assure Afr�can Amer�can equal�ty. Left to the�r own dev�ces, southern states developed J�m Crow laws that entrenched rac�al segregat�on, d�senfranch�sed Afr�can Amer�cans, and encouraged rac�al �njust�ce.

Follow�ng the C�v�l war, the Un�ted states cont�nued to expand �ts ter-r�tory. The 1867 purchase of Alaska from russ�a for $7,200,000 �ncreased U.s. terr�tory by 20 percent. Pro-Amer�can revolut�onar�es tossed out the

CoNTexT 39

royals �n Hawa�� n 1893, and �t was annexed to the Un�ted states �n 1898. Thus, at the dawn of the twent�eth century, the Amer�can states as we know them today were secured. Hawa�� and Alaska both off�c�ally entered the Un�on �n 1959. The country was populated and settled. Homestead�ng, except �n Alaska, ended �n 1935.

The U.s. Const�tut�on was constantly re�nforced as new terr�tor�es pet�-t�oned for statehood. state const�tut�ons had to be wr�tten and approved by Congress, and noth�ng �n a state const�tut�on could be ant�thet�cal to or con-trad�ct the federal document. The voters �n a prospect�ve state had to vote �n favor of the state const�tut�on and vote �n favor of jo�n�ng the Un�on. The state const�tut�ons, therefore, are often re�terat�ons of the U.s. Const�tu-t�on, sett�ng up three equal branches—execut�ve, leg�slat�ve, and jud�c�al—as checks and balances and adopt�ng the l�bert�es expressed �n the Const�tut�on’s f�rst 10 amendments, the B�ll of r�ghts. even at a t�me when We the People meant wh�te men, ar�stocrat�c or common, the values of Amer�can const�-tut�onal democracy spread across the nat�on, eventually creat�ng 50 un�ted, sovere�gn republ�cs. Thus, for Amer�cans, the Const�tut�on, the declarat�on of Independence, and the B�ll of r�ghts are revered l�v�ng documents. They together form the foundat�on for understand�ng how Amer�cans th�nk of themselves and l�ve �n a nat�on of laws.

American Indian Policy

The 1783 Treaty of Par�s that gave the land east of the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver to the new Un�ted states of Amer�ca also by default gave the Un�ted states all of the land �n that area belong�ng to the nat�ve Ind�ans. They, too, were l�v�ng �n a new country, but w�th no vo�ce.

Ind�an tr�bes were treated from the start as separate nat�ons, and thus the pres�dent was respons�ble for deal�ng w�th them as part of h�s fore�gn pol�cy. The early pres�dents enjoyed the�r status as so-called great wh�te fathers. Pres�dent wash�ngton la�d out what the pol�cy object�ves would be: peace, Ind�an happ�ness, and the�r attachment to the Un�ted states. Pres�dent James Monroe acknowledged �n 1821 that the federal Ind�an pol�cy had fa�led. He noted that Ind�ans had been treated “as �ndependent nat�ons, w�thout the�r hav�ng any substant�al pretens�ons to that rank.”17 A war department report found that there were 129,266 Ind�ans then �n the states and terr�tor�es of the Un�ted states and that the�r land cla�ms totaled 77,402,318 acres.18 someth�ng had to be done.

Ind�ans would be g�ven the Great Pla�ns, thought worthless to european wh�tes, and Congress gave the war department power to negot�ate trea-t�es, to be rat�f�ed by the senate, and eastern Ind�ans were to be moved �nto a place where they could l�ve peaceably w�th western Ind�ans. Between


1825 and 1841, numerous treat�es were made and rat�f�ed, and the Ind�an front�er formed around the western borders of Lou�s�ana, Arkansas, and M�ssour�, east almost to Ill�no�s, and �nclud�ng what would be most of Iowa and southern w�scons�n. w�th the passage of the Ind�an removal Act �n 1830, gett�ng the nat�ves out of wh�te settlements east of the M�s-s�ss�pp� r�ver became off�c�al U.s. pol�cy. yet no matter the n�cety of the treat�es, many nat�ves had no des�re to move. In the w�nter of 1838, the army forc�bly removed 15,000 Cherokee from the�r homeland �n north-western Georg�a to Ind�an Terr�tory over the Tra�l of Tears at the cost of some 4,000 Cherokee l�ves. sem�noles, who waged a long, �ll-fated war; Ch�ckasaw; Creek; and Choctaw took d�fferent tra�ls to the same end. In 1823, the supreme Court declared that Ind�ans had occupancy r�ghts but no ownersh�p r�ghts to the�r land.

By 1840, the Ind�ans were secured �n lands away from settlers, but only 10 years later, they were be�ng squeezed by both westward and eastward expans�on, un�ted by ra�lroads. There were around 83,000 northern Pla�ns Ind�ans—santee, yankton, oglala, Teton, s�oux, Northern Cheyenne, Arap-ahoe, and Crow. There were about 65,000 southern Cheyenne, Arapahoe, Navajo, and Apache l�v�ng �n Colorado, the southwest, and the central rock-�es. The F�ve C�v�l�zed Tr�bes removed earl�er from the southeast—Cherokee, Choctaw, Ch�ckasaw, Creeks, and sem�noles—shared the southern pla�ns w�th the Comanche, K�owa, and Pawnee tr�bes. These numbered 75,000. After the C�v�l war, Congress acted to restr�ct Ind�an lands even more. As the Ind�ans revolted, the government sought to l�m�t them to an Ind�an Terr�tory �n the future state of oklahoma.

In 1871, Congress took nat�onhood status away from the tr�bes. okla-homa was organ�zed �n 1890 as two ent�t�es: oklahoma Terr�tory and Ind�an Terr�tory. By th�s t�me, the m�ll�ons of buffalo that had roamed the west and had prov�ded the bas�s for Pla�ns nat�ves’ l�ves even after the C�v�l war were reduced to only about 1,000 by wholesale slaughter. In 1898, tr�bal courts were abol�shed. on March 3, 1901, the Ind�ans �n oklahoma became U.s. c�t�zens by act of Congress. oklahoma became the 46th state �n 1907. The Un�ted states pursued a number of Ind�an pol�c�es, �nclud�ng the 1887 dawes Act, wh�ch allowed allotment of reservat�on land to Ind�ans to turn them �nto someth�ng l�ke wh�te farmers. on June 2, 1924, all nat�ve-born In-d�ans became U.s. c�t�zens thanks to the�r war serv�ce. In 1934, the wheeler-Howard Act (Ind�an reorgan�zat�on Act) reversed Ind�an pol�cy and negated the dawes Act, wh�le promot�ng Ind�an customs, and gave tr�bes the r�ght to organ�ze themselves w�th const�tut�ons and bylaws �nto tr�bal counc�ls. It was extended to Alaska and oklahoma Ind�ans �n 1936. By 1947, 195 tr�bes or groups were operat�ng under the act.

CoNTexT 41

In 2001, there were sl�ghtly over 4,000,000 Amer�can Ind�ans and Alaska nat�ves, �nclud�ng over 180,000 Lat�n Amer�can Ind�ans, �n the Un�ted states. In rounded numbers, the largest tr�bes are the Cherokee, w�th 730,000; Na-vajo, w�th 298,000; Choctaw, w�th 158,000; s�oux, w�th 153,000; Ch�ppewa, w�th 150,000; Apache, w�th 97,000; Blackfeet, w�th 86,000; Iroquo�s, w�th 81,000; Pueblo, w�th 74,000; Creek, w�th 71,000; esk�mo, w�th 55,000; and Lumbee, w�th 58,000. All other tr�bes have populat�ons of less than 50,000, �nclud�ng the Cheyenne, Ch�ckasaw, Colv�lle, Comanche, Cree, Crow, dela-ware, K�owa, Menom�nee, osage, ottawa, Pa�ute, P�ma, Potawatom�, and so on.19 By far the largest and the only reservat�on/trust land w�th over 100,000 Ind�an �nhab�tants �s the Navajo Nat�on reservat�on and off-reservat�on Trust Land �n Ar�zona, New Mex�co, and Utah, wh�ch has about 174,000 Ind�an �nhab�tants.

Immigration and Migration

we have seen that the Un�ted states developed pr�mar�ly out of engl�sh culture and trad�t�on. In 1780, 75 percent of Amer�cans were of engl�sh or Ir�sh descent. Germans and dutch were a d�stant second and th�rd of the populat�on. The n�neteenth century, however, brought streams of �mm�-grants to Amer�ca. The potato fam�ne �n Ireland dur�ng the 1840s brought Ir�sh to the Un�ted states at a peak rate of over 100,000 per year. German �mm�grants swelled the populat�on after the fa�lure of the l�beral 1848 revo-lut�on. German �mm�grat�on was also encouraged by the Un�on government, �n need of sold�ers dur�ng the C�v�l war. Prom�ses of free land fueled the numbers w�ll�ng to f�ght for the North. About 1,000,000 As�ans—Ch�nese, F�l�p�nos, Japanese, Ind�ans—came to the Un�ted states �n the last half of the n�neteenth century and beg�nn�ng of the twent�eth century, but the�r numbers were dwarfed by the m�grat�on of europeans. Jews began m�grat-�ng to the Un�ted states from eastern europe dur�ng the last quarter of the n�neteenth century to escape rel�g�ous persecut�on. Cont�nued persecut�on �n western europe, most notably �n H�tler’s Germany, brought more Jews to the Un�ted states.20

At the beg�nn�ng of the twent�eth century, there were 76,212,168 Amer�-cans. of these, 10,431,276 were born elsewhere. Imag�ne bu�ld�ng a nat�onal �dent�ty out of 1,167,623 people from Great Br�ta�n; 1,615,459 Ir�sh, who d�d not l�ke the Br�t�sh; 1,134,744 scand�nav�ans, swedes be�ng the largest group; 104,197 French and 2,663,418 Germans, who were usually at war w�th each other back home; 484,027 Ital�ans; 145,714 Hungar�ans; 383,407 Poles; 423,726 russ�ans; 81,534 Ch�nese; 24,788 Japanese; 11,081 Cubans; and 103,393 Mex�cans, w�th smatter�ngs of people born �n Ind�a, Portugal, Czechoslovak�a, Turkey, Austr�a, Greece, Belg�um, and even Luxembourg.21


Although the number of As�an �mm�grants was rather small, espec�ally �n compar�son to the number of europeans, U.s. pol�cy beg�nn�ng �n 1924 ex-cluded As�an �mm�grat�on and encouraged ma�ntenance of the same m�x of people who had already come �nto the country. Ch�nese were not allowed �nto the Un�ted states for almost 20 years. Country �mm�grat�on quotas were abandoned �n 1965 for hem�spher�c quotas, wh�ch �n turn were abandoned �n 1978 for a total worldw�de ce�l�ng. Those who apply for �mm�grat�on v�sas f�rst now have the best chance of gett�ng them. Preference �s g�ven to �m-m�grants w�th fam�ly already �n Amer�ca and w�th job sk�lls needed �n the Un�ted states. Pol�t�cal refugees may have spec�al status. More than 1,000,000 �mm�grants rece�ved permanent res�dent�al status under var�ous refugee acts between 1991 and 2000. of these, 426,555 came from europe, pr�mar�ly the Ukra�ne and the sov�et Un�on/russ�a. Another 351,347 came from As�a, more than half of them from V�etnam, and follow�ng �n order thereafter from Laos, Iran, Tha�land, and Iraq. North Amer�cans number�ng 185,333, all but about 40,000 Cubans, came �nto the Un�ted states w�th refugee status. over 51,000 Afr�cans came �n, most of them to escape the human d�sasters �n eth�op�a and somal�a. They were jo�ned by 5,857 south Amer�cans.

As part of the state department’s d�vers�ty V�sa Program, 50,000 v�sas are �ssued annually to people from countr�es underrepresented �n the �mm�grant pool. wh�le russ�ans, Ind�ans, Canad�ans, Mex�cans, F�l�p�nos, Poles, Pak�-stan�s, and several other nat�onal�t�es are excluded from th�s program, Amer�ca �s now rece�v�ng small numbers of �mm�grants from Afr�ca, south Amer�ca, and elsewhere who are not otherw�se subject to refugee acts.

Between 1892 and 1954, more than 12,000,000 �mm�grants entered the Un�ted states just from ell�s Island.22 yet wh�le �mm�grants from abroad poured �nto Amer�ca, two other �ncred�ble m�grat�ons were tak�ng place �n-s�de the country.

In the space of 80 years, from 1890 to 1970, Afr�can Amer�cans forsook the rural south for northern and western c�t�es. More than 6,000,000 people sought freedom from overt rac�sm and a better l�fe �n �ndustr�al c�t�es that prov�ded jobs. Th�s grassroots m�grat�on fundamentally transformed Afr�can Amer�can culture �nto an urban phenomenon. Not unt�l the 1970s d�d Af-r�can Amer�cans beg�n to return to the south as rac�al barr�ers d�m�n�shed, and the general populat�on movement was away from northern c�t�es �nto a qu�ckly develop�ng sunbelt. The ongo�ng Mex�can m�grat�on �nto the Un�ted states �s l�kew�se hav�ng transform�ng effects on Mex�can-Amer�can culture.

wh�tes, too, were m�grat�ng. M�grat�on out of the southwestern agr�cul-tural pla�ns began �n earnest by 1910 and cont�nued through the 1970s. wh�le the �n�t�al m�grat�on from th�s area has been attr�buted to �ncreased farm�ng eff�c�enc�es and a general westward expans�on of the populat�on seek�ng new

CoNTexT 43

opportun�t�es, espec�ally �n Cal�forn�a, a comb�nat�on of events follow�ng the 1929 stock market crash caused another burst of m�grat�on to Cal�forn�a and elsewhere. As the Amer�can economy langu�shed �n depress�on, farm pr�ces plummeted. on top of that, ra�n v�rtually ceased �n the 1930s, g�v�ng r�se to the dust storms that gave the area of north Texas, the oklahoma panhandle, western Kansas, southeast Nebraska, southeastern Colorado, and extreme eastern New Mex�co the appellat�on the dust Bowl. some 300,000–400,000 ok�es made the�r way to Cal�forn�a �n a seem�ngly endless caravan that was documented �n l�terature, f�lm, and photographs. Not all the m�grants were �mpover�shed and carry�ng all the�r belong�ngs on a r�ckety old farm truck, but these were the p�ctures Amer�cans saw, p�ctures that v�olated the�r bel�efs �n an abundant land and the prom�se of prosper�ty.23

The Twentieth Century

At the dawn of the twent�eth century, the Un�ted states was �n full pos-sess�on of �ts ma�nland terr�tory and the outly�ng terr�tor�es that would even-tually add two new states, but the bus�ness of Amer�can democracy rema�ned qu�te unf�n�shed. In fact, �t was just gett�ng started. The federal government had granted generous r�ght of ways and land to promote the bu�ld�ng of ra�l-roads that would un�te east w�th west. The f�rst l�ne was completed �n 1869 when the ra�ls of the Un�on Pac�f�c com�ng from omaha, Nebraska, met the ra�ls of the Central Pac�f�c com�ng from san Franc�sco �n ogden, Utah. In 1883, the Northern Pac�f�c l�ne from duluth, M�nnesota, to seattle was completed. The southern Pac�f�c route from New orleans to Los Angeles was f�n�shed �n 1884, and the Atch�son, Topeka, and santa Fe l�ne from Atch�son, Kansas, to Los Angeles and san Franc�sco was completed �n the same year.

w�th these ra�lroads and others, Amer�can manufacturers and �ndustr�al�sts had a truly nat�onal market. Vast fortunes were made �n ra�ls, o�l, steel, bank-�ng, and f�nance. robber barons to some and ph�lanthrop�sts to others, these mult�m�ll�ona�res made the�r money �n a la�ssez-fa�re, cap�tal�st economy w�th few constra�nts. Government regulat�ons were few, there were no �ncome taxes (an �ncome tax was �naugurated �n 1861 by the Un�on to help pay for the C�v�l war, but �t was abandoned �n 1872), and there was not even a nat�onal bank to regulate money supply or modulate econom�c booms and busts. (An-drew Jackson, who cons�dered all banks to be ev�l, vetoed a b�ll to recharter the second Bank of the Un�ted states �n 1832.) Income taxes were re�nstated �n 1913, the same year the Federal reserve bank�ng system was created. wage earners, w�th meager benef�ts, were expected to save the�r money for the bad t�mes. Unemployment �nsurance and assured old age pens�ons became a real-�ty only �n 1935 w�th the passage of the soc�al secur�ty Act. After the fa�lure of reconstruct�on, the Amer�can la�ssez-fa�re system was not perce�ved to have


respons�b�l�ty for soc�al change or soc�al welfare. Frankl�n roosevelt and h�s New deal would change all that �n the depths of the depress�on.

The road to the Un�ted states becom�ng an �ndustr�al powerhouse that could also feed the world was not a stra�ght l�ne up the chart. To be sure, after the C�v�l war and �nto the twent�eth century, the Un�ted states was grow-�ng �n leaps and bounds �n v�rtually any �mag�nable category, from terr�tory and populat�on through �ndustr�al and agr�cultural product�on. However, the unregulated Amer�can economy was g�ven to excess�ve speculat�on and v�olent downturns. Called panics, these try�ng econom�c downturns occurred �n 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907. The Pan�c of 1819 was caused by easy cred�t for buy�ng and speculat�ng on land. when th�ngs got out of control, the Bank of the Un�ted states, wh�ch had once helped to fund the speculat�on w�th easy money, began call�ng �n some loans, and the bubble f�nally burst, leav�ng the country �n a depress�on for about four years. when Pres�dent Jackson dec�ded to end another burst of land speculat�on �n 1836 by requ�r�ng that federal lands had to be pa�d for �n spec�e (co�n), rather than �n worthless paper, he prec�p�tated the Pan�c of 1837 that lasted a good seven years and resulted �n a dramat�c deflat�on of commod�ty pr�ces and unemployment throughout Amer�ca’s c�t�es. The relat�vely short Pan�c of 1857, wh�ch was preceded by another speculat�ve boom �n land and ra�lroad stocks, aga�n saw pr�ces for stocks, bonds, and commod�t�es drop. The Pan�c of 1873, wh�ch lasted unt�l 1879, was caused by banks mak�ng extremely l�beral loans to rap�dly expand�ng Amer�can bus�nesses, part�cularly ra�lroads. Banks, many of wh�ch lent the�r reserves and even borrowed funds as well as the�r assets, fa�led, and thousands of bus�nesses went bankrupt. The short Pan�c of 1884 was aga�n caused largely by poor bank�ng pract�ces.

The Pan�c of 1893 �llustrated how tenuous the U.s. f�nanc�al system re-ally was. The stock market crashed early �n the year, and fore�gners sold out the�r pos�t�ons, wh�ch caused an �ncreased demand for gold, on wh�ch the U.s. currency was based de facto. (The gold standard became off�c�al �n 1900.) As a result, the U.s. Treasury gold reserves were depleted to as l�ttle as $55,000,000. The proper reserve was understood to be $100,000,000. F�nanc�er, banker, and �ndustr�al�st J. P. Morgan rescued the U.s. Treasury by purchas�ng a pr�vately placed bond �ssue, the proceeds from wh�ch the Treasury would use to �ncrease gold reserves to stab�l�ze the dollar. Morgan later made a t�dy prof�t on the bonds when they were sold publ�cly. Th�s se-vere pan�c lasted three years and ended the future of hundreds of banks and thousands of bus�nesses. The short Pan�c of 1907 was more of the same.

It had become abundantly clear that the Amer�can dream could somet�mes be a n�ghtmare. ent�re fortunes could be w�ped out �n an �nstant. For those w�thout fortunes, there was no protect�on at all. workers turned to labor

CoNTexT 45

un�ons, wh�ch began to be formed after the C�v�l war, �n the search for h�gher wages, better benef�ts, and better work�ng cond�t�ons. Labor management–owner relat�ons would be part�cularly d�ff�cult through the �ndustr�al�zat�on of the country. The great t�tans of Amer�can �ndustry, the f�ttest who had surv�ved, d�d not expect to have demands placed on them by underl�ngs.

Amer�ca had long been content to exert �ts hegemony only �n North and south Amer�ca, call�ng up the trad�t�on of the 1823 Monroe doctr�ne, wh�ch was a warn�ng to european powers that the era of colon�zat�on and �nterven-t�on �n the Amer�cas was over. Indeed, Amer�cans had enjoyed a long per�od of �solat�on from the world. They were susp�c�ous of old europe and �ts end-less wars. Amer�cans were l�kew�se susp�c�ous of a large stand�ng army and, �n fact, d�d not possess one. Amer�ca d�d, however, have a navy. The span�sh- Amer�can war showed �t off to the world. suddenly, the Un�ted states found �tself an �mper�al power, much to the d�sappo�ntment of the large ant�- �mper�al�st cont�ngent at home. Cuba, Puerto r�co, and eventually, the Ph�l-�pp�nes (for a $20,000,000 payment to spa�n) came �nto Amer�can hands. Pres�dent McK�nley supported the 1899 treaty that gave the Ph�l�pp�nes to the Un�ted states �n the bel�ef that Amer�cans had a d�v�ne obl�gat�on to c�v�l�ze and Chr�st�an�ze the F�l�p�no people. when Teddy roosevelt, a former secretary of the navy, became pres�dent after McK�nley’s assass�nat�on, he l�berally ut�l�zed Amer�ca’s gunboats to enforce so-called democracy �n the New world.

world war I marked Amer�ca’s transformat�on �nto a recogn�zed world power. There can be no debate that sheer numbers of Amer�can sold�ers turned the t�de for the All�ed forces, wh�ch, before the Amer�cans arr�ved, were hunkered down �n v�c�ous trench warfare along battle l�nes that were not mov�ng. Cur�ously, however, �n sp�te of Pres�dent woodrow w�lson’s Preparedness Campa�gn, the Un�ted states was qu�te unprepared to mount a major war effort. It was not unt�l May 1917 that the select�ve serv�ce Act author�zed a temporary �ncrease �n troops. More than 4,700,000 Amer�cans f�nally served �n the war. About 350,000 were Afr�can Amer�cans, who found themselves mostly do�ng men�al tasks �n the segregated m�l�tary.24

The Amer�can government �tself, kept rather small dur�ng the age of hands-off cap�tal�sm, was not capable of d�rect�ng the war effort alone. M�l�-tary procurement pract�ces were slow and even contrad�ctory. w�lson formed the war Industr�es Board, made up of volunteer bus�nessmen, labor leaders, and other notables, to manage the purchase, product�on, and d�str�but�on of mater�als for c�v�l�ans and the m�l�tary. wh�le the m�l�tary br�dled at c�-v�l�an �nvolvement �n �ts affa�rs and �ndustr�al�sts both feared do�ng bus�-ness w�th the government (they correctly bel�eved they would be stuck w�th overcapac�ty when the war ended) and found government regulat�on of the�r bus�ness to be soc�al�st�c, �f not totally un-Amer�can, Amer�ca’s f�rst attempt


of government-�ndustry cooperat�on was a success. Th�s lesson was put to good use dur�ng world war II.

The roar�ng Twent�es were ushered �n by what proved to be the f�rst of many so-called red scares �n twent�eth-century Amer�ca, when the govern-ment began round�ng up anarch�sts and commun�sts after the war. There was never any ev�dence of a Bolshev�k plot aga�nst Amer�ca, but the godless Commun�sts would cont�nue to be a bugaboo that could be called out to scare the c�t�zens of an otherw�se secure country. Th�s scare came and went qu�ckly as the economy expanded and Amer�ca set out on a new foot, but was very content to look �nward. Th�s new world power would not be part of the League of Nat�ons. women now had the r�ght to vote. The work that women’s r�ghts advocates susan B. Anthony and el�zabeth Cady stanton had begun when they founded the Nat�onal woman suffrage Assoc�at�on �n 1869 pa�d off over the follow�ng years �n gett�ng women the vote �n a number of states, but �n 1920, the�r dream of the 19th Amendment to the Const�tu-t�on f�nally came true.

As wh�te flapper g�rls and college k�ds �n raccoon coats sought to redef�ne the new era on the�r own terms, Harlem, New york, burst forth as the center of a new, urban Afr�can Amer�can culture. The Harlem rena�ssance featured Afr�can Amer�can poetry, l�terature, and an �ntellectual l�fe l�ke never before seen. The sounds of jazz and the blues even brought wh�tes to Harlem. Men �n top hats and women �n erm�ne and pearls would go to s�ng “M�nn�e the Moocher” w�th Cab Calloway, who was dressed to the n�nes. They went to hear eub�e Blake’s mus�c and duke ell�ngton’s elegant compos�t�ons. The Harlem rena�ssance was an announcement that a new Afr�can Amer�can cul-ture had arr�ved that was very much Amer�can. In fact, so Amer�can was �t that wh�te mus�c�ans and bandleaders l�berally borrowed the Afr�can Amer�-can mus�c they heard to play for the�r wh�te aud�ences.

The 1920s also marked the beg�nn�ng of one of Amer�ca’s most fa�led ex-per�ments: Proh�b�t�on. In 1919, the 18th Amendment to the Const�tut�on had been adopted. Th�s amendment proh�b�ted “the manufacture, sale, or transportat�on of �ntox�cat�ng l�quors w�th�n, the �mportat�on thereof �nto, or the exportat�on of thereof from the Un�ted states and all terr�tory subject to the jur�sd�ct�on thereof, for beverage purposes.” The woman’s Chr�st�an Temperance Un�on (wCTU), founded �n 1874, and the Ant�-saloon League, founded �n 1893, together were powerful forces �n the movement to ban al-cohol�c beverages. The wCTU effect�vely operated through churches, and �ts members traversed the country ask�ng ch�ldren to “take the pledge” that they would never dr�nk alcohol. They were �nfluent�al �n gett�ng alcohol banned �n some states and local�t�es. so effect�ve was the wCTU that the publ�c often conflated the wCTU w�th the women’s r�ghts movement. Th�s confus�on

CoNTexT 47

may actually have delayed passage of the b�ll grant�ng women the r�ght to vote. women’s vot�ng r�ghts had, �n the end, proved less controvers�al than proh�b�t�ng alcohol. The Ant�-saloon League, founded by men, also worked through churches, but �ts goal was always ant�alcohol leg�slat�on. Unt�l Pro-h�b�t�on ended �n 1933 w�th the passage of the 21st Amendment, wh�ch re-pealed the 18th Amendment, Amer�cans made home brew and bathtub g�n and drank publ�cly at speakeas�es, where �llegal alcohol was read�ly ava�lable.

If noth�ng else, Proh�b�t�on left a colorful h�story of federal agents chas-�ng Maf�a bootleggers and gangsters �n the�r automob�les w�th mach�ne guns blaz�ng. If fact, all Amer�cans began chas�ng each other �n the�r automob�les. A revolut�on had taken place. In 1895, only four automob�les were reg�stered �n the ent�re country. By 1920, there were over 8,000,000.25 Henry Ford and h�s Model-T were pr�mar�ly respons�ble for th�s revolut�on that would funda-mentally change Amer�ca. Ford’s manufactur�ng techn�ques, wh�ch employed mass product�on assembly l�nes, actually brought the pr�ces of automob�les down. In 1920, a brand-new black Model-T cost about $450. Amer�cans took to them l�ke ducks to water, leav�ng Ford w�th more than 40 percent of the automob�le market and creat�ng the demand for new and better roads.

By 1930, there were more than 26,500,000 cars reg�stered �n the Un�ted states, but Amer�ca’s carefree r�de through the 1920s came to a screech�ng

women carry�ng placards read�ng “we want beer” protest dur�ng an ant�-proh�b�t�on parade �n New Jersey �n the early 1930s. © AP Photo.


halt on october 29, 1929. The stock market crash that day ended another speculat�ve bubble �n overpr�ced secur�t�es, and the economy began a v�c�ous downward sp�ral. soon, thousands of banks and bus�nesses were under water. Unemployment, wh�ch stood at 3.2 percent �n 1929, was almost 25 percent by 1933. Those lucky enough to keep a job found the�r wages decreased. Agr�cul-ture pr�ces collapsed so severely that farmers began to revolt �n frustrat�on. The vaunted Amer�can consumer, whose �ncome had stead�ly r�sen through the 1920s, suddenly could no longer consume, wh�ch further decreased demand and the need for product�on. Borrowers could not repay banks. The Federal reserve could not handle a monetary cr�s�s of th�s proport�on. Char�table or-gan�zat�ons d�d not have the resources to ass�st the new poor. Corporate prof�ts d�ss�pated. once proud work�ng Amer�cans found themselves �n breadl�nes.

Frankl�n roosevelt was elected pres�dent �n 1932. H�s can-do att�tude and opt�m�sm bolstered the hopes of Amer�cans for recovery, yet �n 1940, the na-t�on’s economy was scarcely better than �t had been �n 1929. Unemployment was st�ll over 14 percent. roosevelt �nflated the currency by abandon�ng the gold standard and created government agenc�es—der�s�vely called alphabet agencies—des�gned to put Amer�cans back to work. Between 1933 and 1935, the Federal emergency rel�ef Adm�n�strat�on prov�ded over $3,000,000,000 for rel�ef funds and temporary jobs. True to the Amer�can bel�ef that work br�ngs rewards, very l�ttle money was spent on d�rect welfare expend�tures, except to feed people. even �n the depress�on, gett�ng someth�ng for noth�ng was anathema to Amer�cans—jobs were the answer, and roosevelt sa�d as much. In 1935, the works Progress Adm�n�strat�on (wPA) took over rel�ef efforts. Last�ng unt�l 1943, the wPA put people to work on publ�c �mprove-ment, educat�onal, and art�st�c projects. At one t�me, more than 3,000,000 Amer�cans were work�ng for the wPA. The C�v�l�an Conservat�on Corps and the Nat�onal youth Adm�n�strat�on were des�gned to prov�de work for young people. Farmers got help w�th commod�ty pr�ces, and the rural electr�f�ca-t�on Adm�n�strat�on brought electr�c�ty to rural Amer�ca. The Tennessee Val-ley Author�ty brought electr�c�ty to downtrodden Appalach�a. The secur�t�es and exchange Comm�ss�on was to clar�fy �nvestment trad�ng regulat�ons and corporate f�nances for �nvestors. The Nat�onal Labor relat�ons Board, cre-ated by the 1935 Nat�onal Labor relat�ons Act, oversaw the act’s prov�s�ons that allowed for un�on organ�zat�on and collect�ve barga�n�ng. In 1938, the Fa�r Labor standards Act, for the f�rst t�me �n Amer�can h�story, set a m�n�-mum wage and progress�ve stages toward a 40-hour workweek.

The surpr�se Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on december 7, 1941, brought Amer�ca fully �nto world war II and out of the depress�on. That Amer�cans d�ed �n a sneak attack galvan�zed the country beh�nd the war effort. Isolat�on�sts and ant�-�mper�al�sts threw �n the towel. More than

CoNTexT 49

16,300,000 Amer�cans served �n the m�l�tary dur�ng the war. over 400,000 Amer�cans d�ed, and another 670,000 were wounded.26 As war product�on geared up on the home front, women l�ke never before entered the work-force, �n part replac�ng men who were overseas. They were ep�tom�zed �n the famous “ros�e the r�veter” poster. sc�ent�sts were organ�zed �nto two major secret research projects to develop radar and the atom�c bomb. The ent�re country was mob�l�zed for the war effort—no sacr�f�ce was too small to support the boys at war or to ma�nta�n the nat�on’s secur�ty. Posters on the fences of defense plants and m�l�tary �nstallat�ons rem�nded workers of the�r respons�b�l�ty: “what you see, what you hear, when you leave, leave �t here.”

some wart�me parano�a about sp�es and the protect�on of war secrets may be understandable, but army l�eutenant general John L. dew�tt, Command�ng General of the western defense Command and Fourth Army, m�xed para-no�a w�th rac�al stereotypes and �n so do�ng began one of the most egreg�ous ep�sodes �n Amer�can h�story. He wanted Pres�dent roosevelt to des�gnate m�l�tary areas from wh�ch Japanese al�ens, Japanese Amer�can c�t�zens, al�en enem�es other than Japanese al�ens, and other susp�c�ous persons would be excluded. Cla�m�ng that the Japanese race was an enemy race and that even

Many Japanese-Amer�cans were gathered and placed �n �nternment camps follow�ng the attack on Pearl Harbor. Here, deta�nees are l�ned up outs�de a cafeter�a. Nat�onal Arch�ves and records Adm�n�strat�on.


those who were supposedly Amer�can�zed �n second and th�rd generat�ons had und�luted rac�al stra�ns, the Japanese had to be kept from sabotag�ng �nfrastructure and defense plants, caus�ng damage �n populous areas, and s�g-nal�ng from the coastl�ne. He counted 112,000 so-called potent�al enem�es of Japanese extract�on—14,500 �n wash�ngton, 4,000 �n oregon, and 93,500 �n Cal�forn�a. In ask�ng the secretary of war to �mplement h�s plan, dew�tt noted menac�ngly the fact that at the t�me of h�s wr�t�ng to the secretary on February 14, 1942, no Japanese plots hav�ng been uncovered was proof that they were under way.27

only f�ve days later, roosevelt approved the m�l�tary areas dew�tt wanted. Then, on March 18, the pres�dent s�gned execut�ve order no. 9102, wh�ch establ�shed the war relocat�on Author�ty (wrA) and placed �t under the off�ce for emergency Management �n the execut�ve off�ce of the Pres�dent. The d�rector of the wrA was g�ven author�ty to evacuate such persons as necessary, prov�de for “the relocat�on of such persons �n appropr�ate places,” and prov�de for the�r needs and superv�se the�r act�v�t�es. Thus began the �n-ternment of Japanese al�ens and c�t�zens �n the western halves of wash�ngton, oregon, and Cal�forn�a as well as the southern th�rd of Ar�zona under the wrA. The wrA set up 10 relocat�on centers and a refugee shelter �n New york. over 110,000 Isse� and N�se�, who left some $200,000,000 �n assets beh�nd, were moved through assembly centers �nto relocat�on centers dur�ng world war II. The major�ty were Amer�can c�t�zens. some Japanese were perm�tted to l�ve outs�de of the centers, but not �n m�l�tary areas, and resettled �n the M�dwest. The wrA was d�sbanded �n 1946. In Amer�ca, rac�sm always trumped c�v�l r�ghts, as Amer�ca’s Afr�can Amer�can and nat�ve c�t�zens knew so well.

The Amer�ca that emerged v�ctor�ously from world war II was a changed place. women had atta�ned a new status dur�ng the war. Not only were they home front heroes �n wart�me product�on, but they also had a new status �n the m�l�tary. Pres�dent roosevelt s�gned the act form�ng the women’s Aux�l-�ary Army Corps (wAAC) on May 15, 1942. As the name �mpl�ed, however, the wAAC was not an off�c�al part of the army; �ts purpose was to tra�n women to do jobs that free men up to f�ght the war. By the end of the war, about 200,000 women had served �n the corps �n more than 150 noncom-bat pos�t�ons. Unl�ke the regular segregated army, Afr�can Amer�can women were fully �ntegrated �nto the wAAC and g�ven equal opportun�t�es. Forty of the f�rst 450 off�cer cand�dates selected were Afr�can Amer�can women. on July 1, 1943, roosevelt s�gned an act establ�sh�ng the women’s Army Corps, grant�ng the former wAAC full m�l�tary status.

Afr�can Amer�can men and women returned home as v�ctor�ous heroes of the war to de facto d�scr�m�nat�on �n the North and de jure d�scr�m�nat�on �n

CoNTexT 51

the south. Th�s fact helped to fuel the movement for c�v�l r�ghts, but �t would be the federal government that took the f�rst step. In July 1948, Pres�dent Harry Truman �ssued two execut�ve orders. execut�ve order no. 9980 cre-ated the Fa�r employment Board to oversee the end of rac�al d�scr�m�nat�on �n federal employment. execut�ve order no. 9981 created the Pres�dent’s Com-m�ttee on equal�ty of Treatment and opportun�ty �n the Armed serv�ces, wh�ch was to desegregate the m�l�tary. By october 1954, the last all–Afr�can Amer�can m�l�tary un�t had been d�sbanded. Th�s, of course, d�d not neces-sar�ly mean that d�scr�m�nat�on had ended. even before Amer�ca entered the war, roosevelt had �ssued execut�ve order no. 8802 �n June 1941 to avert a threatened protest march of 100,000 Afr�can Amer�cans on wash�ngton, d.C. The order outlawed d�scr�m�nat�on �n defense �ndustr�es and govern-ment serv�ce.

w�th europe completely dec�mated, the Un�ted states could not return to the comfortable �solat�on �t once had. It had used the atom�c bomb for the f�rst t�me �n H�rosh�ma on August 6, 1945, and three days later on Nagasak�, leav�ng tens of thousands of Japanese dead and wounded. The Japanese sur-rendered, and the Un�ted states was the world’s only nuclear power. Amer�ca found �tself �n an uneasy all�ance w�th sov�et russ�a, wh�ch was unw�ll�ng to g�ve up most of the terr�tory �t had l�berated from Germany. By 1949, russ�a had the bomb, too, and the Cold war was well under way. Thus the Un�ted states led the western effort to conta�n Commun�sm at any turn. To the d�s-may of the old �solat�on�st fact�on that had k�lled the Un�ted states’ entry �nto the League of Nat�ons, the Un�ted states jo�ned the Un�ted Nat�ons (UN), albe�t w�th a permanent seat on the secur�ty Counc�l that gave �t veto power over any �nternat�onal act�ons of wh�ch �t d�d not approve.

The Cold war was more than a number of protracted m�l�tary engage-ments fought by stand-�ns for the Un�ted states and russ�a. The two su-perpowers set out on a course of deterrence based on mutually assured destruct�on; that �s, �f you use nuclear weapons f�rst, we w�ll bomb you �nto obl�v�on. Mass�ve nuclear arms bu�ldups took place to the extent that any efforts at l�m�t�ng weapons by treaty took place �n the language of re-duc�ng overk�ll capac�ty. Thus, even as the boom of the late 1940s and 1950s progressed—affordable, gener�c hous�ng developments sprung up all over the nat�on, bab�es were be�ng born �n unprecedented numbers, the economy was humm�ng, the GI B�ll made college access�ble to m�ll�ons of veterans—there was a pall over the nat�on. The threat of nuclear war was real. schoolch�ldren were regularly dr�lled for that eventual�ty. Teachers �nstructed the�r students that at the sound of a spec�al alarm, they were to �mmed�ately and �n total s�lence stand up from the�r wooden desks, get down on all fours �n a ball under the�r desks, and cradle the�r heads �n the�r


arms unt�l further not�ce. The k�ds had another way of putt�ng �t: get under your desk and k�ss your beh�nd good-bye.

senator Joseph McCarthy, a republ�can from w�scons�n, fed on th�s fear. In a 1950 speech, he cla�med to have ev�dence that there were 205 known Commun�sts work�ng �n the state department. Unt�l he was cen-sured by the senate �n december 1954, he ru�ned scores of l�ves and careers �n a w�tch hunt for Commun�sts and Commun�st sympath�zers �n pol�t�cs, government, the enterta�nment �ndustry, and the m�l�tary. He was so bold even to take on Pres�dent e�senhower, the hero of world war II. Th�s red scare, l�ke the scare of the 1920s, soon d�ss�pated w�th h�s dem�se, but �t demonstrated the power that the fear of al�en, godless Commun�sm held �n Amer�ca, a fear that perm�tted people’s r�ghts to be abandoned �n the name of l�berty.

on the surface, though, Amer�ca looked l�ke a happy, �nnocent place f�lled w�th sm�l�ng wh�te teenagers �n souped-up jalop�es l�ned up at d�ners for burgers and fr�es. They were l�sten�ng to rock ‘n’ roll on the�r car rad�os, the newest sensat�on. elv�s Presley was the symbol for th�s enthus�ast�c, w�ld mus�c. some cla�med h�s mus�c to be satan�c, even though �ts roots were �n Afr�can Amer�can gospel mus�c and blues. when ed sull�van, the host of the country’s then most popular var�ety show and a must for fam�ly v�ew-�ng on sunday n�ghts, had Presley on h�s show, he assured Amer�cans that elv�s was a good boy. rock ‘n’ roll was here to stay, no matter what parents thought of �t.

Beneath the surface of the supposedly plac�d 1950s, the f�ght for Afr�-can Amer�can c�v�l r�ghts was �ntens�fy�ng. The Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for the Advancement of Colored People, f�rst convened �n 1909, dec�ded to pur-sue legal avenues as well as soc�al act�on to further the r�ghts movement. In 1940, the assoc�at�on created �ts Legal defense and educat�on Fund, wh�ch began to have successes �n the courts. In 1946, wh�te elect�on pr�mar�es were declared unconst�tut�onal, and so was segregated �nterstate bus travel. More favorable rul�ngs followed, and �n 1954, the supreme Court dec�ded �n Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka that segregat�on �n publ�c schools was unconst�tut�onal. Pres�dent e�senhower punctuated th�s landmark rul�ng when he used federal troops to enforce �ntegrat�on at Central H�gh school �n L�ttle rock, Arkansas, �n 1957. In that year, dr. Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr., whose father and namesake had been lead�ng c�v�l r�ghts protests s�nce the 1930s, began the southern Chr�st�an Leadersh�p Conference (sCLC) to co-ord�nate nonv�olent protests aga�nst d�scr�m�nat�on, us�ng Afr�can Amer�can churches as bases of operat�on.

The sCLC and other c�v�l r�ghts organ�zat�ons kept the pressure up �nto the 1960s w�th s�t-�ns at lunch counters, freedom r�des through the south,

CoNTexT 53

boycotts, marches, and demonstrat�ons. even though K�ng was adamant that nonv�olence be the hallmark of the movement, c�v�l r�ghts workers and lead-ers were k�lled and wounded �n the�r pursu�t of freedom. C�v�l r�ghts work was not for the t�m�d or fa�nt of heart. The Kennedy adm�n�strat�on was sympathet�c to the movement. Kennedy, l�ke e�senhower, had to federal�ze state guard troops, th�s t�me at the Un�vers�ty of Alabama �n June 1963, to enforce �ntegrat�on. The dr�ve for c�v�l r�ghts was mov�ng �nexorably forward, even through the drama of the Cuban m�ss�le cr�s�s and the f�rst comm�tment of troops to V�etnam. The sov�et menace was st�ll very much al�ve, and the Kennedys were good Cold warr�ors.

In August 1963, the c�v�l r�ghts movement came together w�th a march on wash�ngton, d.C. some 250,000 people showed up �n support of Afr�can Amer�can c�v�l r�ghts and pend�ng leg�slat�on to enforce them. Mart�n Luther K�ng del�vered h�s famous “I Have a dream” speech �n front of the L�ncoln Memor�al. scarcely three months later, John Kennedy would become the v�c-t�m of assass�nat�on �n dallas, Texas. H�s successor, Lyndon Johnson, h�m-self a supporter of Afr�can Amer�can c�v�l r�ghts, cajoled Congress, �n wh�ch he had long served and accumulated unprecedented power as a senator, to pass the 1964 C�v�l r�ghts Act �n honor of the dead pres�dent. Th�s act pro-

A group of people hold s�gns and carry Amer�can flags, protest�ng the adm�ss�on of n�ne Afr�can-Amer�can students to Central H�gh school �n L�ttle rock, Arkansas, 1957. Courtesy of the L�brary of Congress.


h�b�ted d�scr�m�nat�on �n publ�c establ�shments, �nclud�ng schools, based on race, color, rel�g�on, or nat�onal or�g�n. It went beyond Afr�can Amer�can and wh�te to address human �ssues. The subsequently passed Vot�ng r�ghts Act of 1965 mostly re�nforced prev�ous leg�slat�on, but �t announced that the pract�ces that had been used to prevent Afr�can Amer�can from vot�ng would no longer be tolerated.

Backed by law, the c�v�l r�ghts struggle cont�nued. It became, thanks to Mart�n Luther K�ng, �nexorably un�ted w�th the peace movement. Already �n 1965, the students for a democrat�c soc�ety had organ�zed an ant�war protest �n wash�ngton, d.C., that drew up to 50,000 protesters. The V�et-nam war escalated, and many Amer�cans could see no end to �t. By 1968, more than 525,000 Amer�can troops were f�ght�ng there, and young men were be�ng drafted �nto what looked l�ke a purposeless war. The old saw that Commun�sm had to be conta�ned even �n southeast As�a no longer seemed relevant to Amer�can �nterests at home. Fatal�t�es rose. The My La� massacre on March 16, 1968, �n wh�ch Amer�can troops k�lled 300 �nnocent v�llagers, was taken by protesters as proof of Amer�can brutal�ty. Then, on Apr�l 4, Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr. was assass�nated �n Memph�s, Tennessee. The rule of law that Amer�cans cher�shed seemed to have van�shed. Afr�can Amer�cans r�oted. College campuses broke out �n protests. on June 5, robert Kennedy, who had tr�ed to calm the nat�on after K�ng’s k�ll�ng, was h�mself assass�nated after w�nn�ng the Cal�forn�a pres�dent�al pr�mary.

Pres�dent Johnson, who by all r�ghts should have been heralded as a hero of the c�v�l r�ghts movement as well as the movement to get health care to the aged (Med�care) and better educat�on to ch�ldren, was thoroughly d�scred�ted for h�s handl�ng of the V�etnam war. even h�s closest adv�sors abandoned h�m, and he chose not to run for pres�dent �n 1968. r�chard N�xon, on the other hand, had been v�ce pres�dent for e�senhower’s two terms and cla�med to have the expert�se to be pres�dent and a plan to end the V�etnam war that he could not reveal. The 1968 democrat�c Convent�on �n Ch�cago, wh�ch nom�nated Johnson’s v�ce pres�dent, Hubert H. Humphrey, known as the Happy warr�or, had the unhappy exper�ence of be�ng pa�nted w�th Johnson’s war legacy. The convent�on turned �nto a brawl on the streets between out-of-control protestors and the pol�ce.

w�th N�xon’s elect�on, the chaos became even worse. There was another peace protest �n wash�ngton, d.C., �n November 1969 that brought 500,000 protestors �nto the cap�tal. on May 4, 1970, oh�o guardsmen pan�cked dur-�ng a war protest, k�lled four students, and wounded n�ne others. Campuses around the country went up �n flames, reserved off�cers Tra�n�ng Corps (roTC) campus off�ces be�ng a favor�te target. Publ�cat�on of The Pentagon Papers �n 1971 revealed the l�es the m�l�tary made to put a good face (from

CoNTexT 55

the�r po�nt of v�ew) on the war. N�xon had grown used to see�ng protestors outs�de the wh�te House. In March 1973, he essent�ally declared v�ctory and pulled out the last of the Amer�can troops from V�etnam. In 1975, the south V�etnamese surrendered to the Commun�st North V�etnamese. The last memory most Amer�cans have of the V�etnam war �s p�ctures of hel�-copters leav�ng the grounds of the Amer�can embassy �n sa�gon w�th mar�ne embassy guards knock�ng V�etnamese all�es off the runners of the hel�copters as they tr�ed to get out. Nevertheless, some 140,000 V�etnamese settled �n the Un�ted states after the war.

N�xon called th�s peace w�th honor. return�ng veterans of the war were ac-corded no honor; they were just as l�kely to meet w�th der�s�on from a d�v�ded nat�on. Amer�cans had never lost a war. The country that had beat Japan once, Germany tw�ce, and stopped the spread of Commun�sm �n Korea was bested by a t�ny As�an country of determ�ned guer�lla f�ghters. The oPeC o�l embargo �n october 1973, wh�ch left Amer�cans �n gas l�nes and �n the dark, �nt�mated that Amer�cans were no longer �n control of the�r own dest�ny. There seemed to be a cr�s�s �n Amer�ca’s self-conf�dence. The res�gnat�ons of N�xon’s corrupt v�ce pres�dent, sp�ro T. Agnew, and then of N�xon h�mself for �mpeachable offenses added to th�s cr�s�s. Pres�dent J�mmy Carter beat Gerald Ford, N�xon’s handp�cked successor, �n the 1976 elect�on as Amer-�ca turned away from republ�can problems and sought a new v�tal�ty �n the democrats. Carter, however, appeared only to wonder �n amazement over what he called the mala�se that had spread over the country. Carter added to the nat�onal mala�se when he donned h�s sweater, sat by a f�replace, and told Amer�ca to conserve energy. H�s �nab�l�ty f�rst to rescue and then to free hostages from the Amer�can embassy �n Iran, a payback from Iran�an revolu-t�onar�es for Amer�ca’s hav�ng propped up the corrupt and repress�ve reg�me of shah reza Palahv� for years, aga�n gave Amer�cans the feel�ng of power-lessness. The country was look�ng for a leader who could restore Amer�ca’s conf�dence �n �tself.

Throughout th�s turmo�l, the women’s r�ghts movement carr�ed on. The 1963 equal Pay Act requ�red that employers could not use sex as the bas�s for d�fferent�al wages. The C�v�l r�ghts Act of 1964 had proh�b�ted d�scr�m�na-t�on based on race, color, rel�g�on, or nat�onal or�g�n, but �t d�d not expl�c�tly proh�b�t d�scr�m�nat�on based on sex. In th�s sense, the leg�slat�on dealt a blow to the movement. However, women’s advocates d�d get someth�ng out of �t. women suddenly appeared �n T�tle VII, wh�ch concerned employment pract�ces aga�n. It became an unlawful employment pract�ce to fa�l to h�re, or to h�re or f�re anyone w�th respect to compensat�on, terms, cond�t�ons, or pr�v�leges of employment, based on that person’s race, color, rel�g�on, sex, or nat�onal or�g�n. (The Cold war be�ng st�ll very much al�ve, �t was st�ll


expressly lawful to d�scr�m�nate �n employment aga�nst members of the Com-mun�st Party of the Un�ted states or members of any Commun�st organ�za-t�on requ�red to reg�ster w�th the government.) The 1964 act also establ�shed the equal employment opportun�ty Comm�ss�on to oversee the appl�cat�on of the law.

Th�s was not enough. Fem�n�sts and the�r supporters wanted women to have the const�tut�onal protect�on that was afforded to people of d�verse races, colors, rel�g�ons, and nat�onal or�g�ns. The Nat�onal organ�zat�on for women (Now) was founded �n 1966 to promote women’s �ssues and further the cause. F�nally, �n 1972, the year �n wh�ch fem�n�st Glor�a ste�nem’s Ms. maga-z�ne f�rst went on the newsstands, Congress passed what was to be the 27th Amendment to the Const�tut�on—the equal r�ghts Amendment. The word-�ng was qu�te s�mple: “equal�ty of r�ghts under the law shall not be den�ed or abr�dged by the Un�ted states or any state on account of sex.”28

Th�rty-e�ght states had to pass the amendment for �t to become part of the U.s. Const�tut�on, and Congress had allowed seven years for that to happen. It appeared at f�rst that easy passage by the states lay ahead, but roadblocks soon developed. Many conservat�ve rel�g�ous groups cons�dered the erA an affront to motherhood that would take women from the�r homes and ch�l-dren. some cr�t�cs argued that equal r�ghts would mean un�sex to�let fac�l�-t�es, or bathrooms, as they are called �n Amer�ca. These and other spec�ous arguments began to take hold as Amer�ca’s taste for reform soured, and many Amer�cans wanted to return to trad�t�onal Amer�can values. The erA was �n trouble. In July 1978, Now organ�zed a rally that brought 100,000 erA supporters to wash�ngton, d.C., �n support of extend�ng the 1979 deadl�ne for rat�f�cat�on. Congress responded pos�t�vely, but on June 30, 1982, the erA d�ed. only 35 states had rat�f�ed �t, and the new pres�dent, ronald reagan, and h�s party d�d not support �t. In sp�te of the cont�nu�ng efforts to �ntroduce new erA leg�slat�on, Amer�can women, unl�ke women �n the eu-ropean Un�on and a number of countr�es, have no const�tut�onal guarantee of equal r�ghts.

In January 1981, a new sher�ff came to town on a h�gh note—the release of the hostages �n Iran. The affable ronald reagan paraded �nto wash�ngton, d.C., beh�nd a Hollywood sm�le that h�d h�s determ�nat�on to br�ng �n the old and throw out the new. declar�ng that the federal government was the problem, not the solut�on, he env�s�oned a new day �n Amer�ca—a strong Amer�ca w�th a strong defense, less government regulat�on that strangles bus�-ness and entrepreneursh�p, less government spend�ng, and lower taxes. Th�s was a return, �n conservat�ve th�nk�ng, to the pr�mord�al Amer�ca that had been abandoned �n the 1960s and 1970s. In 1982, he cast the Cold war �n s�mple theolog�cal terms: the sov�et Un�on was the ev�l emp�re. Th�s was a

CoNTexT 57

battle between good and ev�l, and Amer�ca would aga�n be strong and w�n. Amer�ca’s enem�es would be rendered harmless, and ch�ldren could sleep well at n�ght w�th Fortress Amer�ca protected by the strateg�c defense In�t�at�ve, the so-called star wars defense that would obl�terate enemy weapons �n space before they could reach the Un�ted states.

Amer�cans rema�ned, however, vulnerable to terror�st attacks. More than 200 mar�nes were k�lled �n the�r barracks �n Lebanon �n 1983. Then, when Iran�an terror�sts �n Lebanon took seven Amer�can hostages, reagan approved a plan to trade arms for the hostages, somehow conv�nc�ng h�mself that he was not negot�at�ng w�th terror�sts, wh�ch he had publ�cly vowed never to do. It was then d�scovered that some of the money the Iran�ans had pa�d for arms to f�ght Iraq had been secretly d�verted to the Contras �n N�caragua, who were try�ng to overthrow the Commun�st-supported sand�n�sta reg�me. Congress had passed leg�slat�on tw�ce restr�ct�ng any a�d to the Contras. some lesser heads rolled when all th�s came publ�c, and reagan’s popular�ty took a temporary nosed�ve. By th�s t�me, �t was apparent, however, that the sov�et Un�on was �mplod�ng. In 1985, sov�et leader M�kha�l Gorbachev opened the ev�l emp�re to democracy and, eventually, d�ssolut�on. when the Berl�n wall came crash�ng down am�d w�ld celebrat�on �n 1989, reagan was ha�led as the hero who ended the Cold war. Now there was only one superpower.

reagan’s pol�t�cal legacy was kept al�ve by h�s v�ce pres�dent, George Her-bert walker Bush, who was elected pres�dent �n 1988. The Un�ted states, w�th a beefed up m�l�tary, could freely pol�ce the world. when Iraq’s saddam Husse�n �nvaded o�l-r�ch Kuwa�t and annexed �t �n August 1990, the Un�ted states, work�ng through the Un�ted Nat�ons, set a deadl�ne for Iraq to ex�t Kuwa�t. Iraq �gnored the deadl�ne, and m�l�tary targets were unmerc�fully bombed the next day. w�th Iraq st�ll �ntrans�gent, the U.s.-led operat�on desert storm dec�mated Iraq� troops �n the space of four days. More than half a m�ll�on Amer�can sold�ers fought �n that short war. Bush emerged a war hero all over aga�n. (He had fought and earned medals �n world war II.) Amer�ca had won another war, and qu�te hand�ly, too, but saddam Husse�n rema�ned �n power. It seemed at the t�me that Bush would eas�ly w�n reelec-t�on, but he made one cr�t�cal error. He had pledged reaganesquely not to ra�se taxes: “read my l�ps. No new taxes.” Then he ra�sed taxes. It was pol�t�-cal su�c�de.

democrat w�ll�am Jefferson Cl�nton took full advantage of Bush’s m�s-step. dubbed “the comeback k�d” dur�ng the pres�dent�al campa�gn, Cl�nton deftly surv�ved accusat�ons that he was a draft-dodg�ng, pot-smok�ng woman-�zer to w�n the 1992 elect�on. He was qu�te a change from the stately reagan and the rather anodyne George Bush. Cl�nton brought a youthful v�tal�ty to the off�ce, rem�n�scent of the Kennedy years. He also brought a new agenda.


In the f�rst days of h�s adm�n�strat�on, he set out to tackle the �ssues of gays �n the m�l�tary and nat�onal health care. H�s w�fe, H�llary, by her own ad-m�ss�on not one to s�t at home and bake cook�es, was put �n charge of the Task Force on Nat�onal Health Care reform. extend�ng bas�c c�v�l r�ghts to gays �n the m�l�tary, or anywhere else, and so-called soc�al�zed med�c�ne were absolutely anathema to the pol�t�cal r�ght. The battle l�nes that would character�ze Cl�nton’s pres�dency were drawn, and Cl�nton lost the f�rst two battles. Congress and the nat�on were clearly d�v�ded.

In 1994, the republ�cans took over the House of representat�ves, and the�r leader, Newt G�ngr�ch, pledged to stand by the tenets of h�s Contract w�th Amer�ca, wh�ch was a re�terat�on of the conservat�ve mantra aga�nst b�g government. In sp�te of squabbles over federal budgets, wh�ch resulted �n the unheard of clos�ng of the government tw�ce �n 1995, Cl�nton and Con-gress managed to approve two def�c�t reduct�on acts, the second of wh�ch �ncluded tax cuts. Cl�nton also acqu�esced �n s�gn�ng a welfare reform b�ll �n 1966 that put a f�ve-year l�m�t on rece�v�ng a�d. Annual def�c�ts, wh�ch had ballooned w�th reagan’s defense expend�tures, were turned to surpluses by 1998. A grow�ng economy also contr�buted to the surpluses. Cl�nton eas�ly won reelect�on �n 1996.

Cl�nton’s �gnom�n�ous behav�or w�th a wh�te House �ntern and h�s ly�ng about �t c�rcu�tously got h�m �mpeached. Invest�gat�ng the Cl�ntons became a wash�ngton past�me, and the seem�ngly endless �nvest�gat�on �nto an Ar-kansas land deal turned up noth�ng �llegal, but the �nvest�gat�on cont�nued. when the spec�al prosecutor, Kenneth starr, found out that Cl�nton had had oral sex w�th �ntern Mon�ca Lew�nsky, Cl�nton’s sexual behav�or suddenly came under �nvest�gat�on. Cl�nton den�ed under oath that he had sexual rela-t�ons w�th Lew�nsky. ev�dence sa�d otherw�se. Conservat�ve republ�cans �n the House, many taken there �n the regan landsl�des, sanct�mon�ously went about draw�ng up �mpeachment art�cles. Four art�cles were brought aga�nst Cl�nton, but the House passed only two, accus�ng Cl�nton of perjury and obstruct�on of just�ce.

Cl�nton’s popular�ty was qu�te h�gh when the U.s. senate convened as a court, w�th the ch�ef just�ce of the supreme Court pres�d�ng, on January 14, 1999, to cons�der the �mpeachment art�cles passed by the House. No Amer�-cans al�ve then had ever w�tnessed an �mpeachment tr�al. Th�s was the only such tr�al of the twent�eth century and only the second �n Amer�can h�story. For h�s part, Cl�nton bel�eved the ent�re �mpeachment proceed�ng to be po-l�t�cally mot�vated. The senate tr�al ended on February 12, and Cl�nton was st�ll pres�dent.

Cl�nton was sa�d to have an amaz�ng ab�l�ty to separate h�s personal prob-lems from h�s job. Through all the pol�t�cal and personal allegat�ons and �nves-

CoNTexT 59

t�gat�ons and the senate tr�al, the bus�ness of the nat�on had to go on. saddam Husse�n, left �n off�ce as pres�dent of Iraq after the Gulf war, rema�ned nettle-some. Cl�nton ordered m�ss�le attacks on Iraq �n 1993 for hatch�ng a plot to k�ll former pres�dent George Bush on a v�ctory lap through Kuwa�t; �n 1996 for act�ons aga�nst the Kurds; and �n 1998 for refus�ng to allow UN weapons �nspectors �nto the country. Cl�nton �nvolved h�mself �n the m�asma of M�ddle east peace talks. He sent Amer�cans �nto somal�a w�th UN troops �n 1993 on a human�tar�an m�ss�on. He sent troops to Ha�t� �n 1994 to ma�nta�n democ-racy there. He ordered the bomb�ng of serb�a �n 1999 to prevent so-called ethn�c cleans�ng. Cl�nton also had to deal w�th terror�st attacks on Amer�cans abroad. osama b�n Laden was bel�eved to be the power beh�nd the bomb�ngs of U.s. embass�es �n Tanzan�a and Kenya �n 1998. In 2000, terror�sts bombed the Uss Cole off the coast of yemen. Cl�nton generally followed a fore�gn pol�cy that was �nclus�ve, plac�ng value on act�ng �n concert w�th �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons and all�es and that portrayed the use of Amer�can power as bet-ter�ng the cond�t�on of mank�nd.

It was sa�d of Cl�nton that you e�ther loved h�m or hated h�m. on the whole, republ�cans hated h�m. He had snookered them at every turn and surv�ved as a popular f�gure. He became the perfect fo�l for the pol�t�cal r�ght to ra�se money and to energ�ze �ts const�tuency, wh�ch abhorred Cl�nton’s dall�ances and v�olently d�sagreed w�th h�s pro-cho�ce (proabort�on), profem-�n�st, progay, �nternat�onal�st �deas. The pres�dent�al elect�on of 2000 p�tted George w. Bush, son of George H. w. Bush, whom Cl�nton had beat �n 1992, aga�nst Cl�nton’s v�ce pres�dent, Al Gore. Gore tr�ed to d�stance h�m-self from Cl�nton the man but embraced h�s pol�c�es and took some cred�t for h�s successes. George Bush ran as a so-called compass�onate conservat�ve and a born-aga�n Chr�st�an who thought Jesus Chr�st was the greatest ph�-losopher. If there was any doubt that the d�v�ded Congress, whose trad�t�on of com�ty had been destroyed, was an �nd�cator of the cultural d�v�s�ons �n the country at large, that doubt ended w�th the elect�on.

on November 7, 2000, Amer�cans went to the polls expect�ng to know the outcome of the elect�on later that even�ng. It eventually became clear, how-ever, that the ent�re elect�on would h�nge on the vote �n Flor�da. The votes of that state were �mportant because Amer�cans do not elect the�r pres�dents by popular vote. A vote for a pres�dent�al cand�date �s, �n real�ty, a vote for an elector pledged to that cand�date. That elector then goes to the electoral College to cast one vote for a cand�date, presumably, but not necessar�ly, for the cand�date to wh�ch he or she �s pledged. The number of electors �s �n proport�on to each state’s populat�on, as determ�ned by the decenn�al census. The w�nner needed 270 electoral votes for elect�on, and Flor�da had 25 votes. (some states d�v�de electors proport�onally by the votes cand�dates rece�ve.


Flor�da was a w�nner-take-all state, so wh�chever cand�date won the popular vote would get all the state’s electoral votes.)

A legal spectacle ensued when Bush seemed to have won Flor�da by just a few hundred votes. democrats wanted a recount �n four south Flor�da count�es. republ�cans, of course, d�d not. Federal d�str�ct courts were pet�-t�oned, and the Flor�da supreme Court also got �nto the act. Th�s went on �nto december. on december 13, the U.s. supreme Court, �tself d�v�ded 5–4, ef-fect�vely ended any more recount�ng of ballots, and Gore conceded defeat. Bush got Flor�da’s 25 electoral votes, wh�ch gave h�m 271 to Gore’s 266. The off�c�al vote count �n Flor�da was 2,912,790 for Bush and 2,912,253 for Gore, a d�fference of only 537 votes. Gore, however, had won the popular vote w�th 50,989,897 votes (48.38%) to Bush’s 50,456,002 (47.87%) votes. Thus, w�th 543,895 more popular votes than Bush, Gore was the loser.29

Bush told the nat�on he would work hard to earn �ts trust. Trust was a key word because many Amer�cans thought he had stolen the elect�on. w�th no clear mandate to govern, Bush’s pres�dency got off to a slow start. The ter-ror�st attack on september 11, 2001, however, prov�ded Bush w�th a vo�ce and a theme: he would be a wart�me pres�dent. At th�s t�me of stress and be-w�lderment, the nat�on rall�ed beh�nd �ts leader, who declared war on terror-�sm. The search for osama b�n Laden—wanted dead or al�ve—took on the language and feel of an old west sher�ff and h�s poss�e search�ng the desert for a notor�ous stagecoach robber.

The f�rst offens�ve �n the war on terror�sm was aga�nst Afghan�stan scarcely three weeks after the 9/11 attack. A coal�t�on, mostly Amer�can, bombed and �nvaded that country, a known locat�on of terror�st tra�n�ng camps, and by m�d-November, the rul�ng Tal�ban forces, wh�ch took over when the rus-s�an occupat�on fa�led, had forsaken the cap�tal c�ty of Kabul. By March, the war was over, and the coal�t�on forces set about �nstall�ng a new government, propp�ng �t up w�th on-the-ground m�l�tary support. osama b�n Laden was st�ll on the loose.

on March 19, 2003, the Un�ted states, w�th a few m�nor coal�t�on part-ners, �nvaded Iraq. It was sa�d that saddam Husse�n was h�d�ng weapons of mass destruct�on, but none was found. The Bush adm�n�strat�on has s�nce tr�ed to put the U.s. occupat�on of Iraq �n terms of the second offens�ve after Afghan�stan of the war on Terror. some cr�t�cs have charged that �t was not faulty �ntell�gence or terror�sm (Islam�c fundamental�sts d�d not much l�ke saddam Husse�n e�ther) that caused the Un�ted states to �nvade Iraq, but rather Bush’s s�mple des�re to avenge Husse�n’s plot to k�ll the elder Bush. other cr�t�cs have cla�med that the real �ssue was o�l.

Pres�dent Bush declared the Iraq war over on May 1, 2003, yet Amer�cans cont�nued to d�e there. wh�le Bush hand�ly won a second term �n 2004 by

CoNTexT 61

emphas�z�ng h�s role as a war pres�dent (Amer�cans would not dump a war pres�dent �n the m�dst of a war), and as terror alerts seemed to be com�ng out of wash�ngton w�th �ncreased rap�d�ty as the elect�on approached, the nat�on was t�r�ng of a war that appeared to have no clear purpose or end. Iraq was look�ng a lot l�ke V�etnam. when Hurr�cane Katr�na struck the Gulf Coast �n August 2005, Bush seemed, at f�rst, aloof from the tragedy, and h�s government’s emergency management team was pla�nly �ncompetent. sud-denly, Bush d�d not look much l�ke a leader, as cr�t�c�sm came h�s way from every d�rect�on. H�s approval rat�ng began to plummet.

In an apparent attempt to rega�n h�s stature, Bush gave a speech on the war on Terror on october 6, 2005. Borrow�ng a term from ronald reagan, he equated rad�cal Islam w�th ev�l. He went on to say that the struggle aga�nst th�s ev�l was much l�ke the struggle aga�nst Commun�sm. The extrem�st, rad�-cal Musl�ms wanted to bu�ld an Islam�c emp�re “from spa�n to Indones�a.” As far as Iraq was concerned, “there �s no peace w�thout v�ctory. we w�ll keep our nerve and w�n that v�ctory.”30 Harken�ng back to reagan’s moral�ty play d�d not garner Bush much support. when �t came to l�ght that the govern-ment had been l�sten�ng to c�t�zens’ telephone conversat�ons w�thout court warrants �n the name of the war on Terror, Bush supported th�s abrogat�on of personal r�ghts and thus appeared to have gone beyond the l�ne Amer�cans trad�t�onally had drawn between personal r�ghts and government power. By the m�ddle of 2006, the major�ty of Amer�cans were not w�th h�m. The war on Terror, �n wh�ch the Bush adm�n�strat�on had tr�ed to �nclude the war �n Iraq, became not only a m�l�tary quagm�re, but �t also was bankrupt�ng the country. enormous annual budget shortfalls were secur�ng Amer�ca’s place as the world’s largest debtor nat�on, leav�ng the Un�ted states econom�cally de-pendent on fore�gn nat�ons to fund �ts debt. The once self-assured Amer�can publ�c looked to the future w�th uncerta�nty and trep�dat�on.

The November 2006 m�dterm elect�ons were a clear repud�at�on of repub-l�can support for the war �n Iraq. Th�s long war seemed to have no endgame. Furthermore, there were s�gns that the republ�can coal�t�on was break�ng apart. F�scal conservat�ves were upset w�th the g�gant�c federal def�c�ts pushed h�gher by the Bush adm�n�strat�on. The soc�al and rel�g�ous conservat�ves that had become the republ�can base were shaken by the revelat�on that Jack Haggard, a m�n�ster who was pres�dent of the 30,000,000-strong Nat�onal Assoc�at�on of evangel�cals and a part�c�pant �n the weekly conference calls from the wh�te House to �ts �mportant const�tuents, sought �llegal drugs and had a relat�onsh�p w�th a male prost�tute. republ�can scandals abounded. war hero representat�ve randy “duke” Cunn�ngham of the 30th Congress�onal d�str�ct of Cal�forn�a res�gned �n d�sgrace for tak�ng outrageous amounts of br�bes from defense contractors. representat�ve Bob Ney of oh�o’s 18th


Congress�onal d�str�ct also res�gned �n d�sgrace, ta�nted by money he had taken �n the notor�ous Jack Abramoff �nfluence peddl�ng scheme. Abramoff was a lobby�st w�th close t�es to the Bush adm�n�strat�on. Voters had had enough of an unpopular war and rampant rel�g�ous and f�nanc�al d�shonesty. democrats were swept �nto power �n the U.s. House, senate, and many state houses.

the Present

The wealth and debt of the Un�ted states br�ng un�mag�nable numbers �nto play. Its gross domest�c product was $10,383,000,000,000 �n 2002, exceed�ng all of europe together. Its stock market cap�tal�zat�on exceeded $14,000,000,000,000; Japan’s was less than one-fourth of that. wealth begets power. The Un�ted states’ m�l�tary budget was $399,100,000,000, ecl�ps�ng russ�a’s �n second place at $65,000,000,000. However, the Un�ted states has been add�ng to �ts nat�onal debt w�th annual budget def�c�ts of around $400,000,000,000. Pay�ng �nterest on the debt has become a major budget �tem. on March 13, 2006, the U.s. publ�c debt stood at $8,270,385,415,129.52.31 To put all th�s �n a celest�al perspect�ve, the max�mum m�leage from the earth to the sun �s only 94,500,000.

The Un�ted states �s the world’s lead�ng corn and wheat exporter. It pro-duces about 25 percent of the world’s beef, veal, and poultry, and �t leads the world �n consumpt�on of those products. The Un�ted states �s also among the world’s top three producers of coal, natural gas, petroleum, cement, sulfur, alum�num, gold, phosphate rock, lead, and copper. Th�s k�nd of magn�f�cent abundance coupled w�th h�gh worker product�v�ty created an Amer�can bel�ef �n self-suff�c�ency that man�fested �tself pol�t�cally as a pers�stent streak of �solat�on�sm, wh�ch cont�nues even today �n the m�dst of the global economy and �nternat�onal m�sadventures. yet �n th�s world economy, the Un�ted states f�nds �tself a net �mporter of goods as the wealthy (by world stan-dards) Amer�can consumer happ�ly gets more bang for the buck by purchas-�ng cheaper goods made abroad.

Let’s exam�ne a snapshot of twenty-f�rst-century Amer�ca.32 The typ�cal Amer�can enters the world a strapp�ng 7.33 pounds. By adulthood, the typ�-cal Amer�can woman �s 63.8 �nches tall, we�ghs 163 pounds, and measures 36.5 �nches at the wa�st. The typ�cal Amer�can man �s 69.3 �nches tall, we�ghs 190 pounds, and measures 39 �nches at the wa�st. Amer�cans are b�g people. Unfortunately, however, Amer�can prosper�ty has �ts downs�de. est�mates are that 64 percent of adults are overwe�ght, and 30 percent of those are obese. F�fteen percent of Amer�ca’s teenagers and ch�ldren age 6–12 are also over-we�ght. In sp�te of Amer�cans’ love affa�r w�th sports, 59 percent of adults �n

CoNTexT 63

the Un�ted states do not engage �n v�gorous le�sure phys�cal act�v�ty or exer-c�se, and fully one-th�rd of h�gh school students fa�l to perform the phys�cal act�v�ty recommended for the�r age group.

The med�an age of all Amer�cans �s 36.2 years. some 20,000,000 are under f�ve years old, but over 34,000,000 are 65 years old and above. There are al-ready 1,600,000 sen�ors l�v�ng �n the nat�on’s 18,000 nurs�ng homes. As the post–world war II baby boomer generat�on nears ret�rement age, trad�t�on-ally at 65 years of age, the number of sen�or c�t�zens w�ll r�se dramat�cally. Amer�can women can expect to l�ve, on average, to 79.9; men, to 74.5. About 2,440,000 Amer�cans d�e each year. Heart d�sease and cancer are the lead�ng causes of death, account�ng for over half of all deaths.

over 145,000,000 (about 66%) of Amer�cans 16 and over are �n the labor force. Most women work. The female labor force part�c�pat�on rate exceeds 70 percent. The full-t�me workweek �s usually 40 hours, e�ght hours Mon-day through Fr�day. surpr�s�ngly, even though the Un�ted states �s a major world exporter of agr�cultural products, less than 2 percent of the nat�on’s c�v�l�an workforce �s engaged �n agr�culture and forestry. employment �n the manufactur�ng and �ndustry sectors together �s less than half the employment �n the serv�ce sector. It �s sa�d that the major�ty of Amer�ca’s teenagers have worked �n the food serv�ce sector, often sett�ng out on a quest for personal �ndependence �n the form of a car.

In 2001, Amer�cans traveled 1,938,000,000 passenger m�les �n the�r 135,921,000 cars. They v�ed w�th 761,000 buses and 92,939,000 trucks. They traveled over 3,982,000 m�les of h�ghways, 902 m�les of wh�ch were �n urban areas, and 592,246 br�dges, 48,492 of wh�ch were �n Texas. Nearly 76 percent of Amer�cans drove to work alone and had, on average, a com-mute of 25.5 m�nutes, or nearly an hour a day �n the car. The typ�cal Amer�-can household made 2,171 annual veh�cle tr�ps: 479 to and from work; 458 shopp�ng; 537 other fam�ly or personal bus�ness; and 441 soc�al and recre-at�onal tr�ps. sadly, there were also more than 18,000,000 motor veh�cle ac-c�dents that resulted �n 44,000 deaths. Twenty-two of every 100,000 l�censed dr�vers can expect to d�e �n a traff�c acc�dent. dr�vers �n Montana have the greatest chance of dy�ng on the road, w�th 2.6 deaths per 100,000,000 veh�cle m�les traveled.33

Most Amer�cans (67.1%) own the�r own homes; the others rent. The av-erage s�ze of fam�l�es �s 3.18 persons, and the�r med�an �ncome �s $53,692. The average household s�ze �s 2.60, w�th a med�an �ncome of $44,692. The 73,754,171 owner-occup�ed homes �n the Un�ted states have a med�an value of $151,366. Homeowners w�th mortgages can expect to have monthly costs of $1,212; those w�thout mortgages can expect to have $345 �n monthly expenses. Home to Amer�cans �s as much a concept as �t �s a place. In the


last f�ve years of the twent�eth century alone, 112,852,000 Amer�cans (43%) moved to a d�fferent home. More than 65,000,000 of them rema�ned �n the same county and 25,000,000 �n the same state, but more than 25,000,000 moved �nto a d�fferent state. Mob�l�ty �s a key character�st�c of Amer�can cul-ture that serves to break down reg�onal var�at�on.34

The Amer�can econom�c system allows for and even encourages a w�de gap between the r�chest and the poorest. There �s, therefore, class �n Amer�ca, but �t tends to be def�ned pr�mar�ly by wealth (and educat�on). It �s d�ff�cult to def�ne the boundar�es between upper class and m�ddle class, and m�ddle class and lower class, and efforts to make such def�n�t�ons m�ss the po�nt. The po�nt �s that whatever class l�nes may ex�st can be eas�ly crossed. Th�s �s a bas�c tenet of Amer�can bel�efs. F�rst generat�on �n Amer�ca Jew�sh comed�ans who had made �t, for example, shared a sht�ck about how poor they were grow�ng up: “My fam�ly was so poor that my brother and I had to share a pa�r of shoes. we each had one!” Pull�ng oneself up by one’s own bootstraps br�ngs soc�al acceptab�l�ty, �f not adulat�on. In that sense, Amer�ca �s classless—Amer�cans control the�r own dest�ny. some 9,500,000 Amer�cans are self-employed. Amer�can soc�ety holds hope, therefore, for the 37,000,000 Amer�cans who l�ve below the poverty level, 13,000,000 of them ch�ldren, and the 40,600,000 Amer�cans who have no health �nsurance.35

For all the hurry �n Amer�cans’ l�ves, they are generally affable people who enjoy a good joke, even perhaps a r�bald one, and value an act�ve soc�al l�fe. The�r affab�l�ty and casual manner (“H� ya, pal, glad to meet ya!”), however, may leave those from other cultures w�th a certa�n empty feel�ng. Amer�cans are known the world over for the�r ab�l�ty to engage �n small talk—the weather, sports, telev�s�on shows, clothes—on soc�al occas�ons. Pol�t�cs and rel�g�on are taboo subjects, except among very close fr�ends and fam�ly. Amer�cans carefully guard the�r own pr�vate �nd�v�dual bel�efs, and they do not expect to argue about them publ�cly.

notes

1. U.s. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2005, http://www.census.gov. Unless otherw�se noted, th�s �s the source of stat�st�cal data through-out th�s chapter.

2. A word about m�les, and, for that matter, acres, �s necessary here. The Un�ted states adopted �ts measurement system from the Br�t�sh forefathers of the or�g�nal colon�es, and Amer�cans v�ew k�lometers, hectares, or any such metr�c system nomen-clature as fore�gn. Thus, as fore�gn terms, most Amer�cans do not know what a k�lometer or a hectare �s—that a m�le equals 1.609 k�lometers or that an acre equals 0.405 hectares—and certa�nly any d�scuss�on of d�stances and areas �n those terms

CoNTexT 65

would y�eld the �nnocent, good-natured quest�on, “you’re not from around here, are ya?” wh�ch �s not really a quest�on, but rather a conclus�on, and requ�res no response.

3. NyC Company Inc., “NyC stat�st�cs,” http://www.nycv�s�t.com. 4. The League of Amer�can Theatres and Producers Inc., “Broadway season sta-

t�st�cs at a Glance,” http://www.L�veBroadway.com. 5. C�ty of Atlanta onl�ne, “H�story,” http://www.atlantaga.gov. 6. Hartsf�eld-Jackson Atlanta Internat�onal A�rport, “operat�ng stat�st�cs,” http://

www.atlanta-a�rport.com. 7. C�ty of Ch�cago, “Ch�cago by the Numbers,” http://egov.c�tyofCh�cago.org. 8. stephen s. B�rdsall and John Flor�n, “An outl�ne of Amer�can Geography;

reg�onal Landscapes of the Un�ted states,” �n The Agricultural Core, http://us�nfo.state.gov.

9. Montana H�stor�cal soc�ety, “The economy,” http://www.montanah�stor�cal soc�ety.org. see also “The sett�ng.”

10. Los Angeles department of water and Power, “The story of the Los Angeles Aqueduct,” http://wsoweb.ladwp.com.

11. It �s est�mated that Phoen�x has s�nce surpassed Ph�ladelph�a �n populat�on.12. U.s. Census Bureau, “Fact sheet: Un�ted states, 2004 Amer�can Commun�ty

survey, data Prof�le H�ghl�ghts,” http://factf�nder.census.gov.13. Pew research Center, Pew Global Att�tudes Project, “U.s. Image Up sl�ghtly,

but st�ll Negat�ve,” press release, June 23, 2005, http://pewglobal.org.14. see Columbia Guide to Standard American English (New york: Columb�a Un�-

vers�ty Press, 1993); and evolut�on Publ�sh�ng, “L�ngu�st�c Geography of the Ma�n-land Un�ted states,” http://www.evolpub.com.

15. U.s. department of state, “Bas�c read�ngs �n U.s. democracy,” http://us�nfo.state.gov. see also “seneca Falls declarat�on (1848).”

16. U.s. C�v�l war Center, U.s. department of defense records, “stat�st�cal summary—Amer�ca’s Major wars,” http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/cwc/other/stats/war cost.htm.

17. The Avalon Project at yale Law school, “second Inaugural Address of James Monroe,” March 5, 1821, http://www.yale.edu.

18. U.s. senate, American State Papers, 18th Cong., 2d. sess., 1825, 543, http://www.loc.gov.

19. These are self-reported data ava�lable �n the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2005.

20. see U.s. Informat�on Agency, “one from Many,” �n Portrait of the USA, http://us�nfo.state.gov.

21. U.s. Census Bureau, Table 4, �n Technical Paper 29, March 9, 1999, http://www.census.gov.

22. “one from Many.”23. James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and the Okie

Culture in California (New york: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 1989), 6–11. 24. “stat�st�cal summary”; L�brary of Congress, “world war I and Postwar soc�-

ety, Part I,” �n African American Odyssey, http://www.loc.gov.


25. U.s. Census Bureau, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (wash�ngton, dC: U.s. Government Pr�nt�ng off�ce, 1960), 462.

26. “stat�st�cal summary.”27. see d�llon s. Myer, Uprooted Americans: The Japanese Americans and the War

Relocation Authority during World War II (Tucson: Un�vers�ty of Ar�zona Press, 1971).

28. Nat�onal organ�zat�on for women, “equal r�ghts Amendment,” http://www.now.org.

29. Federal elect�on Comm�ss�on, “2000 off�c�al Pres�dent�al elect�on results,” http://www.fec.gov.

30. The wh�te House, off�ce of the Press secretary, “Fact sheet: Pres�dent Bush remarks on the war on Terror,” october 6, 2005, http://www.wh�tehouse.gov.

31. Bureau of the Publ�c debt, “The debt to the Penny,” http://www.publ�cdebt.treas.gov.

32. U.s. Census Bureau 2004 Amer�can Commun�ty survey & Nat�onal Center for Health stat�st�cs, “Fast stats A to Z,” http://www.cdc.gov. The follow�ng data are taken from these sources.

33. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2005.34. “Fast stats A to Z.”35. U.s. Census Bureau, “Poverty: 2004 H�ghl�ghts,” http://www.census.gov.

BiBliograPhy

B�rdsdall, stephen s. Regional Landscapes of the United States and Canada. 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John w�ley, 2005.

Blum, John M., et al. The National Experience: A History of the United States. 8th ed. Fort worth, Tx: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanov�ch, 1993.

Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. New york: s�mon and schuster, 1988.

Chafe, w�ll�am Henry. The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II. 5th ed. New york: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 2003.

donald, dav�d Herbert, Jean H. Baker, and M�chael F. Holt. The Civil War and Reconstruction. New york: w. w. Norton, 2001.

F�te, G�lbert C., and J�m e. reese. An Economic History of the United States. 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton M�ffl�n, 1973.

Flexner, eleanor. Century of Struggle: The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States. rev. ed. Cambr�dge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 1975.

Jeydel, Alana s. Political Women: The Women’s Movement, Political Institutions, the Battle for Women’s Suffrage and the ERA. New york: routledge, 2004.

Johansen, Bruce e. The Native Peoples of North America. 2 vols. westport, CT: Prae-ger, 2005.

Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. New york: HarperColl�ns, 1997.

CoNTexT 67

Jordan, w�nthrop d. White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812. New york: w. w. Norton, 1977.

Lemann, N�cholas. The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America. New york: V�ntage Books, 1992.

Morr�son, samuel el�ot, Henry steele Commager, and w�ll�am e. Leuchtenburg. The Growth of the American Republic. 7th ed. 2 vols. New york: oxford Un�-vers�ty Press, 1980.

Patterson, James T. America’s Struggle against Poverty, 1900–1985. engl. ed. Cam-br�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 1986.

Pr�tzker, Barry M. Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples. santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIo, 1998.

ratner, s�dney, James H. soltow, and r�chard sylla. The Evolution of the Ameri-can Economy: Growth Welfare and Decision Making. New york: Bas�c Books, 1979.

re�mers, dav�d M. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. 2nd ed. New york: Columb�a Un�vers�ty Press, 1992.

s�tkoff, Harvard. The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954–1980. New york: H�ll and wang, 1981.

sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History. New york: Bas�c Books, 1981.tenBroek, Jacobus, edward N. Barnhart, and Floyd w. Matson. Prejudice, War,

and the Constitution: Causes and Consequences of the Evacuation of the Japanese Americans in World War II. Japanese Amer�can evacuat�on and resettlement ser�es. Berkeley: Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a Press, 1954.

vann woodward, C. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. 3rd rev. ed. New york: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 1974.

w�lson, Kenneth G. Columbia Guide to Standard American English. New york: Columb�a Un�vers�ty Press, 1993.

In God we Trust.—The U.s. $1 b�ll

. . . and God bless Amer�ca.—Pres�dent George w. Bush

The opportunity for rel�g�ous freedom brought �mm�grants to Amer�ca long before the Un�ted states became an �ndependent nat�on. The early �mm�grants—engl�sh, German, dutch, French—brought the�r rel�g�ous con-v�ct�ons and the�r churches w�th them to Amer�ca, as have m�ll�ons of later �mm�grants. Amer�ca proved the perfect place for rel�g�ous bel�efs to evolve and blossom �n d�st�nctly Amer�can ways.

Freedom of rel�g�on �s a fundamental Amer�can pr�nc�ple, guaranteed �n the F�rst Amendment of the Const�tut�on, wh�ch proh�b�ts Congress from establ�sh�ng a state rel�g�on or proh�b�t�ng the free exerc�se of rel�g�ous bel�efs. In the course of t�me, however, the not�on of the separat�on of church and state, even older �n or�g�n than Thomas Jefferson’s use of the term, became the Amendment’s legal foundat�on, �n no small part ow�ng to nat�v�st fears of roman Cathol�c�sm. The separat�on of church and state, f�rmly placed �nto the legal lex�con by a 1947 supreme Court case, has proved, however, a st�cky operat�onal concept.1 In an overwhelm�ngly Chr�st�an nat�on, the courts pres�de over the constant tug and pull on the wall that �s to separate rel�g�on from government.

Amer�cans’ f�rm conv�ct�on that rel�g�on �s a matter of personal bel�ef that cannot be regulated �n any way by any government g�ves rel�g�on a un�que

2

rel�g�on and Thought

Benjamin F. Shearer

69


place �n Amer�can culture. Churches enjoy tax-exempt status as char�table �nst�tut�ons. More �mportant, however, rel�g�ous bel�efs also enjoy freedom from publ�c cr�t�c�sm. rel�g�ous bel�efs and �deas are cons�dered sacrosanct—they may be publ�cly expressed w�thout consequence. It �s a fact of Amer�can soc�al l�fe that rel�g�on �s a subject to be avo�ded. Amer�cans generally d�sl�ke engag�ng �n �nformal d�scuss�ons w�th no hope of easy solut�on or compro-m�se. No matter one’s personal v�ews, no Amer�can would cons�der a publ�c denunc�at�on of anyone else’s rel�g�ous bel�efs. Amer�cans are somehow able to embrace Chr�st�ans, Jews, Musl�ms—people of any bel�ef—�n the�r broad def�n�t�on of what �t means to be Amer�can, although non-Chr�st�ans, often grossly m�sunderstood, have had a d�ff�cult struggle for �nclus�on. when re-l�g�ous bel�efs f�nd pol�t�cal pos�t�ons, however, those pol�t�cal pos�t�ons are open to publ�c d�scourse and debate.

rel�g�ous bel�efs, though cons�dered a pr�vate matter, bleed �nto the publ�c consc�ousness and culture of Amer�ca. There �s no law that creates a wall of separat�on between personal rel�g�ous thought and publ�c act�on. Amer�cans by and large bel�eve that God �s lead�ng the Un�ted states, �mbu�ng �t w�th democrat�c values and the wealth and beauty of �ts natural env�ronment, and that Amer�ca has, therefore, the obl�gat�on to br�ng God’s democrat�c and

The back of an Amer�can one-dollar b�ll, wh�ch �s just one of several places where one can f�nd the words “In God we Trust.” © Gramper | dreamst�me.com.

reLIGIoN ANd THoUGHT 71

Chr�st�an values to the world. Indeed, the hallmark of the predom�nant Prot-estant�sm �n Amer�ca �s democrat�c church structures bu�lt on the voluntary assoc�at�on of �nd�v�duals who, on the�r own �n�t�at�ve, have transformed themselves �nto true bel�evers.

God �s �n the da�ly commerce and d�scourse of all Amer�cans. Abraham L�ncoln f�rst put the motto “In God we Trust” on Amer�can money dur�ng the depths of the C�v�l war. The Cold war put �t there for good—Amer�ca was do�ng God’s work aga�nst godless Commun�sm. Pres�dents s�nce Cal-v�n Cool�dge have been l�ght�ng the nat�onal Chr�stmas tree, and no mod-ern pres�dent�al speech could end w�thout �nvok�ng God’s bless�ng on the country. efforts to make the Chr�stmas tree ceremon�es that take place �n thousands of pol�t�cal jur�sd�ct�ons each year more �nclus�ve by referr�ng to a so-called hol�day tree are labeled pejorat�vely as pol�t�cal correctness and rece�ve howls of protestat�on from conservat�ve rel�g�ous leaders for tak�ng the Chr�st�an, Jesus-centered character out of Chr�stmas. Preachers permeate telev�s�on and rad�o a�rwaves. A sneeze �n a crowded room draws a chorus of “God bless you.”

oVerView of religion in ameriCa

Freedom of rel�g�on �n Amer�ca precludes ask�ng anyone about personal rel�g�ous bel�efs, whether �n job �nterv�ews or even �n the decenn�al federal census. The federal government has never collected data on rel�g�ous adher-ence. determ�n�ng numbers of members of denom�nat�ons or churches �s, therefore, dependent on surveys by var�ous organ�zat�ons or the denom�nat�ons themselves. The fact that d�fferent rel�g�ous groups count d�fferent th�ngs (bapt�zed vs. act�ve members, for example) further confounds efforts to un-derstand Amer�can rel�g�on through numbers. Nevertheless, a look at the b�g p�cture �s �nstruct�ve.

Most Amer�cans bel�eve �n God; only around 2 or 3 percent of the popula-t�on are agnost�cs or athe�sts. The Un�ted states �s about 80 percent Chr�st�an; data from �ndependent surveys vary from over 76 to 82 percent. Around 13 percent of Amer�cans are nonrel�g�ous or secular, and about 2 percent are Jew�sh. No other rel�g�ons—Greek orthodox, russ�an orthodox, Islam, H�n-du�sm, Buddh�sm, dru�d�sm, s�kh�sm, sc�entology, de�sm, Tao�st, New Age, or Nat�ve Amer�can—are bel�eved to approach 1 percent of the populat�on.2

The 10 largest rel�g�ous bod�es �n the Un�ted states are the roman Catho-l�c Church w�th 67.8 m�ll�on; the southern Bapt�st Convent�on, w�th 16.2 m�ll�on; the Un�ted Method�st Church, w�th 8.2 m�ll�on; the Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts, w�th 6 m�ll�on; the Church of God �n Chr�st (Black Pentecostal), w�th 5.5 m�ll�on; the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA,


w�th 5 m�ll�on; the evangel�cal Lutheran Church of Amer�ca, w�th 4.9 m�ll�on; the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer�ca, w�th 3.5 m�ll�on; the Presby-ter�an Church (UsA), w�th 3.2 m�ll�on; and the Assembl�es of God (UsA), w�th 2.8 m�ll�on. The largest 25 denom�nat�ons �n the Un�ted states account for over 148 m�ll�on people.3

evangel�cal Protestants (Bapt�sts, reformed and Confess�onal churches, nondenom�nat�onal Chr�st�ans, Pentecostals, Churches of Chr�st, etc.) equal the roman Cathol�c populat�on at about 25 percent. Ma�nl�ne wh�te Protes-tant churches (Method�sts, Lutherans, Presbyter�ans, ep�scopal�ans, and Con-gregat�onal�sts) are about 22 percent of the populat�on. Afr�can Amer�can Protestants, �n Afr�can Amer�can churches that were created by Afr�can Amer�-cans �n the atmosphere of slavery and segregat�on, make up about 8 percent of the populat�on.

It �s a sad fact of Amer�can l�fe that wh�te and Afr�can Amer�can people could not worsh�p together equally as God’s ch�ldren. rac�sm permeated every n�che of soc�ety. on the other hand, ow�ng to the enterpr�se of early Afr�can Amer�can rel�g�ous leaders, Afr�can Amer�can churches were founded that would become the bedrock rel�g�ous and soc�al foundat�on of Afr�can Amer�can soc�ety. The Afr�can Amer�can churches were legally untouchable and totally �ndependent thanks to the F�rst Amendment. They were also de facto the only Afr�can Amer�can �nst�tut�ons �n Amer�ca—places where Afr�-can Amer�can culture could flour�sh, places where Afr�can Amer�cans could f�nd pr�de and �ndependence, places where Afr�can Amer�cans were �n charge. The reverend Mart�n Luther K�ng coord�nated the c�v�l r�ghts movement through Afr�can Amer�can churches. Today, Afr�can Amer�can churches con-t�nue the�r proud trad�t�ons and work for the econom�c empowerment of the Afr�can Amer�can populat�on.

Amer�can Protestant churches have been d�v�ded by race as well as by b�bl�-cal �nterpretat�on. evangel�cals, who bel�eve �n a l�teral, str�ct �nterpretat�on of the B�ble but, unl�ke Fundamental�sts, allow for m�racles beyond the B�ble, have generally shunned soc�al act�on �n favor of personal salvat�on. evangel�-cal�sm has therefore been �nherently �nd�v�dual�st�c �n seek�ng �n �ts adher-ents the personal transformat�on that allows them to accept Jesus Chr�st as the�r Lord and personal sav�or. As a result, evangel�cals generally rema�ned aloof from the soc�al and pol�t�cal landscape of the country, unt�l the�r po-l�t�cal power was unleashed by conservat�ve act�v�sts. The ma�nl�ne Protestant churches are not as l�kely to �ns�st on l�teral b�bl�cal �nterpretat�on and have emphas�zed the �mportance of soc�al act�on as a means toward salvat�on. It was these churches, therefore, espec�ally beg�nn�ng �n the early twent�eth century, that act�vely developed char�table enterpr�ses to serve the poor and d�senfran-ch�sed and became act�ve �n pol�t�cal and soc�al �ssues and movements.


Fundamental�sm, as much a creed as a state of m�nd, has been a constant force aga�nst modern�sm �n Amer�can l�fe, even though �t was thought many t�mes to have van�shed. The name der�ves from the publ�cat�on between 1910 and 1915 of The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth �n 12 volumes. Fundamental�sts are evangel�cals who bel�eve �n the rel�g�ous, sc�ent�f�c, and h�stor�cal truth of the B�ble: Jesus Chr�st’s d�v�n�ty, v�rg�n b�rth, atonement for mank�nd’s s�ns by death on the cross, and resurrect�on from the dead and the return of Jesus Chr�st on Judgment day to judge the l�v�ng and the dead e�ther for eternal bl�ss or eternal damnat�on.4 Fundamental�sts also bel�eve �n B�ble prophecy.

Armed w�th b�bl�cal truth, fundamental�sts have been pers�stent, �f not m�l�tant, guer�lla warr�ors �n the f�ght to make the�r v�s�on of a Chr�st�an Amer�ca come true. Th�s v�s�on harkens back to an Amer�ca that ex�sted only �deally, but before exegetes quest�oned the l�teral mean�ng of the B�ble, before women quest�oned the�r trad�t�onal roles, before gay r�ghts was a top�c of d�scuss�on, before evolut�on became an accepted theory, and before abort�on was legal�zed. Fundamental�sts bel�eve they are preserv�ng trad�t�onal Amer-�can values that so-called l�beral churches, l�beral pol�t�c�ans, and modern Amer�can culture have helped to erode. They have enjoyed be�ng outs�d-ers who can p�ck and choose the�r battles emboldened by �ndependence and unencumbered by church bureaucrac�es. They have successfully employed pr�nt and broadcast med�a to get the�r message out and rev�vals to convert the nonbel�evers. A s�mple, understandable Amer�ca prepared for Judgment day �s espec�ally appeal�ng �n t�mes of soc�al change and uncerta�nty. waves of rev�val�sm swept the country dur�ng the roar�ng Twent�es, dur�ng world war II, and �n the V�etnam war era.

The Amer�can rel�g�ous landscape �s chang�ng rap�dly at the turn of the twenty-f�rst century. The roman Cathol�c Church cont�nues to grow �n ab-solute numbers w�th the �nflux of trad�t�onal Cathol�cs from Mex�co, even as �t closes churches �n the �nner c�t�es of the Northeast and M�dwest. The number of roman Cathol�cs would be grow�ng even more, but evangel�-cal Protestant�sm has made �nroads �nto that populat�on. over 30 percent of Mex�cans com�ng �nto the Un�ted states are bel�eved to be evangel�cals, even though they may ma�nta�n trad�t�onal roman Cathol�c pract�ces and, �ndeed, may return to Cathol�c�sm. The membersh�p �n ma�nl�ne Protestant churches appears to be dw�ndl�ng �n compar�son to the burst �n evangel�cal numbers. Amer�cans also seem to be attracted to nondenom�nat�onal, B�ble-based megachurches w�th congregat�ons of more than 20,000.

There can be no doubt that Amer�ca �s �n the m�dst of another wave of rel�-g�ous awaken�ng. It �s evangel�cal, �f not somet�mes Pentecostal. It �s black and wh�te and mult�colored. It �s largely Protestant. Amer�cans want trad�t�onal


Amer�can values, not a tax code–s�zed volume of church canons. It �s New Testament; �t �s s�mple; �t �s salvat�on from uncerta�nty, soc�al d�sconnect�on, and the vagar�es of terror�sm.

ameriCa’s largest religious denominations

the roman Catholic Church

As the nat�on’s s�ngle largest denom�nat�on s�nce 1852, roman Cathol�-c�sm �s a potent rel�g�ous, pol�t�cal, and soc�al force. The Amer�can Church �s d�v�ded �nto 33 prov�nces, each w�th an archb�shop who may or not be a card�nal. There are 281 act�ve b�shops �n 195 Amer�can d�oceses, as b�shop’s eccles�ast�cal jur�sd�ct�ons are called. The Church counted 19,081 par�shes, 44,487 pr�ests (some 9,500 are ret�red), 5,568 brothers, 74,698 s�sters, and almost 14,000 permanent deacons �n 2003. Pr�ests may be d�ocesan (some-t�mes called par�sh pr�ests or secular pr�ests) or members of rel�g�ous orders. There are 150 rel�g�ous orders �n the Un�ted states, and 14,772 of the pr�ests belong to rel�g�ous orders. only the deacons are perm�tted to marry, but, l�ke the pr�esthood, only men may be adm�tted. In add�t�on to var�ous char�-table act�v�t�es, the Church also has 585 Cathol�c hosp�tals, 7,142 elementary schools, 1,374 h�gh schools, and 230 colleges and un�vers�t�es all over the country.5

Today, about 39 percent (25 m�ll�on people) of the Cathol�c populat�on �s H�span�c, and by 2020, that percentage �s expected to reach more than 50 per-cent. s�nce 1960, over 70 percent of the growth �n the number of roman Cathol�cs �s attr�butable to the nat�onal �nflux of H�span�cs �n the popula-t�on. There are approx�mately 2.3 m�ll�on Afr�can Amer�can Cathol�cs, and about 25 percent (500,000) of the Nat�ve Amer�can populat�on are bapt�zed roman Cathol�cs.6

Par�shes were espec�ally �mportant to the �mm�grant roman Cathol�c Church. Because par�sh churches were ne�ghborhood churches, and urban �mm�grants segregated �nto ne�ghborhoods w�th others of the same cultural backgrounds, par�shes became the hub of soc�al and cultural as well as rel�-g�ous act�v�t�es. Fr�day n�ght f�sh fr�es w�th alcohol�c beverages and gambl�ng were typ�cal soc�al act�v�t�es. B�ngo games became assoc�ated w�th the roman Cathol�c Church. The Cathol�c youth organ�zat�on prov�ded athlet�c com-pet�t�on. so strong was the cultural �nfluence of the par�shes �n heav�ly roman Cathol�c northeastern c�t�es l�ke Ph�ladelph�a that when Ph�ladelph�ans meet each other to th�s day, no matter the�r rel�g�on, they �dent�fy themselves by the par�sh �n wh�ch they grew up.

roman Cathol�c par�shes �n 2000 averaged 3,254 members, or 1,269 households. The average non–roman Cathol�c congregat�on averaged only


303 members. roman Cathol�cs donated $5,864,000,000 to the�r par�shes �n sunday collect�ons dur�ng 2002, 90 percent of wh�ch rema�ned �n the par�shes to be used for par�sh undertak�ngs.7 even though about 68 percent of Amer�can roman Cathol�cs are reg�stered �n par�shes, there �s ev�dence that par�sh l�fe �s no longer what �t once was. Around 40 percent of Amer�can roman Cathol�cs th�nk the par�shes are too large. whereas nearly 75 percent went to Mass weekly �n the 1950s, that number has now shrunk to 34 per-cent. In sp�te of Church rules, three-fourths of roman Cathol�cs bel�eve one can be a good Cathol�c w�thout go�ng to church every week.8

The Amer�can Protestant democrat�c trad�t�on has always stood �n stark contrast to the roman Cathol�c Church’s nondemocrat�c trad�t�on, a fact that helped to fuel nat�v�sts’ fear of a papal takeover of the country as Catho-l�cs from Ireland, Italy, Poland, and Germany poured �nto the country. The roman Cathol�c h�erarchy—the pope, card�nals, b�shops, and pr�ests—has not only guarded aga�nst the �ntroduct�on of doctr�nal heterodoxy but has also systemat�cally ma�nta�ned cler�cal supremacy �n dec�s�on mak�ng, even down to the appo�ntment of pr�ests to par�shes. Amer�can roman Cathol�cs, accustomed to vot�ng for the�r pol�t�cal leaders, have had no vote on who the�r par�sh pr�est may be, no less on any matters of doctr�ne. seventy-two percent of roman Cathol�cs now want a say �n select�ng the�r par�sh pr�ests.9 Amer�can roman Cathol�cs are �ncreas�ngly at odds w�th the Church’s teach-�ngs and pract�ces. s�xty-n�ne percent want to see the Church abandon �ts proh�b�t�on of art�f�c�al b�rth control; 65 percent want pr�ests to be able to marry; and 60 percent want women to be perm�tted to become orda�ned pr�ests. even on the cr�t�cal �ssue of abort�on, 33 percent of Cathol�cs bel�eve �t should generally be ava�lable, and 44 percent bel�eve �t should be ava�l-able w�th further restr�ct�ons. It �s not surpr�s�ng, then, that 82 percent of Amer�can roman Cathol�cs bel�eve they can d�sagree w�th the pope and st�ll be good Cathol�cs and that 72 percent bel�eve that the�r consc�ences should supersede Church teach�ng.10 Amer�can roman Cathol�cs seem to have ad-opted the Protestant major�ty’s bel�ef �n the pr�esthood of bel�evers, �n wh�ch �nd�v�dual consc�ence �s supreme. The p�ck�ng and choos�ng of wh�ch roman Cathol�c teach�ngs to reject or accept has been called cafeteria Catholicism, and �t has become so rampant that some Church leaders bel�eve a l�ne needs to be drawn—e�ther be a roman Cathol�c, or not.

w�th major�t�es of Amer�can roman Cathol�cs bel�ev�ng they could be good Cathol�cs w�thout adher�ng to the�r Church’s pos�t�ons on abort�on, marr�age, d�vorce, b�rth control, weekly Mass attendance, and 23 percent even th�nk�ng that they could be good Cathol�cs w�thout bel�ev�ng that Jesus Chr�st rose from the dead, the need for ded�cated pr�ests could not be greater.11 The roman Cathol�c pr�esthood �n Amer�ca, however, had been


�n a cr�s�s mode from several d�rect�ons and for a long t�me. The average age of Amer�can pr�ests �s 61. only 500 new pr�ests were orda�ned �n 2003. As populat�on �n general has grown, and the roman Cathol�c populat�on �n part�cular has �ncreased, the number of pr�ests has decl�ned. The Church has tr�ed to make up for th�s decl�ne by develop�ng �ts lay deaconate program and programs to tra�n lay catechet�cal teachers, youth m�n�sters, and lay m�n�sters. A 2000 study of the problem found that 2,386 par�shes shared a pastor and 2,334 had no res�dent pastor. Four hundred th�rty-seven par�shes were rece�v-�ng pastoral care from someone other than a pr�est. In the Un�ted states �n the 1950s, there was one pr�est for every 650 people. By 1999, the rat�o had �nflated to 1:1,200. In the west, where the H�span�c populat�on was explod-�ng, the rat�o was 1:1,752.12

If the shortage of vocat�ons to the pr�esthood was a ser�ous problem, the �ncreas�ng and steady revelat�ons that pr�ests had long been sexually abus�ng ch�ldren was a cr�s�s of fa�th of much larger proport�on. By 2002, the Amer�-can publ�c at large was outraged at the way the roman Cathol�c Church was handl�ng the scandals; 45 percent of all Amer�cans were d�ssat�sf�ed, and 25 percent were angry. A week after Pope John Paul II met w�th Amer�can card�nals �n rome �n Apr�l 2002 about the scandal, 58 percent of roman Cathol�cs bel�eved the pope had not done enough about �t. s�xty-two percent of roman Cathol�cs were not pleased w�th the way the Amer�can h�erarchy was deal�ng w�th the cr�s�s. e�ghty-three percent of roman Cathol�cs wanted to see law enforcement called �n when church leaders learned of alleged ch�ld abuse by pr�ests.13

In June 2002, B�shop w�lton d. Gregory, pres�dent of the Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, addressed h�s fellow b�shops on the sexual abuse scandals. He called �t “a very grave cr�s�s,” not�ng that the b�shops, s�ngly and as a group, had worked on the sexual abuse �ssue s�nce 1985, l�stened to v�ct�ms and consultants, and f�nally adopted pr�nc�ples �n 1992 to be followed when sexual abuse was alleged. Gregory acknowledged that the work the b�shops had done was “overshadowed by the �mprudent dec�-s�ons of a small number of B�shops” dur�ng the past 10 years. He confessed that �t was the fault of the b�shops that sexually abus�ve pr�ests were allowed to rema�n �n pos�t�ons that allowed them to abuse aga�n; that law enforce-ment was not called �n; that fear of scandal perm�tted abuse to cont�nue; and that v�ct�ms were somet�mes treated as adversar�es. He apolog�zed for all the b�shops and resolved to change the way th�ngs would be done �n the future.14

The Conference of B�shops created the Nat�onal rev�ew Board for the Protect�on of Ch�ldren and young People to study the problem. In Feb-ruary 2004, the board reported �ts f�nd�ngs: 4,392 pr�ests (4%) had been


accused of molest�ng m�nors between 1950 and 2002, and the Church had spent over $500,000,000 �n deal�ng w�th the reported 10,667 accusat�ons. e�ghty-one percent of the v�ct�ms were male; 2,000 ch�ldren under 11 years old had been abused by pedoph�le pr�ests; 78 percent of the allegat�ons �n-volved ch�ldren 11–17 years old. Allegat�ons of abuse of m�nors rose �n the 1960s, peaked �n the 1970s, and occurred all over the country.15 w�th re-lease of the report, B�shop Gregory assured that the b�shops had put a system �n place to respond at once to abuse allegat�on, ass�st v�ct�ms, and take of-fenders out of the m�n�stry.16

The anger of most roman Cathol�cs was d�rected at the b�shops, rather than at the clergy �n the�r par�shes, where pr�ests cont�nued to earn h�gh marks throughout the unfold�ng of the scandal. In fact, between 2001 and 2002, sunday g�v�ng �n the par�shes rose 4.8 percent. In 2002, Amer�ca’s 15.9 m�ll�on reg�stered, act�ve roman Cathol�c households gave the Church, on average, $455. Par�shes are heav�ly dependent on sunday collect�ons for the�r revenues. Typ�cally, par�shes spend 42 percent of the�r revenues on salar�es and the rema�n�ng 58 percent on plant and program expenses. The Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, through wh�ch the b�shops exerc�se the�r pastorate for the nat�on, also asks roman Cathol�cs to sup-port other act�v�t�es through spec�al annual collect�ons. Money �s collected to a�d the roman Cathol�c Church �n central and eastern europe, to fund Cathol�c rel�ef serv�ces and m�grat�on and refugee serv�ces. The Cathol�c Campa�gn for Human development uses donat�ons to f�ght the root causes of poverty �n Amer�ca. There �s a collect�on for roman Cathol�c home m�s-s�ons, black and Ind�an m�ss�ons, and the Church �n Lat�n Amer�ca. Peter’s Pence �s a collect�on to enable the pope to respond to a�d requests by those who have been v�ct�ms of war, oppress�on, and natural d�sasters. other col-lect�ons support world evangel�zat�on, th�rd world food projects, �nst�tut�ons �n the Holy Land, and Cathol�c Un�vers�ty of Amer�ca, wh�ch was founded by the Amer�can b�shops. Unl�ke other denom�nat�ons, the roman Cathol�c Church nat�onally does not g�ve d�rect f�nanc�al support to roman Cathol�c colleges and un�vers�t�es other than Cathol�c Un�vers�ty.17

The work of the roman Cathol�c Church �n Amer�ca �s furthered by some 135 nat�onal organ�zat�ons and hundreds of local lay groups. The Kn�ghts of Columbus �s the largest such group, w�th 1.6 m�ll�on members. The mem-bers of th�s fraternal soc�ety donated $128.5 m�ll�on to char�t�es �n 2002 and performed 60.8 m�ll�on hours of volunteer serv�ce. The Kn�ghts of Peter Claver and Lad�es Aux�l�ary, w�th 45,000 members, serve the spec�f�c needs of Afr�can Amer�can Cathol�cs and annually donate hundreds of thousands of dollars and hours of serv�ce. The soc�ety of st. V�ncent de Paul’s 102,000 members v�s�t homes, hosp�tals, day care fac�l�t�es for the aged, and pr�sons.


The�r donat�ons and serv�ces were valued at $335 m�ll�on �n 2002. These and many other organ�zat�ons l�ke the Jesu�t Volunteer Corps v�tally �nvolve the la�ty �n fulf�ll�ng the Church’s m�ss�ons to serve others.18

The roman Cathol�c Church �n Amer�ca, through the teach�ngs and pro-nouncements of the Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, has taken the pos�t�on that the “separat�on of church and state does not requ�re d�v�-s�on between bel�ef and publ�c act�on, between moral pr�nc�ples and pol�t�cal cho�ces, but protects the r�ght of bel�evers and rel�g�ous groups to pract�ce the�r fa�th and act on the�r values �n publ�c l�fe.” Fa�thful c�t�zens who “br�ng the�r moral conv�ct�ons �nto publ�c l�fe,” therefore, “do not threaten democ-racy or plural�sm but enr�ch them and the nat�on.” In regard to abort�on—“always �ntr�ns�cally ev�l”—the b�shops counseled roman Cathol�cs �n publ�c pos�t�ons that “act�ng cons�stently to support abort�on on demand r�sks mak-�ng them cooperators �n ev�l �n a publ�c manner.”19 In concert, of course, w�th the Vat�can, the Amer�can b�shops have been a steady vo�ce �n speak�ng for the sanct�ty of all l�fe, not just the unborn. Thus they have rem�nded the fa�thful that human clon�ng, euthanas�a, ass�sted su�c�de, the death penalty for cap�tal cr�mes, and target�ng c�v�l�ans �n war all v�olate that fundamental pr�nc�ple. Furthermore, Cathol�cs have the obl�gat�on to protect fam�ly l�fe, pursue soc�al and econom�c just�ce, serve the poor and the helpless, care for the env�ronment, and work to el�m�nate poverty all over the world.20 The b�shops have also supported an amendment to the Const�tut�on that would def�ne marr�age as a un�on between a man and a woman, argu�ng that wh�le they decr�ed the “unjust d�scr�m�nat�on, harassment or abuse” aga�nst homo-sexuals, homosexual un�ons are “�nherently non-procreat�ve” and therefore cannot have the status of marr�age.21

baptists

The Southern Baptist Convention

The f�rst Bapt�st church �n Amer�ca was founded �n 1638 �n what would become rhode Island. An offshoot of engl�sh Pur�tan�sm, Bap-t�sts shunned any state-sponsored rel�g�on and bel�eved that bapt�sm should be performed only on those who had proved the�r fa�th. In 1707, the Ph�ladelph�a Bapt�st Assoc�at�on was formed, wh�ch �ncluded churches �n Pennsylvan�a, delaware, and rhode Island, and also �ncluded churches �n Connect�cut, Maryland, V�rg�n�a, and New york. At the t�me of the Amer�-can revolut�on, there were about equal numbers of Angl�cans and Bapt�sts �n the colon�es, but the�r numbers were smaller than those of Congregat�onal�sts and Presbyter�ans. By 1800, however, Bapt�sts were the largest denom�nat�on �n the Un�ted states, �ts numbers hav�ng swelled w�th new black and wh�te


members after the Great Awaken�ng, wh�ch spread convers�on through the country from the 1730s �nto the 1770s.

In 1814, Bapt�sts formed the General M�ss�onary Convent�on, but �t was d�v�ded between North and south over the slavery �ssue �n 1845. Thus was born the southern Bapt�st Convent�on, today the largest of Amer�ca’s Bapt�st groups, the s�ngle largest Protestant and evangel�cal group, and the largest rel�g�ous body �n the country after the roman Cathol�c Church. Contrary to what �ts name �mpl�es, the southern Bapt�st Convent�on �s much more than a reg�onal church. Although the heav�est concentrat�ons of southern Bapt�sts rema�n �n the old south, churches have been establ�shed throughout the country, �nclud�ng �n the Northeast, M�dwest, mounta�n states, and south-ern Cal�forn�a. Between 1952 and 1990 alone, over 8,500 new churches were establ�shed �n the Un�ted states.22

The southern Bapt�st Convent�on �s not just an Amer�can church. south-ern Bapt�sts take the call to evangel�ze the world very ser�ously. s�nce 1846, �ts Internat�onal M�ss�on Board has sent over 15,000 m�ss�onar�es all over the world.23 At the close of 2005, the board had 5,036 f�eld personnel under appo�ntment and 6,797 student volunteers work�ng abroad. In 2005 alone, overseas bapt�sms totaled 459,725. Membersh�p came to 7.3 m�ll�on �n 108,713 overseas churches. In 2005, southern Bapt�sts contr�buted $133.9 m�ll�on �n support of the annual Internat�onal M�ss�on study and Lott�e Moon Chr�stmas offer�ng, �n add�t�on to $22.9 m�ll�on for world hunger and d�saster rel�ef.24

southern Bapt�sts hold the B�ble to be d�v�nely �nsp�red by a tr�une God and w�thout error. The B�ble always trumps any statement of bel�ef. Jesus Chr�st �s God the son �ncarnated �n a v�rg�n b�rth, who d�ed on the cross to redeem mank�nd from s�n and w�ll return �n glory to judge the world. salva-t�on �s poss�ble only for those “who accept Jesus Chr�st as Lord and sav�our.” Because each person �s accountable to God—called soul competency—there �s no salvat�on outs�de of a person’s relat�onsh�p w�th God. Good works or church attendance w�ll not br�ng salvat�on. Personal fa�th �n Chr�st as Lord �s a requ�rement of salvat�on, wh�ch �nvolves regenerat�on, just�f�cat�on, sanct�-f�cat�on, and glor�f�cat�on. regenerat�on �s “a work of God’s grace” that, w�th repentance, changes the heart and results �n a new b�rth as the s�nner turns to God and comm�ts to Jesus Chr�st. Just�f�cat�on �s “God’s grac�ous and full acqu�ttal . . . of all s�nners who repent and bel�eve �n Chr�st.” sanct�f�cat�on sets the bel�ever apart to God’s purposes and enables “progress toward moral and sp�r�tual matur�ty.” Glor�f�cat�on �s “the f�nal blessed and ab�d�ng state of the redeemed.” once accepted by God, true bel�evers f�lled w�th God’s grace never fall away from the state of grace, even though they may occas�onally go astray.25


southern Bapt�sts accept the pr�esthood of all bel�evers, wh�ch means true bel�evers have the same r�ghts as orda�ned m�n�sters to �nterpret scr�pture and talk w�th God. only men, however, are perm�tted to be pastors. each local congregat�on �s autonomous of the state and general convent�ons and oper-ated through democrat�c processes. southern Bapt�st congregat�ons observe sundays as days of publ�c and pr�vate worsh�p and devot�on and Christ’s two ordinances (called sacraments by some denom�nat�ons): bapt�sm by �mmer-s�on �n water and the Lord’s supper. The members of the congregat�ons are expected to support evangel�sm and m�ss�on act�v�ty and an adequate system of Chr�st�an educat�on, �n wh�ch teachers’ freedom �s l�m�ted “by the pre-em�nence of Jesus Chr�st” and by “the author�tat�ve nature of the scr�ptures.” F�fty-two colleges and un�vers�t�es, two B�ble schools, and one academy are members of the Assoc�at�on of southern Bapt�sts Colleges and schools. Con-gregat�on members are also to exerc�se good stewardsh�p by contr�but�ng “cheerfully, regularly, systemat�cally, proport�onately, and l�berally for the advancement of the redeemer’s cause on earth.”26

The southern Bapt�st fa�th has reta�ned the long Bapt�st support for the pr�nc�ple of the absolute separat�on of church and state. It also supports coop-erat�on among New Testament churches for just�f�ed ends. The Convent�on’s teach�ngs on soc�al �ssues are “rooted �n the regenerat�on of the �nd�v�dual by the sav�ng grace of God �n Jesus Chr�st.” Good Chr�st�ans have the duty to seek peace and pray for the “re�gn of the Pr�nce of Peace,” to “speak on behalf of the unborn” and to “prov�de for the orphaned, the needy, the abused, the aged, the helpless, and the s�ck.” They should also “oppose rac�sm, every form of greed, self�shness, and v�ce, and all forms of sexual �mmoral�ty, �nclud�ng adultery, homosexual�ty, and pornography.” In regard to fam�ly matters, the southern Bapt�st Convent�on holds that “God has orda�ned the fam�ly as the foundat�onal �nst�tut�on of human soc�ety.” Because both husband and w�fe are created �n God’s �mage, both are of equal worth �n the eyes of God. The husband, however, has the “God-g�ven respons�b�l�ty to prov�de for, to protect, and to lead h�s fam�ly.” The w�fe “�s to subm�t herself to the servant leadersh�p of her husband” and she has “the God-g�ven respons�b�l�ty to re-spect her husband and serve as h�s helper �n manag�ng the household and nurtur�ng the next generat�on.”27

National Baptist Convention, USA Inc.

The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA, �s a h�stor�cally Afr�can Amer�-can church w�th reported membersh�p of 5 m�ll�on adherents and 33,000 churches, mak�ng �t Amer�ca’s s�xth largest rel�g�ous body and the largest of the Afr�can Amer�can Bapt�st churches.28 Th�s convent�on traces �ts or�g�n to


1886 �n the movement ongo�ng s�nce the 1830s of Afr�can Amer�can Bapt�sts to separate from wh�te convent�ons and form the�r own cooperat�ve organ�za-t�ons. The movement was replete w�th reg�onal convent�ons, consol�dat�ons, and sch�sms. By 1916, the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA, emerged.

An �mportant concept to the Convent�on �s the Bapt�st trad�t�on and �deal of voluntary membersh�p; that �s, the Convent�on exerts no control, theolog�-cal or otherw�se, over �ts members. These are matters for local churches. The Convent�on’s task �s help the membersh�p effect�vely real�ze goals on wh�ch they all agree. A board of d�rectors governs the nat�onal convent�on. every f�fth year, a pres�dent �s elected by member churches at Annual sess�on. The pres�dent and var�ous off�cers are members of the board of d�rectors as well as the pres�dents of the 62 const�tuent state convent�ons, representat�ves of the convent�on’s boards and aux�l�ar�es, and 29 members at large. The conven-t�on’s 10 boards and aux�l�ar�es deal w�th such matters as Chr�st�an educat�on, evangel�sm, m�ss�ons, and mus�c. There �s also a woman’s Aux�l�ary.

The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA, �s not theolog�cally �nnovat�ve; that �s, �t adheres to trad�t�onal Bapt�st bel�efs �n grace as a g�ft from God ava�lable to all who w�ll bel�eve, repentance and just�f�cat�on, regenerat�on (be�ng born aga�n), and sanct�f�cat�on. It holds the B�ble to be the d�v�nely �nsp�red truth w�thout error and to hold God’s plan for salvat�on and the standards for human conduct. Two sacraments are recogn�zed: bapt�sm by �mmers�on and the Lord’s supper. Mank�nd d�v�des �nto the r�ghteous and the w�cked �n death and thereafter, awa�t�ng the end of the world, when both the l�v�ng and the dead w�ll be judged to heaven or hell.29

The National Baptist Convention of America Inc.

The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer�ca came from the same roots as the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA. In 1895, three Afr�can Amer�can Bapt�st convent�ons merged �nto a s�ngle ent�ty to un�fy domest�c and �nter-nat�onal goals, tak�ng the name the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of the Un�ted states of Amer�ca. Th�s made �t the largest Afr�can Amer�can church �n Amer�ca. In 1915, however, the un�ty of the group was destroyed over a debate about ownersh�p of �ts Publ�sh�ng Board. Thus two separate groups emerged. efforts to come back together, notably dur�ng Annual sess�on �n 1988 to protest aparthe�d, fa�led. The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer-�ca, wh�ch had rema�ned un�ncorporated s�nce the 1915 spl�t, f�nally was �ncorporated �n 1987 w�th headquarters �n shreveport, Lou�s�ana. doctr�n-ally, the two churches have no d�fferences.

The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer�ca has about 3.5 m�ll�on mem-bers and more than 8,000 churches �n the Un�ted states. The Un�ted states’


e�ghth largest church, �t �s act�ve �n rel�g�ous publ�sh�ng and educat�on and �s comm�tted to evangel�sm at home and abroad. M�ss�ons are supported �n the Car�bbean, Panama, and Ghana. The Convent�on �s also comm�tted to freedom of rel�g�on, c�v�l l�berty, soc�al just�ce, and equal�ty.30

Other Baptist Churches

The voluntary nature of Bapt�st convent�ons and assoc�at�ons, leav�ng local churches autonomous, �s a democrat�c trad�t�on that has made Bapt�sts sus-cept�ble to d�v�s�ons and regroup�ngs. In 1988, the Nat�onal M�ss�onary Bap-t�st Convent�on of Amer�ca spl�t from the Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer�ca Inc., not because of doctr�ne, but because of �ts publ�sh�ng board and other earthly matters. Th�s h�stor�cally Afr�can Amer�can convent�on ranks as the 12th largest rel�g�ous body �n Amer�ca, w�th 2.5 m�ll�on members.31

The Progress�ve Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on Inc., also w�th about 2.5 m�l-l�on members, was formed late �n 1961 out of the Nat�onal Bapt�st Conven-t�on Inc. ostens�bly f�ght�ng over the tenure of convent�on leaders, whose nearly l�fet�me elect�ons to off�ce kept the convent�on on a trad�t�onal foun-dat�on, the real �ssue was c�v�l r�ghts. The progress�ves wanted the�r conven-t�on to be fully �nvolved �n the movement for human and c�v�l r�ghts and exh�b�t the fullness of Bapt�st and Amer�can democracy �n the elect�on of �ts leadersh�p. They were happy to g�ve dr. Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr. a home �n an Afr�can Amer�can Bapt�st denom�nat�on. To th�s day, the Progress�ve Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on act�vely supports and advocates for complete human l�berat�on through voter reg�strat�on dr�ves, aff�rmat�ve act�on, and Afr�can Amer�can econom�c empowerment. All church leadersh�p pos�t�ons are open to men and women. The convent�on squarely stands for fellowsh�p, progress, and peace.32

Amer�can Bapt�st Churches UsA cla�ms to be “the most rac�ally �nclus�ve body w�th�n Protestant�sm” and w�ll soon have no rac�al or ethn�c major�t�es. The Un�ted states’ 20th largest denom�nat�on, w�th 1.43 m�ll�on members and about 5,800 congregat�ons, the Amer�can Bapt�sts are the northern rem-nant of the 1845 spl�t over slavery that created the southern Bapt�st Conven-t�on. It was �ncorporated �n 1907 as the Northern Bapt�st Convent�on, re-named the Amer�can Bapt�st Convent�on �n 1950, and took �ts current name �n 1972. Amer�can Bapt�sts, who favor ecumen�cal t�es, have always been act�vely �nvolved �n d�rect soc�al outreach, �nclud�ng the c�v�l r�ghts move-ment, the empowerment of women, and a number of ecolog�cal and soc�al just�ce �ssues.33

The Bapt�st B�ble Fellowsh�p Internat�onal (BBFI) �s ranked 22nd of Amer�ca’s largest denom�nat�ons, w�th 1.2 m�ll�on members. Located �n spr�ngf�eld, M�ssour�, w�th �ts flagsh�p Bapt�st B�ble College, BBFI was


off�c�ally organ�zed �n 1950, but �ts roots l�e �n the 1920s. A group of Bap-t�st preachers were alarmed that modern�sm was creep�ng �nto the Bapt�st Church, and they wanted to return to the fundamentals. Th�s �ndependent, fundamental�st Bapt�st group cla�ms more than 4,000 churches across the country that support the�r m�ss�onary work.34

methodists

The United Methodist Church

The Un�ted Method�st Church �s the th�rd largest rel�g�ous body �n the Un�ted states and the largest of the ma�nl�ne Protestant and Method�st denom�nat�ons, yet �t has less than half the members of the Un�ted states’ largest evangel�cal denom�nat�on, the southern Bapt�st Convent�on. Cur�-ously, as the Church has lost membersh�p �n the Un�ted states, decl�n�ng now to 8.2 m�ll�on from 10.7 m�ll�on �n 1970, �t has more than tr�pled �ts �nter-nat�onal membersh�p to 1.5 m�ll�on �n the same per�od. In the Un�ted states, there are almost 45,000 clergy members and over 35,000 local churches; 1,050 people are �nvolved �n the Church’s global m�n�str�es, w�th 120,000 volunteers work�ng �n 100 countr�es.

The U.s. church �s organ�zed �nto f�ve jur�sd�ct�ons, �n wh�ch there are 50 ep�scopal areas, 63 annual conferences, and 520 d�str�cts. B�shops are elected by the conferences from among conference elders (orda�ned m�n�s-ters). The f�rst woman b�shop was elected �n 1980, and there are currently 15 act�ve women b�shops. women clergy have been orda�ned s�nce 1956, and they now number over 12,000. A General Conference �s convened every four years, �ts members elected by the annual conferences �n equal numbers of lay and clergy delegates. Th�s body makes off�c�al church pronouncements and updates The Book of Discipline, wh�ch conta�ns all the Church’s theolog�cal and other pos�t�ons. The Un�ted Method�sts have bu�lt an extens�ve educa-t�onal system that �ncludes 10 un�vers�t�es, 82 four-year colleges, and 8 two-year colleges, along w�th 13 theolog�cal schools and 10 precolleg�ate schools. In fulf�llment of the�r bel�ef �n do�ng good works for soc�ety, the Method�sts also have 120 commun�ty serv�ce m�n�str�es; 83 hosp�tals and health care sys-tems; 78 ch�ldren, youth, and fam�ly serv�ces; and 297 m�n�str�es for the aged. In 2001, local churches gave over $5 b�ll�on for all the Church’s programs.35

Method�sm, as a movement �ns�de of the Church of england based on the teach�ngs of John and Charles wesley, d�d not organ�ze separately unt�l George wash�ngton was pres�dent. There were few Method�sts �n the Amer�-can colon�es—fewer than 7,000 �n 1776. By 1850, however, there were over 1.6 m�ll�on Method�sts, and by 1890, over 6.2 m�ll�on.36 The growth of Method�sm �n Amer�ca was noth�ng short of phenomenal, even after black


congregat�ons separated from the ma�n church �n 1816 and 1821 and pro-slavery southern Method�sts broke away to form the�r own church �n 1845. The northern and southern branches were not reun�ted unt�l 1939, but the black congregat�ons rema�n separate. The Un�ted Method�st Church of today was formed �n 1968 when the Method�sts un�ted w�th the evangel�cal Un�ted Brethren Church.

The Un�ted Method�st Church aff�rms bas�c Chr�st�an bel�efs �n a tr�une God; the fall of mank�nd; and salvat�on through Jesus Chr�st, who d�ed and rose from the dead to atone for s�n and who w�ll come to judge the l�v�ng and the dead. It accepts the author�ty of the B�ble on matters of fa�th and recogn�zes the sacraments of bapt�sm and the Lord’s supper. The Holy sp�r�t br�ngs redempt�ve love, and fa�th �n Jesus Chr�st br�ngs forg�veness, recon-c�l�at�on w�th God, and transformat�on. The Un�ted Method�st Church �s overtly ecumen�cal, bel�ev�ng �n “the essent�al oneness of the church �n Chr�st Jesus.” The Method�sts are not so much concerned w�th doctr�ne other than �t affects d�sc�plesh�p, as w�th �mplement�ng “genu�ne Chr�st�an�ty �n the l�ves of bel�evers.” wesleyan teach�ng lends the gentle message to Method�sm that God created a good world w�th the �ntent�on that mank�nd be holy and happy. God’s preven�ent grace prompts us to please God and seek repen-tance and fa�th. w�th repentance comes just�fy�ng grace, forg�veness, and a true change of heart. Th�s new b�rth br�ngs sanct�fy�ng grace, wh�ch leads to Chr�st�an perfect�on, a state �n wh�ch love of God and others f�lls the heart. In Method�st theology, fa�th and p�ety are not enough. They must be ac-compan�ed by the performance of good works and d�sc�pl�ne. Thus salvat�on “always �nvolves Chr�st�an m�ss�on and serv�ce to the world,” and “love of God �s always l�nked w�th love of ne�ghbor, a pass�on for just�ce and renewal of the l�fe of the world.”37

The soc�al Creed adopted by the Un�ted Method�st Church and conta�ned �n The Book of Discipline acknowledges the “bless�ngs of commun�ty, sexual-�ty, marr�age and the fam�ly” and aff�rms the duty to preserve and enhance the natural world. Furthermore, �t aff�rms human and property r�ghts for all people, �nclud�ng m�nor�t�es of all k�nds, and world peace, and expresses bel�ef �n collect�ve barga�n�ng, “respons�ble consumpt�on,” and “the el�m�na-t�on of econom�c and soc�al d�stress.”38

The Un�ted Method�sts’ char�sm �s to be �nvolved �n soc�al act�on, rather than l�v�ng separately from the world. Thus the Church has taken a number of pos�t�ons on soc�al �ssues. The Church has, for example, opposed cap�tal pun�shment and recogn�zed the r�ght to c�v�l d�sobed�ence on the demands of consc�ence. It has opposed human clon�ng but approved human gene thera-p�es that cannot be passed on to others when used to allev�ate suffer�ng. It has opposed m�l�tary serv�ce and supported m�n�stry to consc�ent�ous objectors.


It has supported equal r�ghts for homosexuals, although self-procla�med ac-t�ve homosexuals cannot become orda�ned m�n�sters or be appo�nted to Church pos�t�ons because homosexual�ty v�olates Chr�st�an teach�ngs. It has rejected d�ffer�ng soc�al norms for men and women and has supported a law to def�ne marr�age as the un�on of a man to a woman. The Church has op-posed late-term abort�on, and wh�le not approv�ng abort�on of any k�nd, �t has supported legal abort�on �n confl�ct�ng c�rcumstances when �t may be just�f�ed.39

The African American Methodist Churches

rac�sm, not theolog�cal d�fference, caused Afr�can Amer�can Method�sts to form the�r own congregat�ons under the�r own �n�t�at�ve. The Afr�can Meth-od�st ep�scopal Church (AMeC) traces �ts beg�nn�ngs to a black mutual a�d soc�ety that was founded �n 1787 �n Ph�ladelph�a by former slave r�chard Allen. He became pastor of Bethel AMeC �n 1794 and succeeded later �n establ�sh�ng the AMeC as an �ndependent organ�zat�on. Today, AMeC has 2.5 m�ll�on followers �n the Un�ted states, and �ts successful m�ss�onary act�v-�t�es have helped �t to establ�sh congregat�ons �n 30 countr�es.40 The Afr�can Method�st ep�scopal Z�on Church (AMeZ), now w�th 1.43 m�ll�on mem-bers, was f�rst organ�zed �n New york C�ty �n 1796. Its f�rst church, Z�on, was opened �n 1800 wh�le st�ll part of the wh�te Method�st establ�shment. By 1821, however, AMeZ became �ndependent, and James Var�ck was orda�ned �ts f�rst black b�shop �n 1822.41

the Church of jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The fourth largest church �n Amer�ca, w�th nearly 6 m�ll�on members �n the Un�ted states and a worldw�de membersh�p exceed�ng 12 m�ll�on �n 26,670 congregat�ons and w�th over 330 world m�ss�ons, the Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts (Lds) �s one of the world’s fastest grow�ng rel�-g�ons, yet �t �s also perhaps the most m�sunderstood. Many Amer�cans th�nk the Lds �s not even a Chr�st�an church, a confus�on generated �n part by the Lds cla�m that �t �s not a Protestant church and by the publ�c hab�t of refer-r�ng to Latter-day sa�nts (the�r preferred t�tle) as Mormons.

In fact, however, the Lds bel�eves �tself to be the restored church of Jesus Chr�st, wh�ch had been rent asunder f�rst by the roman Cathol�c Church and then by var�ous Protestant movements. The early Chr�st�ans were the f�rst sa�nts, and ow�ng to God’s revelat�ons to the prophet Joseph sm�th that he would restore God’s church on earth, the new church would be composed of latter-day sa�nts. sm�th �s sa�d to have had revelat�ons d�rectly from God, father and son, beg�nn�ng �n 1820, when he was only 14 years old. In 1823, a resurrected prophet who l�ved �n Amer�ca around 420 c.e. f�rst


appeared to sm�th. In 1827, th�s prophet, Moron�, led sm�th to a h�lls�de outs�de Palmyra, New york, where he had bur�ed the gold plates on wh�ch the prophet Mormon had condensed the anc�ent h�story and rel�g�ous bel�efs of the western Hem�sphere. By 1830, sm�th had translated and publ�shed The Book of Mormon and establ�shed the Church of Chr�st �n Fay-ette, New york. In 1838, the church took �ts current name, based on new revelat�on.

As God’s chosen, sm�th and h�s church set out on a m�ss�on to bu�ld the perfect soc�ety, Z�on, away from the s�nful world. They went to oh�o, Il-l�no�s, and M�ssour�, f�nd�ng themselves outcasts yet st�ll ga�n�ng converts wherever they went. sm�th was k�lled �n 1844 by a local mob �n Carthage, Ill�no�s, outs�de the Lds settlement �n Nauvoo. Br�gham young led most of the Latter-day sa�nts from M�ssour� to Utah �n 1847, where they began a successful colon�zat�on effort. (some Latter-day sa�nts rema�ned beh�nd �n Independence, M�ssour�, and formed the reorgan�zed Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts, now called the Commun�ty of Chr�st, w�th about 250,000 members.)

The Lds wanted to create a theocracy, w�th church leaders �n charge of all act�v�t�es. Th�s was to be a soc�ety bu�lt on cooperat�on, rather than com-pet�t�on; group act�v�ty, rather than �nd�v�dual prowess; and the stewardsh�p

The �ns�de of the Mormon Tabernacle �n salt Lake C�ty, Utah. © Kar�mala | dreamst�me.com.


of resources for the common good of all. In 1848, the Lds created the pro-v�s�onal state of deseret, w�th church leaders �n c�v�l pos�t�ons, and un-successfully sought statehood. Utah would not become a state unt�l 1896, and susp�c�on of Lds bel�efs and pract�ces was the reason. Most susp�c�ous was the early Mormon acceptance and encouragement of polygamy, wh�ch seemed to v�olate bas�c Chr�st�an doctr�ne concern�ng marr�age and the fam-�ly and certa�nly v�olated bas�c Amer�can values as understood by the pol�t�-c�ans who would leg�slate on Utah statehood.

Lds bel�efs held the Church outs�de the ma�nstream of Cathol�c or ma�n-l�ne and evangel�cal Protestant th�nk�ng. In Lds parlance, all non-Lds be-l�evers are gent�les, �nclud�ng Jews. The God of the Lds �s three persons w�th a s�ngle purpose, but separate be�ngs. The Lds pres�dent �s cons�dered a prophet, who speaks d�rectly w�th God, but all sa�nts are also ent�tled to revelat�on. The Lds accepts the B�ble and The Book of Mormon as d�v�nely �nsp�red scr�pture as well as Doctrine and Covenants (revelat�ons s�nce the found�ng of the Church) and a select�on of Joseph sm�th’s wr�t�ngs, the Pearl of Great Price. L�fe �s cons�dered a test—human be�ngs had once l�ved �n the sp�r�t world w�th God, but, w�th no memory of that sp�r�t ex�stence, were g�ven phys�cal bod�es to prove themselves worthy to return to God. Lds doctr�ne holds further that marr�ages and fam�ly relat�onsh�p, when sealed �n the temple, last throughout etern�ty. Furthermore, because phys�cal death does not mean automat�c judgment to heaven or hell, relat�ves may have fam-�ly members bapt�zed or the�r marr�ages sealed �n the temple to ensure the�r eternal bl�ss. Thus genealogy �s �mportant to the Lds.

Be�ng a Latter-day sa�nt �s not just adher�ng to doctr�ne, but �t �s also a l�festyle. Latter-day sa�nts are expected to l�ve by the h�ghest standards of honesty and �ntegr�ty (that �s why b�ll�ona�re Howard Hughes wanted Latter-day sa�nts as h�s accountants), obey the law, and avo�d premar�tal sex and extramar�tal affa�rs. The Church opposes all k�nds of �mmoral behav�ors, �nclud�ng gambl�ng, pornography, and abort�on (w�th certa�n except�ons). Latter-day sa�nts are also expected to t�the to the church 10 percent of the�r �ncome, fast for two meals one day a month, and use that money to help the poor, do m�ss�onary work, and serve the church, all the t�me follow�ng Joseph sm�th’s 1833 health code. Th�s code, the world of w�sdom, forb�ds the use of alcohol, tobacco, tea, and coffee and the m�suse of drugs.

The structure of the church and �ts support organ�zat�ons make for a t�ghtly kn�t commun�ty of bel�evers. The Lds �s notably noncler�cal. Local congregat�ons, called wards, are pres�ded over by unpa�d b�shops w�th f�xed terms. Stakes are groups of wards. Males beg�n the three orders of pr�est-hood at age 12. By 18, they may be aff�rmed the h�ghest order, Melch�zedek pr�esthood, wh�ch has �n ascend�ng order the off�ces of elder, h�gh pr�est,


patr�arch, seventy, and apostle. The church �s governed by the F�rst Pres�-dency (the pres�dent and two counselors) and the 12 Apostles. on a pres-�dent’s death, the man who has been an Apostle the longest ascends to the pres�dency. The sevent�es—there are now f�ve groups of them—�mplement the pol�c�es of the F�rst Pres�dency and the Apostles. sa�nts have the r�ght to vote to uphold off�cers and adm�n�strat�ve proposals. Latter-day sa�nts meet �n meet�nghouses or chapels ord�nar�ly to worsh�p. Temples, of wh�ch there are over 700 worldw�de, are used for the adm�n�strat�on of ord�nances.

The Lds operates an educat�onal system w�th sem�nar�es, �nst�tutes of rel�g�on, and the three campuses of Br�gham young Un�vers�ty. It has an extens�ve sunday school program for members 12 and older. Its young Men and young women organ�zat�ons for ages 12–17 prov�de soc�al, cultural, and rel�g�ous programs. The Pr�mary operates nurser�es on sundays and as-s�sts parents �n teach�ng the Gospel to ch�ldren age 3–11. Furthermore, Lds fam�l�es have a pa�r of pr�esthood holders v�s�t them once a month for home teach�ng.

wh�le more than half of the populat�on of Utah rema�ns Latter-day sa�nts today, the Lds was forced to abandon �ts commun�tar�an �deals outs�de the conf�nes of the Church, �n wh�ch they st�ll surv�ve. The pr�ce of statehood was the acknowledgment of compet�t�ve cap�tal�sm, the sell�ng of Church-owned bus�nesses, and the decoupl�ng of the church from the state. The Man�festo of 1890, the Church’s pronouncement that �t would no longer tolerate polyg-amy, was the beg�nn�ng of that process. Acceptance of polygamy by the Lds had been a major stumbl�ng block to statehood. It would not be unt�l 1978, however, that Afr�can Amer�can men would be accepted �nto the pr�esthood. women are st�ll excluded from the pr�esthood.42

the Church of God in Christ inc.

The f�fth largest church �n the Un�ted states �s the h�stor�cally Afr�can Amer�can Pentecostal Church of God �n Chr�st, w�th about 5.5 m�ll�on members and 15,300 local churches. It was founded and organ�zed by elder Charles Harr�son Mason, who was born �n 1866 near Memph�s, Tennessee, to a M�ss�onary Bapt�st fam�ly. He and a small band of fellow elders were swept up by the rev�val�sm sweep�ng the country and espec�ally by the three-year rev�val tak�ng place �n Los Angeles. By 1897, the name of the Church was chosen. By 1907, �t was organ�zed by Mason, the Ch�ef Apostle, and a taber-nacle was bu�lt �n Memph�s �n 1925. Today, the Church �s governed through the Ch�ef Apostle, the General Board, and the state jur�sd�ct�onal b�shops, who are elected by the General Assembly from the orda�ned elders.43

The members of th�s church bel�eve �n a tr�une God; that Chr�st, born to a v�rg�n, d�ed to atone for human s�n; and that the Holy Ghost (Holy sp�r�t)


br�ngs the plan of salvat�on to earth, empower�ng bel�evers to serve the world. The B�ble �s the only author�ty on all matters. Human nature �s s�nful and depraved because Adam ate the forb�dden fru�t and condemned h�s progeny to an unholy state. The Holy Ghost redeems human be�ngs through repen-tance, fa�th, just�f�cat�on, regenerat�on, sanct�f�cat�on, and bapt�sm. Bapt�sm �n the Holy Ghost follows reb�rth (the personal act of repentance �s salvat�on) and �s accompan�ed by speak�ng �n tongues. The Church bel�eves �n three ord�nances (sacraments): bapt�sm (by �mmers�on), the Lord’s supper, and feet wash�ng. dev�ls or demons and ev�l sp�r�ts of the sp�r�tual world can be embod�ed �n humans and cast out �n the name of Jesus by bel�evers. d�v�ne heal�ng �s also pract�ced by the Church, and m�racles can and do occur st�ll, as bel�evers wa�t for Chr�st’s second Com�ng.44

Presbyterian Church (USa)

The Presbyter�an Church (UsA) �s the largest of the Presbyter�an churches �n the Un�ted states, cla�m�ng 2,363,136 members �n 2004 �n 11,019 con-gregat�ons throughout the nat�on. It �s headquartered �n Lou�sv�lle, Ken-tucky. Although the f�rst Amer�can presbytery dates back to Ph�ladelph�a �n 1706, the Amer�can Presbyter�an Church exper�enced a tremendous number of sch�sms and mergers through the centur�es, �nclud�ng a d�v�s�on �n 1861 between North and south as the C�v�l war commenced, wh�ch was healed only �n 1983 w�th the reun�f�cat�on of northern and southern branches �n the creat�on of the Presbyter�an Church (UsA).

The Presbyter�an Church bases �ts bel�efs on the reformed theology of John Calv�n as taken to scotland by John Knox. Pr�mary among these bel�efs are the sovere�gnty of God, predest�nat�on (God elects people for serv�ce and salvat�on), fa�thful stewardsh�p of creat�on, the two sacraments of bapt�sm (�nfant bapt�sm recommended, �mmers�on not requ�red) and the Lord’s sup-per, and seek�ng soc�al just�ce wh�le l�v�ng �n accord w�th God’s message. Predest�nat�on �s perhaps the most controvers�al Presbyter�an bel�ef, for �t means that God chooses certa�n people for salvat�on, and there �s no way to know who, other than oneself, has been elected for salvat�on. If God has not selected you, you are powerless to do anyth�ng about �t. Calv�n’s or�g�nal doctr�ne has later been tempered w�th the understand�ng that bel�ef �n Jesus Chr�st s�gn�f�es elect�on by God, and Chr�st has prov�ded salvat�on enough for everyone.

Calv�n �ntroduced democracy �nto church governance �n d�rect contra-d�st�nct�on to roman Cathol�c cler�cal�sm. Presbyter�ans elect lay people, who are orda�ned as elders to work w�th m�n�sters to govern a local church. The group of govern�ng elders and m�n�sters �s called a session. Presbyter�es are groups of churches; synods are groups of presbyter�es; and the General


Assembly oversees the ent�re church. The f�rst Amer�can General Assembly was held �n 1789. Today, there are 21,194 orda�ned m�n�sters and 101,324 elders �n 16 reg�onal synods and 173 presbyter�es. As early as 1930, women were orda�ned as elders �n one of the churches, wh�ch eventually un�ted w�th the present-day Church. By 1956, women were orda�ned as m�n�sters. when the fact�ons f�nally un�ted, women had long been accepted �nto the m�n�stry. Today, 29 percent of act�ve Presbyter�an m�n�sters are women.

The Presbyter�an Church (UsA) �s act�ve �n worldw�de evangel�zat�on and spent $125 m�ll�on on nat�onal and �nternat�onal m�ss�on work. In the Un�ted states, there are 11 Presbyter�an Church sem�nar�es, 7 secondary schools, and more than 65 colleges and un�vers�t�es related to the Church. yet even as the work of the Church progresses, �ts membersh�p fell 12.5 percent between 1994 and 2004. The average s�ze of a Presbyter�an congregat�on �s 214 members; the med�an s�ze �s 109. Attendance at worsh�p serv�ces aver-ages 52 percent. Church membersh�p �s 92 percent wh�te. Annual �nd�v�dual contr�but�ons to the Church averaged $936 �n 2004.

The Presbyter�an Church (UsA) has taken stands on a number of �mpor-tant soc�al �ssues. In regard to abort�on, the Church has called for “an atmo-sphere of open debate and mutual respect for a var�ety of op�n�ons.” There was a consensus, however, that abort�on should not be used merely as a b�rth control or gender select�on opt�on; that the health of the mother should be a m�t�gat�ng c�rcumstance at all t�mes; that no law should l�m�t access to abort�on; and that no law should completely ban abort�on. The Presbyter�an Church (UsA) has welcomed homosexuals �nto �ts commun�ty and decr�ed any k�nd of d�scr�m�nat�on aga�nst them but condemned homosexual�ty as a s�n. Adm�tted, openly homosexual persons may not be orda�ned as elders, deacons, or m�n�sters. The Church opposes cap�tal pun�shment and state-sanct�oned gambl�ng, favors gun control, and �s true to confl�ct�ng bel�efs of �ts past const�tuent groups, supports personal dec�s�ons not to dr�nk alco-hol�c beverages, but supports respons�ble dr�nk�ng for those who do choose to dr�nk alcohol.45

Lutherans

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America

The evangel�cal Lutheran Church �n Amer�ca (eLCA) �s the seventh larg-est church �n the Un�ted states and the largest of 21 Lutheran bod�es �n the country, w�th over 4.9 m�ll�on bapt�zed members. There are 10,585 con-gregat�ons �n 65 synods, wh�ch are grouped �nto n�ne reg�ons and who are served by 17,694 clergy (3,140 of the clergy are women). synod assembl�es elect b�shops. The Church membersh�p �s overwhelm�ngly wh�te, �ts largest


group of people of color be�ng a b�t over 54,000 Afr�can Amer�cans. The eLCA has 8 sem�nar�es, 28 colleges and un�vers�t�es (4 each �n M�nnesota and Iowa), 16 h�gh schools, and 210 elementary schools. Its soc�al m�n�str�es serve 3,000 commun�t�es. Annual g�v�ng per conformed member averages about $550.

The eLCA off�c�ally began on the f�rst day of January 1988 w�th the merger of the Amer�can Lutheran Church, the Assoc�at�on of evangel�cal Lutheran Churches, and the Lutheran Church �n Amer�ca. German, dutch, and scan-d�nav�an �mm�grants to Amer�ca brought Lutheran�sm to Amer�ca as early as the 1620s. Mergers or un�ons of Lutheran synods became the norm as or�g�-nally �mm�grant churches gradually abandoned use of the�r mother tongues for engl�sh. The Amer�can Lutheran Church had been created �n 1960 out of the merger of German, dan�sh, and Norweg�an groups. The Lutheran Church �n Amer�ca had been formed by the merger of German, slovak, Ice-land�c, swed�sh, F�nn�sh, and dan�sh synods �n 1962.

The eLCA takes a w�de v�ew of what church means: �t �s the fellowsh�p of all those who have returned to God through Jesus Chr�st, no matter the denom�nat�on. The Church has reta�ned the use of the Apostles’ Creed, the N�cene Creed, and the Athanas�an (Tr�n�tar�an) Creed. The eLCA recog-n�zes bapt�sm �n other Chr�st�an churches. Those who are already bapt�zed may jo�n the Church merely by go�ng to a membersh�p meet�ng at a local church. As �ts h�story of un�ons �nt�mates, the eLCA �s open to and act�ve �n ecumen�cal d�scuss�ons, but �t reta�ns �ts Lutheran her�tage. The Church bel�eves �n Mart�n Luther’s three solas: salvat�on by the grace of God alone, salvat�on through fa�th alone, and the B�ble as the sole norm of doctr�ne and l�v�ng. However, the eLCA recogn�zes d�ffer�ng b�bl�cal �nterpretat�on. Thus, wh�le the B�ble �s the author�ty �n fa�th and pract�ce, �t �s not necessar�ly ac-curate �n h�stor�cal or sc�ent�f�c matters.

The eLCA �s act�ve �n soc�al advocacy and encourages �ts members to be engaged �n these �ssues. The Church has spoken out, among other th�ngs, for peace, arms control, human r�ghts, corporate respons�b�l�ty, proper care of creat�on, access to health care and decent and affordable hous�ng, and the bann�ng of assault weapons. It has opposed cap�tal pun�shment, repeal of the federal tax on estates (the so-called death tax), and expressed the need to address hunger, poverty, rac�sm, and �mm�grat�on �ssues humanely. The eLCA has also recogn�zed that government has a leg�t�mate role �n regulat-�ng abort�on, but �t has opposed laws that would deny access to safe and af-fordable just�f�ed abort�ons. wh�le contracept�on �s the best way to prevent unwanted pregnanc�es, the Church has taken the pos�t�on that abort�on can be just�f�ed and morally respons�ble �f the mother’s l�fe �s �n danger, �n cases of rape or �ncest, �f concept�on takes place �n dehuman�z�ng c�rcumstances,


or �f there �s a fetal abnormal�ty. Abort�on can never be just�f�ed, however, �f the fetus can surv�ve separated from the mother.46

The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod

The M�ssour� synod or�g�nated w�th German Lutherans who �mm�grated to M�ssour� �n 1839 and formed a synod that f�rst met �n 1847. It �s the sec-ond largest Lutheran body �n the Un�ted states, w�th over 2.5 m�ll�on mem-bers, but �ts numbers have been �n decl�ne for 30 years. In 2003, the synod counted 6,160 congregat�ons w�th 5,281 pastors among them. Congregat�on members gave $1.25 b�ll�on to the�r congregat�ons.47 of the congregat�ons, 2,526 operate schools or early ch�ldhood centers, and assoc�at�ons of congre-gat�ons operate another 183. For the 2004–2005 year, 143,322 ch�ldren were enrolled �n 1,028 elementary schools and 19,638 �n 101 h�gh schools.48 The synod, d�v�ded �nto 35 d�str�cts and some 600 c�rcu�ts, also has 10 colleges and 2 sem�nar�es. synodal Convent�ons, the synod’s h�ghest govern�ng body, are held every three years. Convent�on members, one lay person and one pas-tor, are elected from all the electoral c�rcu�ts to vote on proposals before the body.

The M�ssour� synod sets �tself apart from the eLCA �n a number of re-spects, although both reta�n bas�c Lutheran theology and the fa�th of the three creeds. Perhaps most s�gn�f�cantly, the M�ssour� synod has not been transformed by large mergers. In fact, the synod has taken the pos�t�on that ecumen�cal or merger d�scuss�ons are w�thout value and even contrary to God’s w�ll, unless all part�es share the same �nterpretat�on of the B�ble. (In 1932, the synod found that the Pope was the fulf�llment of the Ant�chr�st of b�bl�cal prophesy.)49 The M�ssour� synod holds that the B�ble �s �nerrant �n all cases, �nclud�ng sc�ence and h�story, unl�ke the eLCA. Ne�ther does the M�ssour� synod orda�n women to the clergy for scr�ptural reasons.50

The M�ssour� synod has found no b�bl�cal proh�b�t�on of cap�tal pun�sh-ment, contracept�on, or alcohol, but �t has condemned abort�on as a s�n, ex-cept �n rare c�rcumstances that the mother’s l�fe �s �n danger, and euthanas�a. L�kew�se, the synod has opposed human clon�ng that may destroy embryos. It has also declared rac�sm s�nful and homosexual�ty as “�ntr�ns�cally s�nful,” but the synod has reached out to m�n�ster to lesb�ans and gays.51

assemblies of God

The Assembl�es of God (UsA), w�th headquarters �n spr�ngf�eld, M�s-sour�, �s the 10th largest denom�nat�on �n the Un�ted states, w�th over 12,200 churches and around 2.7 m�ll�on const�tuents. of the churches, 8,640 are character�zed as wh�te; 2,092 as H�span�c; 471 as As�an/Pac�f�c Islander; and 269 as Afr�can Amer�can. Both men and women may be orda�ned �nto the


m�n�stry, but males outnumber females almost f�ve to one.52 The Assembl�es of God �s the largest group to bel�eve �n speak�ng �n tongues, a phenom-enon that occurs, �ts adherents cla�m, when people are bapt�zed �n the Holy sp�r�t. Th�s Pentecostal church traces �ts or�g�n to the rev�val�sm that swept the Un�ted states at the end of the n�neteenth and beg�nn�ng of the twent�-eth centur�es, and more spec�f�cally to a prayer meet�ng �n Topeka, Kansas, on January 1, 1901. The Pentecostal movement spread to Cal�forn�a from Kansas, M�ssour�, and Texas. At the Azusa street M�ss�on �n Los Angeles, a three-year rev�val meet�ng helped to put Pentecostal�sm on the map, and �n 1914, a group of preachers and lay people met �n Arkansas to d�scuss form�ng a fellowsh�p of sp�r�t-bapt�zed bel�evers. enthus�ast�c rel�g�on character�zed by speak�ng �n tongues was anathema to ma�nl�ne Protestant churches as well as Fundamental�sts and most evangel�cal churches. The General Counc�l of the Assembl�es of God was formed to un�te the �nd�v�dual churches, wh�ch would rema�n self-govern�ng, and further the�r bel�efs. In 1916, the counc�l approved a statement of Fundamental Truths.

recogn�z�ng the Tr�n�ty and the scr�ptures as d�v�nely �nsp�red, the Fun-damental Truths declare bel�ef �n the human�ty and d�v�n�ty of Jesus Chr�st and mank�nd’s w�ll�ng s�n, wh�ch ushered �n ev�l and phys�cal and sp�r�tual death. There are four card�nal doctr�nes: that salvat�on w�ll restore fellowsh�p w�th God to all who accept Chr�st’s offer for forg�veness; that bapt�sm, wh�ch follows salvat�on, empowers people for w�tness�ng and serv�ce; that d�v�ne heal�ng of the s�ck �s a pr�v�lege made ava�lable to Chr�st�ans by Chr�st’s death; and that Jesus Chr�st w�ll rapture h�s church before he comes aga�n to rule the earth for 1,000 years. The unrepentant w�ll spend etern�ty �n a lake of f�re. In add�t�on, the members of the Assembl�es of God, who, l�ke the members of many other Protestant denom�nat�ons, recogn�ze the ord�nances of water bapt�sm and Holy Commun�on, bel�eve that speak�ng �n tongues �s the �n�t�al phys�cal ev�dence of bapt�sm �n the Holy sp�r�t and that the�r salva-t�on requ�res them to evangel�ze the world.

Today, the Assembl�es of God church operates 19 B�ble and l�beral arts colleges and a sem�nary �n the Un�ted states. The Assembl�es’ emphas�s on world evangel�zat�on, however, has created a denom�nat�on, or�g�nally Amer-�can, that has more adherents outs�de the Un�ted states than �ns�de �t. The church counts 236,022 churches �n 191 countr�es, w�th 1,891 �nternat�onal B�ble schools and 48 m�ll�on overseas members. The Assembl�es of God has taken pos�t�ons on a number of �ssues. True bel�evers cannot be possessed by demons because the dev�l �s to them an external force that must be fought. Abort�on and euthanas�a v�olate the sanct�ty of human l�fe. Alcohol, even �n moderat�on, �s “prov�d�ng satan an open�ng.” Because the B�ble �dent�f�es God as the creator, evolut�on �s not poss�ble.53


the Episcopal Church

what was or�g�nally the Church of england, the ep�scopal Church came to Amer�ca w�th engl�sh colon�sts and became establ�shed as the church of h�gh soc�ety. w�th the end of the Amer�can revolut�on, �t adopted the name Protestant ep�scopal Church �n 1783 and, �n 1967, the ep�scopal Church. dur�ng the last half of the n�neteenth century, the Church expanded beyond �ts colon�al roots on the Atlant�c coast and spread through the country. s�nce the 1950s, however, membersh�p has dw�ndled to 2.46 m�ll�on.54 The ep�s-copal Church, a member of the Angl�can Un�on, has 7,200 par�shes and m�s-s�ons and 17,209 clergy. There are n�ne ep�scopal�an colleges �n the Un�ted states.55 A pres�d�ng b�shop �s elected every n�ne years and pres�des over the House of B�shops. A General Convent�on �s held every three years, �n wh�ch deputat�ons from d�oceses and the House of B�shops make pol�cy and wor-sh�p dec�s�ons.56

some 72 m�ll�on Angl�cans around the world are un�ted �n the use of the Book of Common Prayer, wh�ch blends the tw�n trad�t�ons of Angl�can-�sm �n the reformat�on and roman Cathol�c�sm. styles of worsh�p may d�ffer s�gn�f�cantly from one church to another, but l�turg�es through the Book of Common Prayer share a common feel. Bapt�sm and the Holy eu-char�st are recogn�zed as sacraments. The other sacraments recogn�zed by roman Cathol�cs—conf�rmat�on, ord�nat�on, matr�mony, reconc�l�at�on, and unct�on—are cons�dered means of grace, but not necessary. ep�scopal�ans have �ns�sted that worsh�p be held �n nat�ve languages, and they bel�eve that the B�ble should be �nterpreted �n l�ght of trad�t�on and reason. In order words, h�stor�cal cr�t�c�sm of the B�ble may lead to new understand�ngs; the B�ble �s not �nerrant �n all respects.

The ep�scopal Church has long been act�ve �n promot�ng soc�al just�ce and peace through d�rect act�on and advocacy. Through �ts m�n�str�es, the Church has worked aga�nst rac�sm, for the protect�on of the env�ronment, for peace �n the M�ddle east, and for cr�m�nal just�ce. It has reached out to v�ct�ms of AIds. The ep�scopal Church has passed off�c�al resolut�ons oppos�ng the preempt�ve use of nuclear weapons, the �nfr�ngement of the r�ghts of m�nor�t�es and �mm�grants, and the un�lateral �nvas�on of Iraq. It has supported nuclear d�sarmament, �nternat�onal debt rel�ef, poverty programs, respect for rel�g�ous d�vers�ty, and the m�llenn�um development goals of the Un�ted Nat�ons.57

The openness of the ep�scopal Church to ecumen�sm—any bapt�zed per-son may rece�ve commun�on (the euchar�st) �n an ep�scopal Church—and to new b�bl�cal �nterpretat�ons can lead the Church �n new d�rect�ons. In 1976, the Church’s General Convent�on approved the ord�nat�on of women �nto


the pr�esthood, wh�ch meant that women could become b�shops. By 2005, there were 2,033 act�ve and employed orda�ned women pr�ests and 1,329 deacons. s�nce 1989, 12 women have been orda�ned as b�shops. orda�n-�ng women was one th�ng, but the ord�nat�on of homosexuals would prove another. In 1979, the General Convent�on d�sapproved of orda�n�ng homo-sexuals, yet a b�shop went on and d�d so �n 1989 w�th no f�nal consequence. In 2003, an overtly pract�c�ng gay man was orda�ned b�shop of the d�ocese of New Hampsh�re and aff�rmed by the General Convent�on. Th�s would have consequences that are st�ll to be played out �n full.

even before the ord�nat�on of the gay b�shop, sch�sm was foment�ng. In 1996, d�ss�dents formed the Amer�can Angl�can Counc�l w�th the goal of “procla�m�ng the B�bl�cal and orthodox fa�th” by advocat�ng for and pro-v�d�ng ass�stance to those who want to rema�n Angl�cans but d�sagree w�th the progress�ve rel�g�on that, they aver, �s be�ng preached by the ep�scopal Church. The counc�l cla�ms that the real �ssue �s not homosexual�ty, bless-�ng homosexual un�ons, or even the orda�n�ng of homosexuals, although �ts l�terature repeatedly returns to those subjects, but rather an understand�ng of Jesus Chr�st and rev�s�on�st �nterpretat�ons of the B�ble. The acceptance of plural�sm by these rev�s�on�sts has made every rel�g�on the same, thereby deny�ng b�bl�cal truth and g�v�ng b�rth to an “anyth�ng �s oK” theology and l�festyle. Th�s has all led, of course, to a d�ssolute ep�scopal�an youth. The counc�l po�nts to a study that found that only 70 percent of young ep�sco-pal�ans bel�eve �n God; 40 percent f�nd fa�th �mportant �n the�r da�ly l�ves; 60 percent th�nk moral�ty �s relat�ve; and 45 percent th�nk adults are hypo-cr�tes. early �n 2004, a movement called the Angl�can Commun�on Network was created. Its plan �s to become the new b�bl�cally based Amer�can Angl�can church recogn�zed by the Angl�can Un�on, thus leav�ng the ep�scopal Church �n sch�sm. In fact, 22 of the 38 prov�nces �n the Angl�can Un�on have de-clared the ep�scopal Church �n broken un�on.58 Local ep�scopal churches around the country have been d�v�ded. some have left the ep�scopal Church and, call�ng themselves Angl�cans, rather than ep�scopal�ans, all�ed them-selves w�th conservat�ve Afr�can b�shops who welcome the�r orthodoxy and the�r �ntent�on to rema�n �n the Angl�can Un�on.

Churches of Christ

The Churches of Chr�st, w�th 1.5 m�ll�on members �n the Un�ted states, emerged out of Amer�ca’s second Great Awaken�ng, wh�ch commenced at the beg�nn�ng of the n�neteenth century, and the so-called restorat�on move-ment that resulted. wh�le �ts greatest numbers of Amer�can members are �n the south, part�cularly �n Texas, Tennessee, Alabama, and Arkansas, there are


Churches of Chr�st �n all 50 states and �n 109 other nat�ons. worldw�de, the Churches of Chr�st cla�ms 2.5–3 m�ll�on adherents �n 20,000 congregat�ons.

The message of the restorat�on movement was that Chr�st’s true church needed to be restored to �ts or�g�nal foundat�on: a church based not on de-nom�nat�onal doctr�ne, but on s�mple Chr�st�an�ty; a church based squarely on the B�ble and only the B�ble; a church that promoted the pract�ces of s�mple New Testament Chr�st�an�ty. Thus the Churches of Chr�st �s not a denom�nat�on, but a group of �ndependent, self-govern�ng churches that may coord�nate some soc�al works but has no trapp�ngs of denom�nat�on such as govern�ng boards, annual convent�ons, or publ�cat�ons. The congregat�ons of the Churches of Chr�st bel�eve the�r church �s Chr�st’s church.

Becom�ng a Chr�st�an through hear�ng the Gospel, repent�ng, accept�ng Chr�st, and bapt�sm by �mmers�on makes a person a member of the church. The Churches of Chr�st bel�eve that fa�th can come to anyone through l�sten-�ng to the word of the Lord; there �s no such th�ng as God’s hav�ng predes-t�ned people to heaven or hell. The task of the church �s to teach the New Testament “w�thout mod�f�cat�on” to lead people to Chr�st. The creed of the Churches of Chr�st �s the New Testament. The �nd�v�dual churches elect elders from the�r male membersh�p to govern themselves. They also select deacons. worsh�p �s centered on the pract�ces of the f�rst-century church: “s�ng�ng, pray�ng, preach�ng, g�v�ng, and eat�ng the Lord’s supper.” some congregat�ons, the so-called non�nstrumental churches, employ no mus�cal �nstruments �n the s�ng�ng because the New Testament makes no ment�on of �nstruments �n l�turg�cal worsh�p. The Lord’s supper �s observed each sunday.59

jehovah’s Witnesses

Jehovah’s w�tnesses grew out of a B�ble study group �n Allegheny, Penn-sylvan�a, led by Charles Taze russell. In 1879, the f�rst �ssue of Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence was publ�shed, and two years later, the Z�on’s watch Tower Tract soc�ety was formed, wh�ch later took �ts current name, the watch Tower B�ble and Tract soc�ety. The members of the soc�ety adopted the name Jehovah’s w�tnesses �n 1931.

Most Amer�can households have been v�s�ted at least once by the w�t-nesses’ home m�ss�onar�es, dressed �n pla�n black pants and wh�te sh�rts. They go door to door through ne�ghborhoods to d�str�bute the soc�ety’s tracts and publ�cat�ons w�th the hope of �nterest�ng people �n B�ble study w�th them. Th�s part�cular techn�que brought the w�tnesses to the U.s. supreme Court, wh�ch ruled �n the�r favor. The w�tnesses have no clergy class or spec�al t�tles. The�r magaz�nes The Watch Tower and Awake! cont�nue to be pr�mary com-mun�cat�on tools, but the w�tnesses have also made extens�ve use of newspaper,


rad�o, and telev�s�on to evangel�ze. wh�le they now cla�m some 90,000 con-gregat�ons worldw�de, �t �s est�mated there are about 1.8 m�ll�on Jehovah’s w�tnesses �n the Un�ted states.

Jehovah, the w�tnesses’ name for God, had a purpose �n all created th�ngs. God’s creat�on reflects God’s glory, and God created the earth so �t could be �nhab�ted, the s�n of Adam and eve notw�thstand�ng. The act of creat�on precludes any bel�ef �n human evolut�on. w�tnesses bel�eve that souls d�e w�th phys�cal death, but through the sacr�f�ce of Jesus Chr�st, they w�ll be res-urrected. (Contrary to popular th�nk�ng, Jehovah’s w�tnesses are Chr�st�ans, who bel�eve Chr�st �s the son of God, but �nfer�or to h�m.) w�tnesses bel�eve further that the end of the world as we know �t �s near, and Chr�st, who rose from the dead “as an �mmortal sp�r�t person,” w�ll rule the earth �n an �deal, peaceful, and r�ghteous k�ngdom. Because God created the earth w�th a pur-pose, the earth w�ll not be destroyed or depopulated, but the “w�cked w�ll be eternally destroyed,” and those who God approves w�ll l�ve forever. death, the pun�shment for or�g�nal s�n, w�ll be no longer. However, only 144,000, a number b�bl�cally wrought, who are born aga�n w�ll “go to heaven and rule w�th Chr�st.”

Clearly w�tnesses bel�eve that the B�ble �s “God’s word and �s truth.” Good w�tnesses are expected to pray only to Jehovah through Chr�st, use no �mages �n worsh�p, keep separate from the world and avo�d ecumen�cal move-ments, and obey laws that do not confl�ct w�th God’s laws. They are also ex-pected to act �n a b�bl�cally moral way, serve God through the example set by Chr�st, and publ�cly test�fy to b�bl�cal truth. Bapt�sm by complete �mmers�on �s cons�dered a symbol of ded�cat�on. Perhaps the w�tnesses’ most controver-s�al bel�ef, rendered from scr�pture, �s that “tak�ng blood �nto body through mouth or ve�ns v�olates God’s laws.” A good Jehovah’s w�tness would not rece�ve a transfus�on of another person’s blood.60

judaism

e�ghty-f�ve percent of the 5.2 m�ll�on Jews �n the U.s. populat�on were born �n the Un�ted states. of those born outs�de the Un�ted states, 44 per-cent m�grated from the former sov�et Un�on. The Jew�sh populat�on �s not un�formly located around the country. some 43 percent l�ve �n the North-east, 22 percent �n the south, 22 percent �n the west, and only 13 percent �n the M�dwest. Jew�sh adults are generally better educated (55% have at least bachelor’s degrees vs. 28% �n the total populat�on) and have a h�gher med�an annual household �ncome ($50,000 vs. $42,000 �n the total populat�on) than the general populat�on. st�ll, 19 percent of Jew�sh households class�fy as low �ncome ($25,000 a year or less). Th�rty-f�ve percent of Amer�can Jews �den-t�fy themselves as reform; 26 percent as Conservat�ve; 20 percent secular


(not attend�ng temple or synagogue); 10% orthodox (conta�n�ng many sects); and 9 percent all other.61

As non-Chr�st�ans �n a Chr�st�an country, Jews �n the Un�ted states have been subjected to d�scr�m�nat�on and prejud�ce. Ant�-sem�t�sm has long been a feature of r�ght-w�ng Amer�can nat�v�sm and has reared �ts head �n the wh�te House (Pres�dent r�chard N�xon and evangel�st B�lly Graham on tape �n 1972 agree�ng that Jews have a stranglehold on med�a), among bus�ness leaders (Henry Ford was openly ant�-sem�t�c), �n the med�a (Father Charles Coughl�n, Cathol�c pr�est and rad�o personal�ty of the 1930s and 1940s, was f�nally suppressed for h�s rab�d ant�-Jew�sh v�ews), and �n pres�-dent�al and state elect�ons (dav�d duke, former Grand w�zard of the Ku Klux Klan, ran for var�ous off�ces). The truth �s that these cultural represen-tat�ves gave vo�ce to a common and pers�stent Amer�can prejud�ce aga�nst Jews based on the old shylock stereotype.

Just as rel�g�ous freedom �n Amer�ca opened Chr�st�an�ty, part�cularly Protestant�sm, to a tremendous d�vers�ty of theolog�cal and rel�g�ous bel�efs and pract�ces, Juda�sm, too, was transformed by the Amer�can exper�ence. In 1885, a group of rabb�s meet�ng �n P�ttsburgh, Pennsylvan�a, declared the pr�nc�ples that would govern reform Juda�sm, the movement they were undertak�ng. recogn�z�ng the so-called God-�dea as a central truth, the B�ble as “the most potent �nstrument of rel�g�ous and moral �nstruct�on,” the rabb�s went on to d�scard Mosa�c Law other than moral law because �t d�d not speak to modern t�mes. L�kew�se, they d�scarded orthodox d�etary laws, pr�estly pu-r�ty, and trad�t�onal dress. reform Juda�sm would be “no longer a nat�on, but a rel�g�ous commun�ty.” They wanted Juda�sm to be “a “progress�ve rel�g�on” that made every attempt to be �n accord w�th reason as �t strove for truth, jus-t�ce, and peace. reform Jews would be duty bound to �nvolvement �n soc�al �ssues and reach out beyond Juda�sm to welcome converts.62 reform Juda-�sm, wh�ch aff�rmed �ts comm�tment to the equal�ty of men and women by orda�n�ng women as rabb�s and �nvest�ng women cantors and welcom�ng gays and homosexuals �nto Jew�sh l�fe, �s now the largest Jew�sh movement �n the Un�ted states, w�th 1.5 m�ll�on members and over 900 congregat�ons. The Central Conference of Amer�can rabb�s has been act�ve s�nce �ts �ncept�on �n 1889 �n adopt�ng hundreds of resolut�ons on soc�al �ssues, �nclud�ng c�v�l and m�nor�ty r�ghts, d�scr�m�nat�on, and world peace. The Conference stands for a woman’s r�ght to choose abort�on but �s aga�nst abort�on on demand as well as any legal restr�ct�ons on abort�on. It has supported gay and lesb�an c�v�l marr�age and the r�ghts of homosexual rabb�s to fulf�ll the�r vocat�ons.

In react�on to the modern�z�ng tendenc�es of reform Juda�sm, the Un�ted synagogue of Conservat�ve Juda�sm was founded �n 1913. Now w�th 760 af-f�l�ated synagogues �n North Amer�ca, the Conservat�ve movement has tr�ed


to steer a m�dway between reform and orthodoxy by ma�nta�n�ng h�stor�cal cont�nu�ty w�th Jew�sh trad�t�on. Th�s �ncludes, among other th�ngs, observ-�ng b�bl�cal d�etary restr�ct�ons, loyalty to the Torah, and us�ng Hebrew as the language of worsh�p.63

islam

The number of Musl�ms �n the Un�ted states �s the subject of some de-bate. est�mates vary from around 1 m�ll�on to 6.5 m�ll�on. The best guess �s that there are a b�t fewer than 2 m�ll�on, more than half of whom were born �n the Un�ted states to �mm�grant fam�l�es, some as long as three genera-t�ons ago.64 Turmo�l at home brought Musl�m �mm�grants to Amer�ca: the breakup of the ottoman emp�re, the aftermath of world wars I and II, c�v�l war �n Lebanon, and revolut�on �n Iran. Changes �n U.s. �mm�grat�on pol�cy brought new waves of Musl�ms to Amer�ca from Afr�ca and As�a. what �s known �s that there are 1,209 mosques �n the Un�ted states, and 62 percent of them were founded after 1980. Cal�forn�a has 227 mosques, New york has 140, and New Jersey has 86, but there are mosques spread across the country. Amer�ca’s oldest mosque �s located �n Cedar rap�ds, Iowa. wh�le only 7 per-cent of mosques are attended by a s�ngle ethn�c group, many began as ethn�c

A boy read�ng the Torah dur�ng h�s bar m�tzvah. Corb�s.


places of worsh�p. A th�rd of them were south As�an �n or�g�n; 30 percent, Afr�can Amer�can; and 25 percent, Arab. only 1.6 percent were wh�te Amer�-can. over 20 percent of the mosques operate full-t�me schools. some 71 per-cent of Amer�can Musl�ms bel�eve that the Koran should be �nterpreted �n l�ght of modern exper�ence, and 70 percent bel�eve strongly that they should be �nvolved part�c�pants �n Amer�can �nst�tut�ons and democracy.65

Musl�ms, l�ke Jews, have been m�sunderstood and ostrac�zed as non-Chr�st�ans �n the Un�ted states. There �s a strange confus�on �n Amer�can culture that all Musl�ms, save for �nd�genous Afr�can Amer�can Musl�ms, are Arabs, wh�ch, of course, �s not true. In part because of a lack of knowl-edge about Islam, Amer�cans tend to make Musl�ms v�ct�ms of stereotyp�ng, and some conflate the rad�cal Islam of terror�sts w�th ma�nl�ne Islam. The stereotype �s an Arab Musl�m, der�s�vely referred to as a rag head. Th�s ste-reotype melds the sunn�s, sh�’�tes, and all other var�et�es and nat�onal�t�es of Musl�ms �n Amer�ca �nto the m�staken s�ngle category of “Arabs.” Hate cr�mes aga�nst Arabs, whether Musl�ms or not, rose after the september 11, 2001, terror�st attacks on New york and wash�ngton, d.C. yet Amer�can Musl�ms, l�ke Amer�can Jews, have ass�m�lated well �nto Amer�can l�fe and adopted Amer�can l�festyles. The have found that Islam �s �n no way at odds w�th Amer�can culture and democracy.

The Nation of Islam

The Nat�on of Islam (NoI), somet�mes referred to as the black Musl�ms, publ�shes no membersh�p numbers, but �s bel�eved to have between 50,000 and 100,000 members. wh�le �ts numbers may be small, �ts �nfluence �s not. M�n�ster Lou�s Farrakhan, leader of the NoI, has qu�te remarkably been the force beh�nd the M�ll�on Man March on wash�ngton, d.C., �n 1995 and the M�ll�on Fam�ly March �n 2000, also �n wash�ngton. w�th these marches, Farrakhan wanted to establ�sh pos�t�ve publ�c �mages of Afr�can Amer�cans and demonstrate the pr�nc�ples of atonement, reconc�l�at�on, and respons�b�l-�ty �n the search for black empowerment and fam�ly stab�l�ty.

Farrakhan, a f�ery speaker g�ven to controversy, resurrected the teach�ngs of wallace d. Fard (wallace Fard Muhammad). Fard d�sda�ned wh�te men’s rel�g�on—Chr�st�an�ty—started a mosque �n 1930 �n detro�t, M�ch�gan; and cla�med h�s m�ss�on �n l�fe was to lead the or�g�nal members of the tr�be of shabazz from the lost nat�on of As�a, who had been captured and placed �nto slavery �n Amer�ca, down the road of �ndependence �nto a h�gher c�v�l�zat�on. el�jah Muhammad, to whom Fard revealed h�mself as the Mahd�, or mess�ah of Islam, ruled the NoI from 1935 unt�l h�s death �n 1975. dur�ng h�s rule, c�v�l r�ghts f�gure Malcolm x jo�ned the NoI but left to form h�s own group. el�jah Muhammad’s son took over NoI leadersh�p �n 1975, abandoned the


doctr�ne that Fard was the long-expected Mahd�, and eventually took h�s movement back �nto trad�t�onal Islam. In 1978, Farrakhan reestabl�shed the NoI and the trad�t�ons of Fard and el�jah Muhammad.

The NoI cla�ms to have mosques and study groups �n 120 c�t�es �n the Un�ted states, europe, and the Car�bbean. It also has m�ss�ons �n south Afr�ca and Ghana. The members of NoI bel�eve �n one God, Allah; �n the Koran; �n the wr�t�ngs of all God’s prophets; and �n the truth of the B�ble. The B�ble, however, has been tampered w�th and f�lled w�th untruths. It �s thus �n need of new �nterpretat�on. They bel�eve that judgment w�ll come, but not �n the resur-rect�on of the dead; rather, �t w�ll come �n mental resurrect�on, and Allah’s cho-sen people w�ll be resurrected f�rst. NoI members bel�eve �n just�ce for all and �n equal�ty, but equal�ty �s not poss�ble between slave masters and freed slaves. Integrat�on �s a decept�on. Thus Afr�can Amer�cans and wh�tes need to be sepa-rated, and Afr�can Amer�cans need to �dent�fy themselves w�th names that do not recall the�r former masters’ names. The NoI stands f�rmly aga�nst �ts mem-bers’ part�c�pat�on �n war as good Musl�ms, not�ng that Musl�ms should not be forced to f�ght �n Amer�ca’s wars because they have noth�ng for wh�ch to f�ght.

The NoI has a concerted soc�al program based on �ts rel�g�ous bel�efs. The Musl�m Program calls for freedom, equal just�ce, and equal�ty of opportun�ty.

M�n�ster Lou�s Farrakhan of the Nat�on of Islam rel�g�on �s known for h�s char�sma and pass�onate speeches. © AP Photo/Carlos osor�o.


descendants of former slaves should be allowed to establ�sh the�r own separate state or terr�tory �n North Amer�ca or elsewhere, and the former masters should underwr�te that state or terr�tory for up to 25 years or unt�l self-suff�c�ency can be establ�shed. Afr�can Amer�cans should be able to vote on whether they want to go to the separated state or rema�n where they are. Musl�ms �n federal pr�sons and Afr�can Amer�can men and women sentenced to death should be freed from pr�son. Pol�ce brutal�ty and mob attacks aga�nst Afr�can Amer�cans must end, and Afr�can Amer�cans need the protect�on of courts. Afr�can Amer�cans should not have to l�ve �n poor hous�ng cond�t�ons or be dependent on char�ty. Afr�can Amer�cans should be exempt from all taxat�on. Musl�ms want an educat�onal system that �s equal, w�th boys and g�rls separated, and Afr�can Amer�can pup�ls should have Afr�can Amer�can teachers. F�nally, the NoI calls for the proh�b�t�on of race m�x�ng through �ntermarr�age.

The Nat�on of Islam also calls �tself the Nat�on of Peace and the fulf�ll-ment of the old Testament prom�se to free the enslaved. NoI members do not carry f�rearms; the Brotherhood of Islam precludes aggress�on. Black Musl�ms acknowledge the�r respect for the laws of the Un�ted states. They bel�eve �n respect for others, good manners, and clean l�v�ng. They forsake alcohol, smok�ng, or the abuse of any substance that would proh�b�t a healthy l�festyle. They dress modestly. Farrakhan’s �ncend�ary rhetor�c, replete w�th the bombast�c del�very of occas�onally outrageous op�n�on, however, does not lend the NoI the �mage of peacefulness. Indeed, �ts message of hope for the descendants of black slaves—a separate state made up exclus�vely of blacks—runs aga�nst the preva�l�ng Amer�can efforts toward total �ntegrat�on of all peoples �nto the fabr�c of Amer�can soc�ety. Progress�ve Amer�cans want to be color-bl�nd, and the laws passed dur�ng and after the c�v�l r�ghts move-ment of the 1960s guarantee, as much as laws can, that at least before the law, race may never be the bas�s of any k�nd of d�scr�m�nat�on.66

itinerant Preachers, televangelists, and nondenominational Churches

There �s no accurate count of how many local churches or houses of wor-sh�p there are �n the Un�ted states. Anyone can start a church anywhere, and there �s no need for �t to be all�ed w�th a rel�g�ous denom�nat�on. Freedom of rel�g�on and free speech prov�de a super�or foundat�on for a var�ety of re-l�g�ous express�on.

It�nerant preachers have been �mportant players �n Amer�can h�story and culture. They are respons�ble for the waves of evangel�cal awaken�ngs that have per�od�cally r�pped through Amer�ca s�nce the 1730s and cont�nue unt�l today. They are the ones who once p�tched the�r rev�val tents and preached


the B�ble to all who would l�sten. They converted slaves to Chr�st�an�ty �n the south and spread an enthus�ast�c rel�g�on of the heart throughout the land. some were charlatans who found personal uses for the collect�on offer�ngs. Most were God-fear�ng men on a m�ss�on.

rev�vals rema�n part of Amer�can l�fe, but they now are more l�kely to take place �n sports stad�ums than �n tents. The reverend B�lly Graham has been Amer�ca’s most adm�red �t�nerant preacher s�nce he emerged out of the youth for Chr�st movement �n the 1940s. He set up the B�lly Graham evangel�st�c Assoc�at�on to keep h�m free of any h�nt of f�nanc�al scandal. He used med�a effect�vely, f�rst through a weekly rad�o show, “The Hour of dec�s�on,” wh�ch was also telev�sed �n the early 1950s, and then through tapes, magaz�nes, books, and f�lms. Most Amer�cans know h�m, however, as the preacher who set up so-called crusades �n c�t�es all over the world, many of wh�ch were telev�sed, to evangel�ze the globe w�th the s�mple b�bl�cal message that repen-tance and acceptance of Chr�st �nto your heart w�ll br�ng eternal salvat�on. Graham �ngrat�ated h�mself w�th U.s. pres�dents after h�s f�rst attempt w�th Harry Truman fa�led. whenever a pres�dent after Truman was �n some k�nd of cr�s�s, Graham seemed to be �nv�ted to the wh�te House. Pres�dents knew that �n the publ�c m�nd, assoc�at�on w�th Graham gave a k�nd of bless�ng and assurance that everyth�ng was r�ght w�th God.

Although Graham was very much a feature of the Cold war, as he patr�-ot�cally stood up for Amer�can, Chr�st�an values aga�nst the godlessness of Commun�sm, he favored reconc�l�at�on, rather than confrontat�on. He re-jected the agenda of the rel�g�ous r�ght for act�ve pol�t�cal �nvolvement, but Graham rema�ns a recogn�zed leader of evangel�cal Protestant Chr�st�an�ty.67

It�nerant preachers do not have to p�tch tents to preach anymore; they can buy a telev�s�on stat�on. That �s what Pat robertson d�d �n 1960 when he purchased a l�ttle stat�on �n V�rg�n�a and called h�s operat�on the Chr�s-t�an Broadcast�ng Network (CBN). Th�s was the b�rth of Chr�st�an telev�s�on broadcast�ng �n the Un�ted states. In 1977, robertson founded CBN Un�-vers�ty, now called regents Un�vers�ty. CBN now cla�ms to prov�de Chr�st�an programm�ng by cable and satell�te to around 200 countr�es. A prayer l�ne �s open all day and n�ght. The 700 Club, a show featur�ng robertson’s Chr�s-t�an commentary on news �ssues, has been on the a�r s�nce 1966.68 Never far from controversy, �n 2002, he called Islam an unpeaceful rel�g�on bent on dom�nat�on and destruct�on. In 2003, he suggested that a nuclear dev�ce should be used to obl�terate the U.s. department of state. He made apolo-g�es �n 2005 for say�ng that Hugo Chavez, the pres�dent of Venezuela, should be assass�nated and for h�s prophecy of death and destruct�on for the town of dover, Pennsylvan�a, where creat�on�st members of a school board were thrown out and replaced w�th proevolut�on advocates. In 2006, robertson


aga�n made an apology, th�s t�me to Ar�el sharon’s son, for say�ng that the former Israel� prem�er’s cerebral hemorrhage was God’s retr�but�on for h�s d�v�s�on of Israel.

evangel�sts Paul and Jan Crouch founded the Tr�n�ty Broadcast�ng Net-work (TBN) �n 1973. TBN advert�ses �tself as “the world’s largest Chr�st�an telev�s�on network,” reach�ng every major cont�nent through 47 satell�tes and 12,460 telev�s�on and cable aff�l�ates. In the Un�ted states, TBN �s also the largest rel�g�ous network, w�th 6,459 cable aff�l�ates, 67.7 m�ll�on cable and satell�te subscr�bers, and 420 aff�l�ated broadcast stat�ons. TBN reaches over 92 m�ll�on Amer�can households. Accord�ng to TBN, �ts v�ewers tune �n be-cause they possess the core values of “fa�th �n God,” “love of fam�ly,” and “patr�ot�c pr�de.” These are the values “that have been attacked and r�d�-culed by our pop culture and news and enterta�nment med�a.” TBN pro-duces or�g�nal Chr�st�an programm�ng and even l�ve coverage of Chr�st�an events. There are channels for ch�ldren (“completely free of the v�olence and crude humor” found elsewhere and conta�n�ng the “best moral and B�bl�cal teach�ngs”), youths, and TBN enlace UsA for the H�span�c commun�ty. The Crouches have a Chr�st�an chat show, Praise the Lord, on wh�ch guests share the�r fa�th.69

TBN v�ewers can also watch church serv�ces on the Church Channel and exper�ence God’s heal�ng powers on the Heal�ng Channel. some evangel�sts appear regularly on the�r own shows. dr. Jack Van Impe, conv�nced by B�ble prophecy that the second Com�ng of Chr�st �s �mmanent, has charted out the future �n a prophecy chart and even produced a M�ddle east �nvas�on map so bel�evers can follow what the B�ble says w�ll happen soon. Char�smat�cs Kenneth and Glor�a Copeland offer B�ble-based f�nanc�al adv�ce. even better, evangel�sts Mar�lyn H�ckey and her daughter sarah Bowl�ng have a M�racle Prov�s�on afghan w�th all the var�ous names of God, wh�ch, for an offer�ng of $149 or more, they have ano�nted so that �t w�ll br�ng the rec�p�ent a m�racu-lous cure of f�nanc�al problems. Benny H�nn heals the s�ck by h�s ano�nt�ngs and may speak �n tongues. dr. Kreflo A. dollar preaches and l�ves the gos-pel of prosper�ty. Char�smat�c author and televangel�st Joyce Meyer wants to pray and take act�on aga�nst all the ungodl�ness that has crept �nto Amer�can l�fe.70 Televangel�sm helps keeps rel�g�on �n the publ�c doma�n at all t�mes. Channel surfers cannot cl�ck the�r remote controls fast enough to m�ss a rel�-g�on program w�th an evangel�cal message. rel�g�ous telev�s�on programm�ng �s part of most cable and satell�te packages.

Most �t�nerant preachers are not concerned w�th rel�g�ous denom�nat�on; they are concerned w�th personal salvat�on. No nondenom�nat�onal church could be more emblemat�c of the growth of all-Amer�can evangel�cal Prot-estant�sm than the saddleback Church �n Lake Forest, Cal�forn�a, wh�ch �s


located �n suburban, republ�can south orange County. Pastor r�ck war-ren and h�s w�fe arr�ved there �n 1979 know�ng no one and determ�ned to start a church. From humble beg�nn�ngs, saddleback �s now a megachurch w�th more than 20,000 members. warren cla�ms that 80,000 names are on the rolls. warren �s a pastoral Horat�o Alger, pull yourself up by your own bootstraps story. H�s 1995 book The Purpose Driven Church focused on f�ve b�bl�cal purposes that led to h�s church’s success: worsh�p, fellowsh�p, d�s-c�plesh�p, m�n�stry, and evangel�sm. H�s later best-sell�ng book The Purpose- Driven Life took th�s message to a personal level and �s used as a devot�onal, self-�mprovement text for the small worsh�p and study groups that propel the church’s m�ss�on forward. Perhaps warren’s greatest �ns�ght �nto Amer�can evangel�cal�sm �s that convers�on must rema�n an �ntensely personal phenom-enon. Go�ng to church on the weekend �s not convers�on—worsh�p and fel-lowsh�p follow convers�on.71

The bel�efs espoused at the nondenom�nat�onal saddleback Church are stra�ghtforward. There �s one tr�une God. s�n �s an att�tude that separates God from mank�nd. Heaven and hell are eternally real. Jesus Chr�st suffered and d�ed for the s�ns of mank�nd and arose from the dead. No amount of self-�mprovement or good works can save a person because salvat�on �s a g�ft from

Pastor r�ck warren, author of The Purpose-Driven Life, s�ts �n h�s mega-church �n saddleback, Cal�forn�a. © AP Photo/Chr�s Carlson.


God that comes w�th fa�th �n Jesus Chr�st, and salvat�on �s ma�nta�ned by grace, not by any spec�al human effort. The Holy sp�r�t gu�des good Chr�s-t�ans through l�fe, just as the Holy sp�r�t �nsp�red the B�ble, the supreme source of unerr�ng truth.72

Th�s k�nd of unvarn�shed theology—God, s�n, personal salvat�on, heaven—appeals to many Amer�cans’ sense of �nd�v�dual power and supremacy, whether before the law, before God, or w�th�n soc�ety. It �s �n stark contrast to rel�g�ons l�ke roman Cathol�c�sm, Juda�sm, and Islam, wh�ch emphas�ze the good of the fa�th commun�ty over any one �nd�v�dual and have layers of compl�cated theolog�cal trad�t�ons. yet the m�ddle-of-the-road evangel�cal�sm of the saddleback Church �s not s�mply that old-t�me rel�g�on. Contrary to evangel�cal trad�t�on, the members of saddleback g�ve generously to and be-come �nvolved �n soc�al causes, from AIds to ass�stance for tsunam� v�ct�ms. The church has some 200 m�n�str�es.

The old stereotype of an evangel�cal worsh�p serv�ce as dull B�ble-thump�ng f�re and br�mstone sermon�z�ng, as dep�cted �n Hollywood f�lms, does not ex�st at the saddleback megachurch. In fact, the church has developed venues for var�ous tastes �n worsh�p. The ma�n serv�ce has a full band. The Pra�se venue features a gospel cho�r. The overdr�ve venue has rock ‘n’ roll. el en-cuentro features mus�c �n span�sh. The Trad�t�ons venue has favor�te old songs and hymns, along w�th a v�deocast on a large screen. The ohana venue presents �sland mus�c w�th “hosp�tal�ty and hugs,” and members can learn worsh�p “through s�gn�ng or hula.” The elevat�on venue �s for s�ngles and has l�ve mus�c. The Country venue �s “country mus�c, boots, and buckles” w�th a message—l�ne danc�ng follows the serv�ce.73

other religious thought in ameriCa

Two rel�g�ous groups not nat�ve to Amer�ca have ma�nta�ned a strong and constant vo�ce for peace. Mennon�tes, who came out of the Anabapt�st trad�-t�on �n europe and were persecuted there for the�r bel�efs, found a safe home �n Amer�ca �n the late seventeenth century. Although Mennon�te groups, whose core populat�on rema�ns �n Pennsylvan�a and spread westward to M�ssour�, d�ffer on var�ous doctr�nal �ssues, they str�ve to be Chr�st-centered �n every as-pect of the�r l�ves, accept the B�ble as �nsp�red by God, and bapt�ze only adults who have declared the�r fa�th �n Jesus Chr�st. Most s�gn�f�cantly from a cultural v�ewpo�nt, many of the 320,000 Mennon�tes �n Amer�ca have been act�ve �n protest�ng m�l�tary object�ves, object�ng to defense budgets, and support�ng consc�ent�ous objectors to m�l�tary serv�ce.74 The rel�g�ous soc�ety of Fr�ends (Quakers), who number only about 93,000 �n the Un�ted states, has l�kew�se been �nfluent�al �n protest�ng war and further�ng peace movements.


The Am�sh, who number around 128,000, share the Anabapt�st trad�t�ons and bel�efs �n bapt�sm and peace. Am�sh do not serve �n the m�l�tary. The Am�sh, however, choose to have no vo�ce �n nat�onal affa�rs, preferr�ng to sep-arate themselves from the modern world. The Am�sh have spread out from Pennsylvan�a to oh�o, to Ind�ana, and to some small degree westward from there. The old order Am�sh cont�nue to speak a d�alect of sw�ss-�ntonated German found nowhere else because the�r language has developed �n a closed commun�ty. Agrar�an commun�t�es, the Am�sh elect the�r own rel�g�ous lead-ers. They have no churches; they meet �n homes. Local congregat�ons make determ�nat�ons on how they w�ll relate to the modern world. some congrega-t�ons, for example, may perm�t an outer layer of rubber on a buggy wheel; others may not. The str�ctest of them dress pla�nly, use no electr�c�ty, do not own automob�les, and forego the fr�lls of curta�ns on w�ndows of the�r homes. It �s a strange �rony that tour�sts beg Am�sh for photographs of them stand�ng next to the�r horses and bugg�es, not understand�ng that the Am�sh cons�der photographs graven �mages.

old trad�t�ons of Chr�st�an�ty could be protected �n Amer�ca, but Amer�-can creat�v�ty could also take Chr�st�an�ty �nto new terr�tory. In the f�rst part of the twent�eth century, snake handl�ng began show�ng up �n Appalach�a at the Church of God w�th s�gns Follow�ng. There are at most about 2,000

An Am�sh farmer work�ng on h�s farm w�th h�s horse-drawn plow. Corb�s.


members of th�s Pentecostal, l�terally �nterpreted B�ble-based church, who bel�eve that once f�lled w�th the Holy sp�r�t after repentance, salvat�on, and lead�ng a Chr�st�an l�fe, they can follow the s�gns. The s�gns may �nclude ser-pent handl�ng as well as dr�nk�ng po�son and cast�ng out demons.75

The Un�tar�an Un�versal�st Assoc�at�on, wh�ch cla�ms about 158,000 mem-bers, has taken a d�fferent tack. Formed �n 1961, Un�tar�ans and Un�versal-�sts bel�eve that a modern understand�ng of human nature and Jesus Chr�st comb�ned w�th the knowledge that a good God wants salvat�on for everyone means that anyone, bel�evers of any fa�th and athe�sts al�ke, should be wel-comed �nto the church. Un�tar�an un�versal�sm �s fundamentally based on human�sm. Proud of �ts h�stor�cally l�beral v�ews, the assoc�at�on has worked to operat�onal�ze the fem�n�st agenda �n the church; stood for r�ghts for gays, lesb�ans, and b�sexuals; and orda�ned gay and lesb�an clergy.76

The Church of Chr�st, sc�ent�st, was the creat�on of Mary Baker eddy �n 1879. In her 1875 book Science and Health with Key to the Scripture, she cla�med to have d�scovered the pred�ctable and reproduc�ble sc�ence of Jesus Chr�st’s heal�ng power. The B�ble and eddy’s book are the tw�n foundat�ons of the Church’s bel�efs. Chr�st�an sc�ence read�ng rooms dot the country and the world, where people can go to understand th�s sc�ence of rel�g�on. w�th no orda�ned clergy, Baker hoped to restore the pr�m�t�ve Chr�st�an church and a better world based on a fuller understand�ng of God.77

religion and PolitiCs

wh�le �t may have been true at one t�me that rel�g�ous bel�efs could be equated w�th certa�n pol�t�cal bel�efs, th�s certa�nly �s no longer the case. A broad spectrum of soc�opol�t�cal and moral op�n�on has developed even w�th�n �nd�v�dual denom�nat�ons. on the hot-button �ssues of abort�on and gay r�ghts, for example, there �s clear d�v�s�on. where there �s some coal�t�on of values, however, �s across denom�nat�onal l�nes. Those who cons�der them-selves rel�g�ous conservat�ves no matter the denom�nat�on m�ght agree that abort�on should be outlawed and gay r�ghts should not be recogn�zed, whereas those who cons�der themselves moderates or l�berals may not.78

F�fty-one percent of Amer�cans bel�eve that churches should speak out on soc�al and pol�t�cal �ssues aga�nst 44 percent who th�nk they should not. Among wh�te evangel�cals and Afr�can Amer�can Protestants, however, 67 per-cent favor churches tak�ng such pos�t�ons. Forty-f�ve percent of the popula-t�on f�nds that conservat�ve Chr�st�ans have exceeded an acceptable boundary �n attempt�ng to �mpose the�r bel�efs on the country, but an equal percentage say they have not. Th�rty-n�ne percent of Amer�cans th�nk pol�t�cal leaders do not speak enough about the�r rel�g�ous conv�ct�ons, but 26 percent th�nk they


express them too much. A sol�d 66 percent of all Amer�cans support govern-ment fund�ng to churches for soc�al serv�ces. only 33 percent oppose �t.79 Clearly Amer�cans are d�v�ded on the role of rel�g�on �n publ�c soc�ety and pol�t�cs, even though they apprec�ate the good works performed by churches through the�r char�table act�v�t�es. Indeed, many Amer�cans hold the�r per-sonal rel�g�ous v�ews closely and would not cons�der �mpos�ng the�r bel�efs on anyone else. To some Amer�cans, however, the k�ngdom of God �s at hand, and Amer�ca �s not prepared.

The so-called new rel�g�ous r�ght �s a mult�denom�nat�onal (and nonde-nom�nat�onal) group of l�ke-m�nded trad�t�onal�sts. They have banded to-gether to push a pol�t�cal agenda of so-called old-fash�oned Amer�can values and overturn what they see as a secular, Godless soc�al movement that �s ru�n�ng Amer�can culture. The rel�g�ous r�ght �s overtly pol�t�cal, all�ed w�th and energ�zed by the republ�can Party, and has sought to �nterpret Amer�-can h�story as well as foresee Amer�ca’s future �n terms of b�bl�cal prophecy. Patr�ot�sm (called nationalism when appl�ed to other nat�ons) must, there-fore, be part and parcel of the bel�evers’ arsenal. These trad�t�onal�sts have, then, both the patr�ot�c and the moral duty to act aga�nst perce�ved transgres-s�ons aga�nst trad�t�onal Amer�can values and bel�efs. These efforts take many turns. when a large corporat�on was found to have advert�sed �ts products �n a gay magaz�ne, an �nstant boycott of all the corporat�on’s products was announced. The corporat�on’s f�rst react�on was to pull the ads, but �t f�nally went ahead w�th them. when Pres�dent George w. Bush’s Chr�stmas card favored the �nclus�ve phrase Happy Holidays, rather than Merry Christmas, he was accused of tak�ng God out of Chr�stmas.

Through the efforts of the rel�g�ous r�ght, Amer�ca �s the only western na-t�on where the teach�ng of evolut�on �s contested. r�ght-w�ng rel�g�ous groups have, �n some cases, taken over publ�c school boards to press for the con-com�tant teach�ng of the theory of �ntell�gent des�gn. sc�ent�sts contend that th�s �s no theory at all, for �t has no sc�ent�f�c bas�s; rather, �t �s another way for conservat�ve rel�g�ous people to teach the b�bl�cal creat�on story �n publ�c schools. The frustrat�on of the rel�g�ous r�ght �s understandable. ser�es of lawsu�ts have taken God out of the schools �n the effort to ma�nta�n rel�g�ous freedom def�ned as church-state separat�on. rel�g�on may not be taught �n the schools, and even the da�ly rec�tat�on of the Pledge of Alleg�ance to the flag, wh�ch declares “one nat�on, under God,” �s cons�dered a v�olat�on of the sepa-rat�on pr�nc�ple. To the rel�g�ous r�ght, whose un�verse of truth �s the B�ble, rel�g�on and publ�c l�fe cannot be separated. How can they be asked to v�olate the�r bel�efs by send�ng the�r ch�ldren to a Godless publ�c school? The more �mportant quest�on, however, �s how a plural�st�c Amer�can soc�ety w�ll deal w�th a crusad�ng rel�g�ous movement w�th a pol�t�cal agenda.


There may be a clue �n the debate over evolut�on. seventy-e�ght percent of Amer�cans bel�eve l�fe on earth to be God’s creat�on. Forty-e�ght percent be-l�eve l�fe has evolved, but 42 percent th�nk God created �t as now found from the beg�nn�ng of t�me. Cur�ously, however, 64 percent of Amer�cans bel�eve �ntell�gent des�gn (creat�on�sm) should be taught alongs�de w�th evolut�on. even 32 percent of creat�on�sts agreed.80 Th�s would seem to �nd�cate the des�re of a major�ty of Amer�cans to avo�d confl�ct and end the debate w�th a good bus�ness-type negot�at�on that �s �nclus�ve, rather than d�v�s�ve. Th�s �s the pragmat�c way Amer�cans solve problems.

Fundamental�sts are frequently portrayed as hotheaded lunat�cs spurt�ng out B�ble verses wh�le bang�ng on the Good Book. In real everyday l�fe, th�s �s not so. There �s a certa�n �nnocence and honesty to all of th�s. when a good Chr�st�an teacher at a small publ�c school �n a t�ny Tennessee mounta�n town asked a Jew�sh woman �f her daughter could play Mary �n the Chr�stmas pageant s�nce Mary was Jew�sh, too, she clearly betrayed a complete lack of understand�ng of the plural�st�c soc�ety Amer�ca has become. she d�d not and could not understand what �t meant to be Jew�sh or why �t m�ght be d�ff�cult for a l�ttle Jew�sh g�rl to go to temple as the mother of Jesus Chr�st. Amer�-cans l�ke th�s well-�ntended teacher are not unusual �n th�s predom�nantly Chr�st�an nat�on.

the soCial role of ChurChes

Churches play a v�tal role �n Amer�can soc�ety. They are woven �nto the fabr�c of serv�ce organ�zat�ons that tend to spec�al soc�al needs. Frequently referred to as fa�th-based commun�t�es, perhaps �n an attempt to d�scharge the use of more obv�ous rel�g�ous language that would openly test the church-state relat�onsh�p, churches are very much �nvolved �n med�cal care through hosp�tals, educat�on from the youngest age through graduate school, and the promot�on of soc�al just�ce through char�table act�v�t�es.

Cathol�c Char�t�es, for example, traces �ts beg�nn�ngs to New orleans �n 1727, when an order of nuns opened an orphanage. Today, �t serves over 7 m�ll�on people w�th annual resources of nearly $3 b�ll�on, 60 percent of wh�ch �s der�ved from government. Cathol�c Char�t�es employs around 50,000 staff members and coord�nates the work of nearly 200,000 volun-teers through 137 agenc�es and the�r 1,341 branches and aff�l�ates. More than 4.5 m�ll�on people benef�t from �ts food serv�ce operat�ons, wh�ch �nclude food banks, soup k�tchens, and home-del�vered meals. More than 3 m�ll�on people, �nclud�ng many at-r�sk persons, rece�ve soc�al support and ne�ghbor-hood serv�ces as well as health-related and educat�onal enr�chment serv�ces. Thousands more rece�ve serv�ces des�gned to strengthen fam�l�es, �nclud�ng


counsel�ng, mental health, add�ct�on, refugee, pregnancy, and adopt�on ser-v�ces. Cathol�c Char�t�es also prov�des hous�ng serv�ces, from temporary shel-ters and superv�sed l�v�ng to permanent hous�ng, and bas�c needs serv�ces to the poorest of the poor such as ass�stance w�th cloth�ng, ut�l�ty b�lls, f�nances, and med�cat�on.81

one of Pres�dent George w. Bush’s f�rst acts as pres�dent was to s�gn execut�ve order no. 13199, wh�ch establ�shed the wh�te House off�ce of Fa�th-based and Commun�ty In�t�at�ves. The off�ce was created to �dent�fy and el�m�nate any barr�ers that m�ght �mpede fa�th-based and commun�ty organ�zat�ons (FBCos) from part�c�pat�ng �n federal grants and to pursue leg�slat�on to prevent d�scr�m�nat�on aga�nst FBCos by extend�ng char�ta-ble cho�ce prov�s�ons, to protect the rel�g�ous freedom of the FBCos, and to ma�nta�n the rel�g�ous h�r�ng r�ghts of the FBCos.82 Pres�dent Bush was named Amer�ca’s most �nfluent�al Chr�st�an �n a l�st of 50 ow�ng �n great part to sett�ng up th�s off�ce �n 2001.83

There are now Centers for Fa�th-based and Commun�ty In�t�at�ves �n 11 federal agenc�es, �nclud�ng Homeland secur�ty. The wh�te House has cla�med success �n th�s venture by report�ng that �n the federal government’s 2005 f�scal year, fa�th-based organ�zat�ons (FBos) rece�ved more than $2.1 b�ll�on �n grants from seven government agenc�es and that FBos are suc-cessfully w�nn�ng more grant money �n the compet�t�on for fund�ng. From the adm�n�strat�on’s po�nt of v�ew, th�s �n�t�at�ve has expanded the cho�ces of people �n need. There were also leg�slat�ve and jud�c�al tr�umphs for the program. The def�c�t reduct�on Act of 2005 extended the char�table cho�ce prov�s�on (FBos prov�d�ng soc�al serv�ces do not have to change the�r rel�-g�ous �dent�t�es or h�r�ng pol�c�es) another f�ve years and added to new grant programs to be covered under the prov�s�on: a healthy marr�ages program and a respons�ble fatherhood program. dur�ng 2005, federal courts held that Amer�corps (a federally sponsored youth volunteer program) grant w�n-ners could teach rel�g�ous as well as secular subjects �n rel�g�ously aff�l�ated schools and that fund�ng for soc�al serv�ces does not make an FBo a quas�-governmental organ�zat�on, thus leav�ng them completely autonomous �n the�r h�r�ng dec�s�ons.84

It appears that as Amer�ca exper�ences th�s new awaken�ng of evangel�cal fervor, the def�n�t�on of the separat�on of church and state �s be�ng rev�sed. Ne�ther the churches, wh�ch f�nd the�r soc�al works as well as some of the�r bel�efs furthered by government fund�ng (FBos have rece�ved federal funds to f�ght HIV/AIds through abst�nence programs), nor the Amer�can people as a whole want to return to the not�on of a str�ct separat�on. Amer�cans agree that rel�g�ous organ�zat�ons make soc�ety a better place by a�d�ng the less fortunate. The rel�g�ous r�ght had long argued that separat�on d�d not have


to make the state godless—the protector of secular�sm. Thus the state can advocate for putt�ng God (churches) back �nto Amer�can l�fe. what the state s�mply may not do, however, �s regulate what anyone bel�eves.

notes

1. Ph�l�p Hamburger, Separation of Church and State (Cambr�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 2002), 3, 491–92.

2. “Largest rel�g�ous Groups �n the Un�ted states of Amer�ca,” http://www.adherents.com.

3. Nat�onal Counc�l of Churches, 2006 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches (Nashv�lle: Ab�ngdon Press, 2007).

4. w�ll�am Mart�n, With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America (New york: Broadway Books, 1996), 10–11.

5. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, off�ce of Med�a relat�ons, “Cathol�c Informat�on Project: The Cathol�c Church �n Amer�ca—Meet�ng real Needs �n your Ne�ghborhood,” http://www.usccb.org.

6. Ib�d. 7. Ib�d. 8. Mary L. Gaut�er, “Lay Cathol�cs F�rmly Comm�tted to Par�sh L�fe,” National

Catholic Reporter, september 30, 2005. 9. Ib�d.10. CBs News Polls, “U.s. Cathol�cs want Change,” CBs News, spec�al report,

http://www.cbsnews.com.11. Gaut�er, “Lay Cathol�cs.”12. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, Pr�estly L�fe and M�n�stry,

“The study of the Impact of Fewer Pr�ests on the Pastoral M�n�stry,” execut�ve sum-mary, June 2000, http://www.usccb.org.

13. CBs News, “Poll: U.s. Cathol�cs Angry at Church,” May 2, 2002, http://www.cbsnews.com.

14. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, “A Cathol�c response to sexual Abuse: Confess�on, Contr�t�on, resolve,” Pres�dent�al Address, B�shop w�lton d. Gregory, dallas, Texas, June 13, 2002, http://www.usccb.org.

15. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, Nat�onal rev�ew Board for the Protect�on of Ch�ldren and young People, “A report on the Cr�s�s �n the Cathol�c Church �n the Un�ted states,” February 27, 2004, http://www.usccb.org.

16. PBs onl�ne NewsHour, “Church stud�es show More Than 10,000 reported Abuse Cases,” February 27, 2004, http://www.pbs.org.

17. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, “Cathol�c Informat�on Proj-ect,” http://www.usccb.org.

18. Ib�d.19. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, “Cathol�cs �n Pol�t�cal L�fe,”

http://www.usccb.org.


20. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, “Fa�thful C�t�zensh�p: A Cath-ol�c Call to Pol�t�cal respons�b�l�ty, 2003,” http://www.usccb.org.

21. Un�ted states Conference of Cathol�c B�shops, off�ce of Med�a relat�ons, “B�shops’ Adm�n�strat�ve Comm�ttee reaff�rms support for Federal Marr�age Amend-ment,” March 15, 2006, http://www.usccb.org.

22. w�ll�am M. Newman and Peter L. Halvorson, Atlas of American Religion: The Denominational Era, 1776–1990 (New york: Altam�ra Press of rowman and L�ttle-f�eld, 2000), 75.

23. Internat�onal M�ss�on Board, “About Us: H�stor�cal reflect�on: God at work from 1845–2005,” http://www.�mb.org.

24. Internat�onal M�ss�on Board, “About Us: Fast Facts,” http://www.�mb.org.25. southern Bapt�st Convent�on, “The Bapt�st Fa�th and Message,” http://www.

sbc.net.26. Ib�d.27. Ib�d.28. The Nat�onal Counc�l of Churches 2006 Yearbook reports membersh�p of

5 m�ll�on, but the Convent�on’s web s�te cla�ms 7.5 m�ll�on members. see Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA Inc., “overv�ew,” http://www.nat�onalbapt�st.com.

29. The Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on, UsA Inc., “H�story of the Nat�onal Con-vent�on, UsA, Inc.,” http://www.nat�onalbapt�st.com; see also “Art�cles of Fa�th,” http://nat�onalbapt�st.com.

30. Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on of Amer�ca Inc., “who we Are”; see also “M�n-�stry object�ves,” and “H�story,” http://www.nbcamer�ca.net.

31. Nat�onal Counc�l of Churches, 2006 Yearbook.32. Progress�ve Nat�onal Bapt�st Convent�on Inc., “H�story,” http://www.pnbc.

org; see also “C�v�l r�ghts,” http://www.pnbc.org; “Progress�ve Concept,” http://www.pnbc.org

33. Amer�can Bapt�st Churches UsA, “Amer�can Bapt�sts: A Br�ef H�story,” http://www.abc-usa.org.

34. randall, M�ke, “A Br�ef H�story of the BBFI,” Bapt�st B�ble Fellowsh�p Inter-nat�onal, http://www.bbf�.org.

35. Un�ted Method�st Church, Arch�ves, “stat�st�cs,” http://arch�ves.umc.org.36. Newman and Halvorson, Atlas, 76–77.37. Un�ted Method�st Church, “d�st�nct�ve wesleyan emphas�s,” http://arch�ves.

umc.org.38. Un�ted Method�st Church, “our soc�al Creed,” http://arch�ves.umc.org.39. Ib�d.40. Afr�can Method�st ep�scopal Church, “About Us—our H�story,” http://

www.ame-church.com.41. Afr�can Method�st ep�scopal Z�on Church, Bureau of evangel�sm, “About

evangel�sm: our denom�nat�on,” http://beamez�on.org.42. see the Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day sa�nts off�c�al web s�te at http://

www.lds.org.43. Church of God �n Chr�st Inc., “The story of our Church,” http://www.cog�c.org.


44. Church of God �n Chr�st Inc., “The doctr�ne of the Church of God �n Chr�st,” http://www.cog�c.org.

45. Presbyter�an Church (UsA), “Presbyter�an 101,” http://www.pcusa.org; Pres-byter�an Church (UsA), research serv�ces, “FAQ/Interest�ng Facts,” http://www.pcusa.org.

46. evangel�cal Lutheran Church �n Amer�ca, “eLCA Qu�ck Facts,” http://www.elca.org; see also “roots of the evangel�cal Lutheran Church �n Amer�ca,” http://elca.org; “essent�al Quest�ons—Chr�st�an�ty and Lutheran�sm,” http://elca.org; “soc�al Advocacy,” http://www.elca.org.

47. The Lutheran Church—M�ssour� synod, “LCMs Congregat�ons report Mem-bersh�p of 2,488,936,” http://www.lcms.org.

48. The Lutheran Church—M�ssour� synod, “Cochran: LCMs school effect�ve �n outreach,” http://www.lcms.org.

49. The Lutheran Church—M�ssour� synod, “of the Ant�chr�st,” http://www.lcms.org.

50. samuel Nafger, “An Introduct�on to the Lutheran Church—M�ssour� synod,” http://old.lcms.org.

51. The Lutheran Church—M�ssour� synod, “FAQs: Moral and eth�cal Issues,” http://www.lcms.org.

52. General Counc�l of the Assembl�es of God (UsA), “stat�st�cs of the Assembl�es of God (UsA),” http://ag.org.

53. General Counc�l of the Assembl�es of God (UsA), “H�story of the Assembl�es of God,” http://ag.org; “16 Fundamental Truths of the Assembl�es of God,” http://ag.org; “M�ss�on and V�s�on,” http://ag.org.

54. Nat�onal Counc�l of Churches, 2006 Yearbook.55. The ep�scopal Church, “summary of stat�st�cs,” http://www.ecusa.angl�can.

org.56. The ep�scopal Church, “Governance of the ep�scopal Church,” http://www.

ecusa.angl�can.org.57. The ep�scopal Church, “Church Pol�c�es related to Peace and Just�ce,” http://

www.ecuse.angl�can.org.58. Amer�can Angl�can Counc�l, Equipping the Saints: A Crisis Resource for Angli-

can Laity (n.p., n.d.).59. Churches of Chr�st onl�ne, “The Churches of Chr�st . . . who Are These Peo-

ple?,” http://cconl�ne.fa�ths�te.com.60. see Jehovah’s w�tnesses off�c�al web s�te at http://www.watchtower.org.61. Jew�sh V�rtual L�brary, “Nat�onal Jew�sh Populat�on survey, 2000–01,” http://

www.jew�shv�rtuall�brary.org.62. Central Conference of Amer�can rabb�s, “declarat�on of Pr�nc�ples: 1885

P�ttsburgh Conference,” http://ccarnet.org.63. The Un�ted synagogue of Conservat�ve Juda�sm, “About the Un�ted synagogue

of Conservat�ve Juda�sm: Frequently Asked Quest�ons (FAQ),” http://www.uscj.org.64. see “Largest rel�g�ous Groups �n the Un�ted states of Amer�ca,” http://www.

adherents.com.


65. Hartford Inst�tute for rel�g�ous research, “Mosque �n Amer�ca: A Nat�onal Portra�t, Apr�l 2001,” �n Muslim Life in America: Demographic Facts (wash�ngton, dC: U.s. department of state, off�ce of Internat�onal Informat�on Programs).

66. Nat�on of Islam, “H�story,” http://no�.org; “Musl�m Program,” http://www.no�.org.

67. see wheaton College, B�lly Graham Center Arch�ves, “B�lly Graham and the B�lly Graham evangel�st�c Assoc�at�on—H�stor�cal Background,” http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/arch�ves/b�o.html; see also “The T�me 100: Heroes and Icons,” http://www.t�me.com.

68. CBN, “About CBN: M�ss�on and H�story of CBN,” http://www.cbn.com.69. TBN Networks, “TBN overv�ew,” http://www.tbn.org.70. TBN Networks, “watch Us,” http://www.tbn.org.71. The Purpose dr�ven L�fe, “The Book,” http://www.purposedr�venl�fe.com.72. saddleback Church, “what we Bel�eve,” http://www.saddleback.com.73. saddleback Church, “The Venues,” http://www.saddleback.com.74. Mennon�te Church UsA, “who Are the Mennon�tes,” http://www.menno

n�tesusa.org.75. rel�g�ous Movements, “serpent Handlers,” http://rel�g�ousmovements.l�blv�r

g�n�a.edu.76. Un�tar�an Un�versal�st Assoc�at�on, “Un�tar�an Un�versal�st Assoc�at�on sta-

t�st�cal summary,” http://uua.org; “Un�tar�an Un�versal�st or�g�ns: our H�stor�c Fa�th,” http://www.uua.org.

77. The Church of Chr�st, sc�ent�st, “About the Church of Chr�st, sc�ent�st,” http://www.tfccs.com.

78. The Pew Forum on rel�g�on and Publ�c L�fe, The American Religious Land-scape and Politics, 2004, http://pewforum.org.

79. The Pew Forum on rel�g�on and Publ�c L�fe, “Publ�c d�v�ded on or�g�ns of L�fe,” August 30, 2005, http://pewforum.org.

80. Ib�d.81. Cathol�c Char�t�es, “News & Facts: The Cathol�c Char�t�es Network at a

Glance,” http://www.cathol�cchar�t�es�nfo.org.82. wh�te House off�ce of Fa�th-based and Commun�ty In�t�at�ves, “wh�te House

Fa�th-based & Commun�ty In�t�at�ve,” http://www.wh�tehouse.gov.83. “The F�fty Most Influent�al Chr�st�ans �n Amer�ca,” The Church Report, Janu-

ary 2005, http://www.thechurchreport.com.84. The wh�te House, “Fact sheet: Compass�on �n Act�on: Produc�ng real re-

sults for Amer�cans Most �n Need,” http://www.wh�tehouse.gov.

BiBliograPhy

Capps, walter H. The New Religious Right: Piety, Patriotism, and Politics. Columb�a: Un�vers�ty of south Carol�na Press, 1990.

Carpenter, Joel A. Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism. New york: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 1997.


Corr�gan, John, and w�nthorp s. Hudson. Religion in America. 7th ed. Upper saddle r�ver, NJ: Pearson educat�on, 2004.

durham, Mart�n. The Christian Right, the Far Right and the Boundaries of American Conservatism. New york: Un�vers�ty of Manchester Press, 2000.

Mart�n, w�ll�am. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America. New york: Broadway Books, 1998.

w�lson, John F. Public Religion in American Culture. Ph�ladelph�a: Temple Un�ver-s�ty Press, 1979.

Fem�n�sm �s the rad�cal not�on that women are human be�ngs.—Cher�s Kramerae

[Fem�n�sm] encourages women to leave the�r husbands, k�ll the�r ch�ldren, pract�ce w�tchcraft, destroy cap�tal�sm and become lesb�ans.

—rev. Pat robertson

what could be more �llustrat�ve of Amer�can culture than how Amer�cans l�ve �n pr�vate, love and marry, and ra�se the�r ch�ldren? Amer�can l�fe �s an odd meld�ng of l�beral freedoms and soc�al conservat�sm, and d�fferent re-g�ons hold ent�rely d�fferent v�ewpo�nts on the role of the fam�ly, of marr�age, and of schools. These d�fferences m�ght be based on rel�g�ous v�ews, pol�t�cal �deolog�es, or personal op�n�ons, but one th�ng �s constant: Amer�cans pr�de themselves on the�r �ndependence. Anyone try�ng to tell an Amer�can how to l�ve h�s or her l�fe, or what to do �n h�s or her pr�vate l�fe, �s �n for qu�te a struggle.

Indeed, struggle �s an apt word for the h�story of the Un�ted states, whether �n publ�c l�fe or pr�vate, between races and genders and classes. s�nce the Un�ted states won �ts �ndependence, and before, there were d�ffer�ng �deas about the best ways to pursue work, d�v�de housework between spouses, and ra�se and educate ch�ldren. Though there are a number of other rel�g�ous tra-d�t�ons throughout Amer�ca, the Un�ted states’ h�story �s full of Chr�st�an �de-ology, wh�ch �nforms one major s�de of the struggle, though not a monol�th�c, all-encompass�ng force by any means. The other s�de �s mult�faceted, full of secular human�sts, l�berals, fem�n�sts, and act�v�sts of all shades, occas�onally

3

Gender, Marr�age, Fam�ly, and educat�on

Ellen Baier

117


w�th �nternal d�v�s�ons and oppos�ng goals. recently, Amer�cans have been preoccup�ed w�th fam�ly values, wh�ch �s a concept that �s d�ff�cult to argue w�th—who �s go�ng to oppose fam�l�es, after all? But def�n�ng the fam�ly, and the values, �s key �n understand�ng any Amer�can’s pos�t�on �n the struggle for mean�ng w�th�n well-establ�shed econom�c and soc�al systems that he or she may agree w�th to a greater or lesser extent.

gender

In pre-revolut�onary Amer�ca, the roles of men and women were clearly def�ned. Men were leaders, pol�t�cally and personally, and women had a s�ngle career path—that of w�fe and mother. However, as the men marched away to war aga�nst the Br�t�sh, women were left at home to run stores and ma�nta�n bus�nesses. Though they st�ll lacked many legal r�ghts, th�s was a taste of free-dom, and they enjoyed �t. Men returned from war and rega�ned control over the�r households, but many women kept an eye turned outward, awa�t�ng the�r chance. Pr�or to the C�v�l war, the abol�t�on movement for the r�ghts of slaves rall�ed women �nto the publ�c sphere, from where they began to orga-n�ze for the�r own r�ghts. At a well-known convent�on �n seneca Falls, New york, �n 1848, the f�rst women’s r�ghts convent�on �n the Un�ted states, el�z-abeth Cady stanton, susan B. Anthony, and many other prom�nent fem�n�sts of the t�me created the declarat�on of sent�ments, a shock�ng document that denounced men’s tyranny and demanded equal r�ghts, �nclud�ng the r�ght to vote. Th�s f�rst wave of fem�n�sm sparked protests and demonstrat�ons, often heated, unt�l women �n Amer�ca earned the r�ght to vote �n 1920 through the rat�f�cat�on of the 19th Amendment.

As the Great depress�on racked the country, most women were too preoc-cup�ed w�th work�ng alongs�de the�r husbands to keep the�r fam�l�es from the br�nk of d�saster, but �t was a t�me that saw many legal changes that would turn out to have great effect on gender equ�ty—the New deal, the soc�al se-cur�ty Act, m�n�mum wage laws, and many others. world war II saw the f�rst great entrance of women �nto the pa�d workforce. Just as the�r great grand-mothers before them �n the Amer�can revolut�on had held down the home front as men went away to war, women �n the 1940s took over—though th�s t�me, more than 350,000 women went to war as well, �n aux�l�ary and nurs�ng un�ts. However, �n the post–Industr�al revolut�on era, that looked much d�f-ferent than �n the revolut�onary per�od. women took jobs �n factor�es, creat-�ng mun�t�ons, tanks, and planes. ros�e the r�veter, a fam�l�ar and popular symbol of women’s strength and determ�nat�on, fueled amb�t�ous f�res, and though at the end of the war, many women were f�red to allow men to return to the�r old jobs, women had ga�ned a foothold �n the work�ng world.

GeNder, MArrIAGe, FAMILy, ANd edUCATIoN 119

The postwar boom �n populat�on and econom�c growth kept women at home for a t�me, but �n the 1960s, the second wave of fem�n�sm began to peak, along w�th other c�v�l r�ghts battles that were be�ng fought. The f�rst �ntroduc-t�on of the b�rth control p�ll �n 1960, and the �mprovement of the IUd soon after, granted women control over the�r reproduct�ve r�ghts. Th�s control, �n comb�nat�on w�th the f�nanc�al �ndependence that many women had as a re-sult of the�r greater part�c�pat�on �n the workforce, led to a per�od of greater sexual express�on than ever before. Men and women began to d�scuss sexual�ty openly—laws govern�ng censorsh�p of pornography were overturned, and stud-�es of sexual behav�ors and frank educat�onal manuals were publ�shed. Abort�on was legal�zed �n 1973 w�th the supreme Court dec�s�on of Roe v. Wade, though many states have restr�ct�ons on �t �n pract�ce, and �t �s st�ll hotly contested.

Th�s �ncrease �n control by women over the�r own bod�es led to campa�gns aga�nst mar�tal rape and domest�c batter�ng, and laws aga�nst them ga�ned �n strength as women began to feel more conf�dent �n the�r r�ght to speak out about abuse. Gay and lesb�an act�v�sts also began protest�ng dur�ng th�s t�me, a per�od of openness and revolut�on aga�nst the status quo. Act�v�sts of color—Afr�can Amer�cans, Lat�nos, As�an Amer�cans, Nat�ve Amer�cans—who are enjo�ned �n these struggles also f�ght a rac�al b�as �n the fem�n�st movement, argu�ng that many of the d�sadvantages suffered by women are exacerbated by quest�ons of rac�sm. Thus the protests that took place �n the 1960s and later were merely the beg�nn�ng of a struggle for c�v�l r�ghts for all that �s currently ongo�ng.

It �s �nterest�ng, though perhaps d�shearten�ng, to note the fact that, geog-raphy as�de, the Un�ted states would not be welcome to jo�n the european Un�on because the Un�ted states lacks an equal r�ghts amendment for women (or for gays and lesb�ans). In 1923, an equal r�ghts Amendment (erA) was proposed that would grant women equal�ty of r�ghts under the law. It was not passed by Congress unt�l 1972, and states were g�ven 10 years to rat�fy or repud�ate �t, though th�s deadl�ne was later extended. There was a strong push to get the erA rat�f�ed, but �t fell 3 votes short of the requ�red 38, and though �t �s re�ntroduced frequently, �t has not yet succeeded. There �s also debate on the rat�f�cat�on process, some feel�ng that the process must beg�n anew s�nce the t�me per�od has exp�red, and some feel�ng that as long as �t �s passed �n a “suff�c�ently contemporaneous” t�me frame—wh�ch, for the 27th Amendment, was 200 years between �ntroduct�on and rat�f�cat�on—the ear-l�er votes should st�ll be current. A new vers�on of the amendment, known as the women’s equal�ty Amendment, was proposed �n March 2007 and does not conta�n any t�me l�m�t.

opponents of the erA have a number of pol�t�cally and emot�onally per-suas�ve arguments aga�nst the measure. They argue that �t could be used to


force women to part�c�pate �n the draft process and f�ght �n combat, �n the event of war, or to underm�ne laws �n place to protect women. states w�th the�r own equal r�ghts prov�s�ons have had challenges to restr�ct�ve abort�on laws on the bas�s of the pol�cy of sex d�scr�m�nat�on, and though those chal-lenges had m�xed results, �t has become a rally�ng po�nt for pro-l�fe act�v-�sts. same-sex marr�ages, too, have been the subject of lawsu�ts to a few state courts, argu�ng �n part that the state’s pol�cy of nond�scr�m�nat�on requ�red restr�ct�ons on marr�age to be dropped. Both abort�on and gay marr�age, anathema to soc�al conservat�ves and the rel�g�ous r�ght, would be enough to prov�de fervent oppos�t�on.

sexual r�ghts and freedoms are a recurr�ng target of soc�al conservat�ve groups, and the debates rece�ve qu�te a b�t of attent�on �n the med�a and press. The most charged arguments stem from �ssues of reproduct�ve r�ghts and fam�ly plann�ng. The moral�ty of legal abort�ons �s a frequent subject of pol�t-�cal wrangl�ng, and many states, part�cularly where there are large numbers of conservat�ve, evangel�cal Chr�st�ans, have passed laws restr�ct�ng abort�on and access to b�rth control. The r�ght of the woman to prevent or term�nate her pregnancy �s �n oppos�t�on to the doctr�ne of many churches that an unborn fetus has an equal r�ght to protect�on. Though there are those who support the woman’s uncond�t�onal r�ght to choose, there are also those who would uphold the fetus’s r�ghts as paramount. In south dakota, the state leg�slature passed a ban �n early 2006 on all abort�ons, except those that were necessary to save the l�fe of the woman, but voters overturned the ban by referendum �n the m�dterm elect�ons later that year.

There are laws �n place that allow health care prov�ders to decl�ne to pro-v�de certa�n med�c�nes or procedures w�thout fear of repr�sal. There are nearly 20 states that have these laws, known as refusal clauses, and some corpora-t�ons allow the�r employees th�s r�ght of refusal nat�onw�de. These laws are most commonly called on when the med�cal serv�ce relates, even tangent�ally, to abort�on or contracept�on. Th�s means that women �n more conservat�ve areas have reduced access to prescr�bed b�rth control, emergency contracep-t�on, and legal abort�ons. when reproduct�ve r�ghts are abr�dged due to lack of access, access to treatment for sexually transm�tted �nfect�ons may also be restr�cted, putt�ng both women and men at r�sk. Typ�cally, women’s rate of �nfect�on for many sexually transm�tted �nfect�ons (sTIs) �s somewhat h�gher than men’s, but th�s �s not the case for the major �ncurable sTI �n the Un�ted states: AIds.

HIV and AIds ex�sted as small, �solated cases �n the Un�ted states pr�or to 1981, but the Centers for d�sease Control class�f�ed the spread of AIds as an ep�dem�c �n m�d-1981, pr�mar�ly among gay men, but also among �ntrave-nous drug users and prost�tutes, among many others. About 1 m�ll�on people


�n the Un�ted states are l�v�ng w�th HIV r�ght now, w�th nearly 40,000 new cases reported each year, mostly �n the east and south, plus Cal�forn�a. A d�sproport�onate number of Afr�can Amer�can men are �nfected, related to that group’s d�sproport�onate �ncarcerat�on rate and the h�gh levels of r�sky behav�or, such as unprotected anal sex, that occur �n pr�sons. Afr�can Amer�-can women who partner these men after the�r release from pr�son are also at �ncreased r�sk. Unfortunately, the h�gh cost of the drug cockta�l that treats the d�sease places �t largely out of the reach of the at-r�sk populat�on. young men and women, part�cularly younger gay men, who grew up never not know�ng about AIds, are also at a h�gher r�sk, a few stud�es suggest, because they do not take the d�sease as ser�ously as �t deserves and may be less l�kely to take precaut�ons. young people under 25 account for nearly 50 percent of new cases each year.1 on the other hand, other sTIs, l�ke herpes and syph�l�s, are becom�ng more and more treatable w�th advances �n med�cal sc�ence.

An example of th�s advance �n med�cal treatments �s the treatment of human pap�llomav�rus (HPV), a common sTI that �s l�nked to certa�n reproduct�ve cancers. Merck rece�ved approval from the Food and drug Adm�n�strat�on for d�str�but�on of the�r HPV vacc�ne, Gardas�l, �n June 2006. The vacc�ne, wh�ch �s g�ven only to young women aged 9–23, protects women from four of the most common stra�ns of the v�rus, wh�ch may lower the�r r�sk of cer-v�cal cancer. In Texas, Governor r�ck Perry �ssued an execut�ve order that g�rls must rece�ve the vacc�ne by s�xth grade to attend publ�c school, as of the 2008–2009 school year. Two other governors, �n New Mex�co and V�r-g�n�a, have �nd�cated an �ntent�on of follow�ng su�t. However, the Texas state House and senate overturned the order overwhelm�ngly. The vacc�ne �s con-s�dered controvers�al because HPV �s a sTI, and the vacc�ne can be g�ven to g�rls as young as n�ne. Its opponents argue that the vacc�nat�on w�ll encour-age g�rls to engage �n more r�sky behav�or, cons�der�ng themselves un�versally protected.

oddly, these same opponents who fear for the �gnorance of teenagers and young adults are frequently the same folks who support teach�ng abst�nence-only curr�cula �n the place of full sex educat�on and delay�ng any d�scuss�on unt�l h�gh school, when the programs may be too late to reach all students appropr�ately. The abst�nence-only programs, based �n conservat�ve rel�g�ous bel�efs, s�mply tell students of the �mportance of rema�n�ng chaste unt�l marr�age, w�thhold�ng �nformat�on on sTIs or b�rth control and, on occa-s�on, prov�d�ng false �nformat�on about the fa�lure rates of b�rth control �n an attempt to scare teens �nto chast�ty. They also �gnore the students who are currently unable to marry the�r partners, even �f they would l�ke to—gay and lesb�an students. Proponents of comprehens�ve sex educat�on, on the other hand, favor arm�ng students w�th knowledge about the actual r�sks of


premar�tal sexual behav�or and allow�ng them to come to the�r own moral conclus�ons. There �s some ev�dence that �n schools w�th abst�nence-only edu-cat�on, levels of teen pregnancy are h�gher than �n schools w�th comprehens�ve sex educat�on. wh�le �t �s true that when teenagers undergo abst�nence-only educat�on, they engage �n sexual behav�ors at a later age, they also tend to do so �n less safe ways than the�r more educated peers—and teen pregnancy �s not the only danger of unprotected sex.2

Though they m�ght be at r�sk, for var�ous reasons, of gett�ng �n metaphor�-cal trouble, g�rls �n general seem to get �n less trouble than boys. In school, g�rls are less l�kely to repeat grades or be d�agnosed w�th a learn�ng d�sab�l�ty or attent�on-def�c�t (hyperact�v�ty) d�sorder and are pun�shed less severely for m�sbehav�or. desp�te th�s attent�veness on the part of g�rls, boys tend to re-ce�ve more attent�on �n class than g�rls, both pos�t�ve and negat�ve. There are d�fferent�als �n test scores, but not always to the benef�t of boys. G�rls tend to do better than boys �n read�ng and wr�t�ng, but less well �n sc�ence and math. In h�gh school, g�rls are equally l�kely to be enrolled �n upper-level math and sc�ence classes, but they report feel�ng as though they are bad at, or that they d�sl�ke, math and sc�ence. A soc�al st�gma st�ll ex�sts for young women who excel �n these areas, and though many g�rls falsely procla�m the�r mathemat�-cal �ncompetence, �t seems that th�s becomes a self-fulf�ll�ng prophecy �n the�r later test scores. Th�s pattern pers�sts throughout both secondary and h�gher educat�on. G�rls are more l�kely to get advanced cred�t �n human�t�es classes, wh�le boys are more l�kely to get cred�ts �n math and sc�ence classes. women, espec�ally younger women, are sl�ghtly more l�kely to have a bachelor’s degree than are men, but the�r majors are more l�kely to be �n health, educat�on, or psychology. Men’s majors, on the other hand, are more l�kely to be �n com-puter sc�ence or eng�neer�ng, and the same pattern holds true for advanced degrees.

overall, fewer women are �n the pa�d workforce than men, but as the�r level of educat�onal atta�nment goes up, proport�onately h�gher numbers of women work. However, just as the�r patterns of degree cho�ce are skewed toward less techn�cal f�elds, so are women more strongly represented �n teach�ng and car�ng profess�ons, and less represented �n bus�ness, computer, and techn�cal occupat�ons. even when they are �n these f�elds, though, women tend to earn much less than the�r male peers. In 1970, work�ngwomen earned an average of 57 cents to every man’s dollar. Accord�ng to recent census f�gures, �n 2005, the med�an annual salary for a woman, work�ng at least 35 hours per week, year-round, was $32,168, wh�le the med�an salary for a man was $41,965, mak�ng the pay gap 76.7 cents pa�d to woman to every man’s dollar. For a woman work�ng �n the relat�vely well-pay�ng f�elds of f�nance or law, however, the gap s�nks to 55 percent or less, wh�le soc�al serv�ce occupat�ons are the


only f�eld where women earn even 90 percent of the�r male peers—though salar�es for e�ther gender are below the nat�onal med�an �ncome. The pay gap also var�es by age: �t �s 88 percent for women aged 25–34 but between 74 and 76 percent for women workers older than 35.3

There are many poss�ble reasons for th�s pay gap, both h�stor�cally and on-go�ng. women are more l�kely than men to take several months—or years—off for bear�ng and rear�ng ch�ldren, just when the�r male peers are work�ng toward promot�ons and ga�n�ng exper�ence for tak�ng a step upward on the�r career ladder. even �f a woman has no �ntent�on of becom�ng a mother, em-ployers may be hes�tant to h�re young women at the same rates as young men, for fear that they w�ll shortly be forced to h�re a replacement. Though �t �s �llegal to dec�de expl�c�tly not to h�re a woman for th�s reason, �t �s d�ff�cult to prove outr�ght d�scr�m�nat�on. women may be barred from h�gher-level po-s�t�ons �n th�s subtle way, or they may choose less demand�ng, more flex�ble careers, �n wh�ch they can take t�me w�thout los�ng as much ground because there �s less ground to f�ght over �n the f�rst place. There �s also a percept�on that women are not as assert�ve as men �n request�ng ra�ses and benef�ts �n h�r�ng negot�at�ons and throughout the�r careers, lead�ng to a h�gher pay gap. Because of these percept�ons, women face challenges �n enter�ng h�gher levels of bus�ness, a h�ghly lucrat�ve and powerful—and male-dom�nated—f�eld. women are much less l�kely to be promoted �nto upper management, st�ll confront�ng a glass ce�l�ng, though the term has fallen out of popular�ty. Con-versely, �n trad�t�onally female-dom�nated f�elds, such as nurs�ng or elemen-tary teach�ng, men are subject to much sw�fter promot�on than the�r female peers—they are placed on a glass escalator, to use a comparable term.

Another form of d�scr�m�nat�on that women, and some men, face on the job, wh�ch negat�vely affects the�r job performance, �s sexual harassment. Though �llegal under T�tle VII of the C�v�l r�ghts Act of 1964, sexual harass-ment was not systemat�cally confronted unt�l the early 1990s. More women started report�ng sexual harassment after the Clarence Thomas supreme Court conf�rmat�on hear�ngs, �n wh�ch a subord�nate, An�ta H�ll, test�f�ed that he had harassed her, creat�ng a host�le work env�ronment. Though her cla�m was not corroborated, �t shed l�ght on a major problem �n Amer�can workplaces. each year, nearly 15,000 cla�ms are f�led w�th the U.s. equal employment opportun�ty Comm�ss�on, �nclud�ng about 15 percent of men w�th a cla�m. students of both genders also report be�ng sexually harassed at school, g�rls more so than boys. Th�s harassment commonly comes from peers but may be d�rected at students from teachers, though harassment �n the workplace may come from a coworker but �s more l�kely to come from a superv�sor or manager. retal�at�on �s common when the v�ct�m compla�ns, and male v�ct�ms are l�kely to be r�d�culed. The �mpact on the worker, and the


workplace, can be d�sastrous, and employers are becom�ng more and more mot�vated to m�n�m�ze the r�sk of �ncurr�ng cla�ms of harassment. The care that �s be�ng taken w�ll help to create more equ�table work�ng env�ronments.

At another level, a fa�rly good �nd�cator of gender equal�ty �s the elect�on of women to the h�ghest levels of government. As of 2007, one of the n�ne just�ces serv�ng on the supreme Court was a woman. sandra day o’Connor, who had been on the Court s�nce 1981, ret�red �n 2006, leav�ng only ruth Bader G�nsburg, who had jo�ned her �n 1993. Another woman, Harr�et M�ers, was proposed by Pres�dent George w. Bush as a replacement for o’Connor, but she decl�ned the nom�nat�on am�d protests that her qual�f�cat�ons were �nap-propr�ate for the pos�t�on. The pos�t�on was f�lled by samuel Al�to �nstead, leav�ng only one woman on the bench. Unt�l 1994, there were at most two women �n the senate at any t�me, and no more than 20 �n the House. Those numbers have r�sen, and currently, there are 16 female senators and 67 fe-male representat�ves—a bare 15 percent of Congress. desp�te th�s, the most powerful pos�t�on �n the House of representat�ves, speaker of the House, was held by a woman, rep. Nancy Pelos�, as of January 2007. Add�t�onally, a front-runn�ng cand�date �n the 2008 democrat�c pres�dent�al campa�gn was a woman, H�llary rodham Cl�nton, and more than 78 percent of voters have �nd�cated that they would be w�ll�ng to vote for a woman for pres�dent.4

The struggle for equal�ty between the sexes seesaws back and forth. Cur-rently, the term feminist �s out of vogue; young women enjoy the�r r�ghts and try to f�ght back when they see gender d�scr�m�nat�on, but to be a fem�n�st �s somehow supposed to represent a m�l�tant att�tude or a hatred of men. The conservat�ve men’s r�ghts movement exaggerates th�s ant�fem�n�st percept�on, wh�le more l�beral, ant�sex�sm act�v�sts try to avo�d al�enat�ng potent�al all�es. Male pr�v�lege �n Amer�ca has been pervas�ve, part�cularly �n the econom�c and publ�c sphere, yet gender-based �nequal�t�es are not l�m�ted to women. For �nstance, women �n the Un�ted states have a l�fe expectancy nearly s�x years longer than that of men. Both su�c�de and hom�c�de rates are h�gher for men than for women, and the most dangerous jobs, w�th the h�ghest lev-els of workplace deaths, are held pr�mar�ly by men. In many phys�cal careers, such as the m�l�tary or law enforcement, the entrance requ�rements are gender-normed, mean�ng that men must pass more str�ngent requ�rements than women, and men’s r�ghts advocates argue that th�s d�fferent�al leaves men w�th a heav�er burden than the�r female peers. Add�t�onally, only men must reg�ster w�th the select�ve serv�ce system so that they may be drafted �nto m�l�tary serv�ce, and only men may serve �n �nfantry combat roles, on submar�nes, or �n spec�al programs such as the Navy seALs.

Furthermore, there �s a d�fferent�al treatment of statutory rap�sts by gender. women who have sex w�th young men aged 13–16, �f they are prosecuted


at all, are l�kely to rece�ve probat�on, commun�ty serv�ce, or a token pr�son sentence, wh�le men who have sex w�th young women of the same age are l�kely to rece�ve sentences of 20 years �n pr�son and are forced to reg�ster on sex-offender l�sts, w�th nary a sm�le to be found. The sexual�ty of young men �s treated w�th �ndulgence, wh�le the sexual�ty of young women �s protected, desp�te the fact that both boys and g�rls can be harmed by these relat�onsh�ps, part�cularly w�th teachers and others �n a pos�t�on of author�ty above them. Men are cast as sexual aggressors �n both cases, and women as v�ct�ms or, at best, coconsp�rators, and th�s percept�on does no one just�ce.

The v�ew of men as aggressors �s pervas�ve and, �n cases where men are v�ct�m�zed, harmful. Though the vast major�ty of reported �nt�mate partner v�olence cases are �nstances of men abus�ng the�r female partners, �t �s unclear how many men are s�lent v�ct�ms of v�olence from partners of e�ther gender. The st�gma that attaches to domest�c v�olence makes �t d�ff�cult to gauge lev-els of abuse that occur beh�nd closed doors. Most of the support systems for �nt�mate partner v�olence, such as shelters, are �n place for women who have been abused by the�r male partners and �gnore the needs of women flee�ng abus�ve female partners or men flee�ng the�r �nt�mate partners. shelters for battered men ex�st, but at a much smaller proport�on to shelters for battered women.

Not all gender �dent�f�cat�on �s based �n th�s sort of male-female dual�ty. There are a number of people, though �t �s d�ff�cult to know how many, who do not feel as though they f�t �nto trad�t�onal male-female categor�es. some were born w�th amb�guous sexual character�st�cs, and some come to feel that the�r phys�cal and soc�al gender categor�es are �n oppos�t�on. Many cultures have a category for male-�dent�f�ed people who were born as women, or female-�dent�f�ed people who were born as men, as well as those who were born �n amb�gu�ty, and Amer�ca �s no d�fferent, although th�s gender flu�d�ty �s st�ll techn�cally def�ned �n the fourth ed�t�on of the Amer�can Psych�atr�c Assoc�at�on’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as gender identity disorder, a mental �llness. Nonetheless, many people �n the Un�ted states l�ve contrary to the�r or�g�nal gender ass�gnment, whether or not they choose to take hormones or undergo surgery to complete the change. There are also those who prefer androgyny, but th�s �s even more d�ff�cult than chang�ng one’s gender—�n the Un�ted states, gender �s �mportant, however �t �s dec�ded on.

marriage

The �nst�tut�on of marr�age �n the Un�ted states �s constantly be�ng rede-f�ned. when Br�t�sh settlers f�rst began to arr�ve �n the seventeenth century,


a w�fe’s status and legal pos�t�on was closer to property than partnersh�p. d�vorce was nearly �mposs�ble. However, as the Amer�can revolut�on began to br�ng more republ�can values, even marr�age was changed. The concep-t�on of marr�age began to sh�ft toward �deals of love and partnersh�p. Those �deals were not translated �nto legal equal�ty unt�l qu�te recently, but modern concept�ons of marr�age �nclude relat�ve egal�tar�an�sm, �n legal, �f not always pract�cal, terms.

what exactly �s marr�age? There are four components, some or all of wh�ch may be present: a c�v�l bond, a personal bond, commun�ty recogn�t�on, and rel�g�ous recogn�t�on.5 The c�v�l bond represents recogn�t�on by the state, such as �n the �ssuance of a marr�age l�cense, that the couple �ntends to wed, and the rel�g�ous recogn�t�on of the bond �s the aff�rmat�on of that bond w�th�n the couple’s house of worsh�p. The personal bond �s the pr�vate agreement between two people to share the�r l�ves, and the commun�ty recogn�t�on �s the publ�c declarat�on of that agreement. Couples who elope are no less marr�ed than couples who wed �n front of 200 of the�r fr�ends and fam�ly members; couples who are legally proh�b�ted from obta�n�ng a c�v�l marr�age can com-m�t to each other pr�vately and feel just as marr�ed. For �nstance, before the C�v�l war, slaves were proh�b�ted from marry�ng. They nonetheless devel-oped ceremon�es of the�r own w�th�n the�r commun�ty that celebrated the personal comm�tments of devoted couples. To be cons�dered wed, the couple merely needed to jump over a broomst�ck �n the presence of w�tnesses, a prac-t�ce adapted from a west Afr�can marr�age trad�t�on. some Afr�can Amer�-cans �ncorporate �t �nto modern ceremon�es as a rem�nder of the�r ethn�c her�tage. In add�t�on, after the C�v�l war, many states had ant�m�scegenat�on laws, wh�ch proh�b�ted Afr�can Amer�cans and wh�tes from marry�ng. The supreme Court dec�s�on �n Loving v. Virginia overturned those laws �n 1976, desp�te w�despread popular d�sapproval for �nterrac�al marr�age. Today, few would bat an eye at an �nterrac�al relat�onsh�p.

The patterns for Amer�can marr�ages have been chang�ng. More and more, young people of both genders are leav�ng the�r parents’ houses after f�n�sh�ng school (e�ther h�gh school or college) and establ�sh�ng s�ngle homes on the�r own before dec�d�ng to wed. Th�s can be shown by r�s�ng age at f�rst mar-r�age. In 1980, the average ages at f�rst marr�age were just over 23 years for men and just under 21 years for women; �n 2005, that had become 27 and nearly 26 years, respect�vely. Most Amer�cans do marry eventually, though. By the age of 35, 72 percent of Amer�cans have been marr�ed, and by the age of 65, that number r�ses to 96 percent, except for Afr�can Amer�can men and women, only 90 percent of whom have ever been marr�ed by age 65, and for As�an Amer�can women, 99 percent of whom have been marr�ed at least once by age 65.6


Couples do not necessar�ly stay marr�ed, however. In recent years, there have been approx�mately 7.5–8 new marr�ages for every 1,000 Amer�cans, and 3.7 d�vorces per 1,000 each year.7 At f�rst glance, that seems to po�nt to a 50 percent d�vorce rate s�nce the legal�zat�on of no-fault d�vorces around 1960. Th�s convent�onal w�sdom that half of all marr�ages end �n d�vorce, wh�ch �s a stat�st�c frequently c�ted by soc�al conservat�ves fear�ng for the d�s-appearance of the so-called trad�t�onal fam�ly arrangement, �s often se�zed on to monger fear. However, th�s number �s a b�t m�slead�ng, as any stat�st�c�an could expla�n. Very few of those 3.7 d�vorces are from the marr�ages formed that year; couples d�vorce anywhere from 60 days �nto a marr�age to 60 years �nto �t. However, many fa�led marr�ages tend to end w�th�n the f�rst decade, and most (80%) marr�ages that fa�l do so w�th�n 20 years.8

Add�t�onally, th�s number of 3.7 d�vorces per 1,000 people �n 2004 shows a decl�ne �n gross numbers of d�vorces per year over the last 25 years: �n 1980, there were approx�mately 5.3 d�vorces per 1,000 people. The actual long�tud�nal d�vorce rate �s that approx�mately 31–35 percent of all marr�ages w�ll end �n d�vorce, down from the 41 percent of 25 years ago.9 That stat�st�c shows a grow�ng spl�t by educat�onal atta�nment as well: college graduates are about half as l�kely to end up d�vorced than non–college grads.10 Perhaps �t �s the later age at f�rst marr�age that contr�butes to the grow�ng stab�l�ty of the relat�onsh�ps. Perhaps the greater econom�c stab�l�ty of college graduates contr�butes to stab�l�ty at home as well. whatever the reason, Amer�can mar-r�ages are becom�ng more stable, not less.

desp�te the fact that most people marry at some po�nt �n the�r l�ves, there are other types of relat�onsh�ps and l�v�ng arrangements, �n add�t�on to legal marr�ages. In actual�ty, marr�ed couples are �n the m�nor�ty these days. Accord�ng to 2005 census data, out of 111.1 m�ll�on households, only 49.7 percent of them were composed of marr�ed couples—w�th or w�thout ch�ldren. There are a number of factors that contr�bute to th�s decl�ne. Be-cause of the r�s�ng age at f�rst marr�age, many young men and women l�ve alone, or w�th roommates, after f�n�sh�ng the�r educat�on but before they get marr�ed, account�ng for over one-fourth of the rema�n�ng households. Add�t�onally, couples �ncreas�ngly feel free to cohab�t w�thout st�gma, and that number �s r�s�ng. These unmarr�ed couples made up 5 percent of the households. There are also households headed only by women or by men as a result of d�vorce. A fourth factor, the gap �n l�fe expectancy between men and women, means that women may l�ve for several years as w�dows.11

There are other unmarr�ed couples, who, unl�ke the above fam�l�es, m�ght prefer to get marr�ed. But just as Afr�can slaves could not wed before the C�v�l war, or Afr�can Amer�can and wh�te couples for a century after �t, they are legally barred from obta�n�ng a c�v�l marr�age. Currently, the r�ghts and


pr�v�leges of marr�age are restr�cted only to heterosexual couples. Indeed, �t has only been �n the last few decades that other types of couples have been recogn�zed as ex�st�ng at all. Unt�l as recently as 2003, homosexual�ty has actually been aga�nst the law. Many states had laws �n place that proh�b�ted certa�n sexual acts that could be used to prosecute the behav�or of consent�ng adults w�th�n the pr�vacy of the�r own homes. Though heterosexual pr�vacy had been protected s�nce 1972, �t was not unt�l June 2003 that the supreme Court struck down the sodomy laws of Texas, and all others l�ke �t, as uncon-st�tut�onal �n Lawrence v. Texas.

Amer�can gays and lesb�ans had fought for c�v�l r�ghts for many years, w�th �ncreas�ng success, as soc�al norms expanded to accept a w�der range of sexual express�on. Though there were some moderate and tentat�ve attempts at soc�al act�v�sm pr�or to 1969, the stonewall r�ots are generally cred�ted w�th beg�n-n�ng the modern f�ght for c�v�l r�ghts. For a week �n late June 1969, a group of gay and transgender club-goers �n Greenw�ch V�llage r�oted aga�nst the pol�ce ra�ds and persecut�on that they could no longer tolerate. soon after, the Gay L�berat�on Front was founded, as well as a number of other act�v�st groups, and many legal and soc�al battles were launched. For the next several decades, gay r�ghts groups fought for ant�d�scr�m�nat�on laws �n employment, hous�ng, parent�ng and adopt�on, med�cal treatment, and other c�v�l r�ghts. rel�g�ous and conservat�ve groups opposed these laws, and only 17 states (and the d�s-tr�ct of Columb�a) proh�b�t d�scr�m�nat�on on the bas�s of sexual or�entat�on. Add�t�onally, gays may not serve openly �n the U.s. m�l�tary, though they may do so �f they are cel�bate and s�lent about the�r or�entat�on—a law passed by Pres�dent B�ll Cl�nton �n 1992 and better known as don’t ask, don’t tell.

There �s another c�v�l r�ght for wh�ch gay and lesb�an groups are currently f�ght�ng. In 1996, Pres�dent Cl�nton s�gned �nto law another p�ece of leg�sla-t�on, the defense of Marr�age Act, wh�ch def�ned marr�age as “a legal un�on of one man and one woman as husband and w�fe” and spouse as “refer[�ng] only to a person of the oppos�te sex who �s a husband or a w�fe” for the pur-poses of federal law. It also allowed states to dec�de �nd�v�dually whether or not to allow for same-sex marr�age, but �t prov�ded that no state �s forced to recogn�ze the marr�ages that may be legal �n another.12 There are over 1,000 federal laws that apply only to marr�ed couples, relat�ng to taxat�on, prop-erty r�ghts, �mm�grat�on, �nher�tance, and benef�ts. For example, heterosexual marr�ed couples can f�le taxes jo�ntly, �nher�t property w�th no estate tax, re-ce�ve surv�vorsh�p benef�ts, and obta�n v�sas for non-Amer�can partners. Gay couples are thus at a s�gn�f�cant econom�c d�sadvantage compared to the�r stra�ght ne�ghbors.

some states and reg�ons are tak�ng steps to m�n�m�ze that d�sadvantage, even though the federal government does not recogn�ze the�r dec�s�ons.


L�m�ted r�ghts, �n the form of a rec�procal benef�c�ary reg�strat�on, have been ava�lable �n Hawa�� s�nce 1997. In 2000, Vermont governor Howard dean s�gned �nto law a prov�s�on for c�v�l un�ons for gay and lesb�an couples that would guarantee the�r r�ghts �n the eyes of the law, �ntroduc�ng the �dea of a parallel c�v�l �nst�tut�on �nto the common debate. New Jersey and Con-nect�cut followed su�t. A few other states—Cal�forn�a, Ma�ne, and the d�s-tr�ct of Columb�a—have passed protect�ons for domest�c partnersh�ps for couples regardless of gender, and a number of large c�t�es have done so as well. For a br�ef per�od of t�me �n February 2004, marr�age l�censes were �s-sued to over 4,000 same-sex couples �n san Franc�sco, before the mayor was forced by the state government to cease, and these marr�ages were vo�ded by the state supreme court a few months later. del Mart�n and Phyll�s Lyon, who had been a couple for 51 years, became the f�rst gay couple to marry �n the Un�ted states. In May 2004, Massachusetts legal�zed marr�age for gay and lesb�an couples, and there are seven other states, mostly those w�th c�v�l un�ons, that are cons�der�ng that leg�slat�ve step. There are a number of

Phyll�s Lyon, left, 79, and del Mart�n, r�ght, 82, both of san Franc�sco and a couple for 51 years, hold up the�r marr�age cert�f�cate outs�de c�ty hall after they were mar-r�ed �n a c�v�l ceremony �n san Franc�sco. © AP Photo/er�c r�sberg.


compan�es that are fr�endly to the�r gay employees as well and offer partner benef�ts, though those benef�ts are class�f�ed as taxable compensat�on, where comparable benef�ts to stra�ght partners are not. desp�te these benef�ts, the defense of Marr�age Act proh�b�ts the federal government from recogn�z�ng any of these types of un�ons as legal.

The �dea of gay marr�age was a hot-button �ssue for every elect�on s�nce 1996, and �n 2004 and 2006, many states passed amendments to the�r state const�tut�ons rul�ng that marr�age must rema�n an exclus�vely heterosexual r�ght. Paradox�cally, some states that have protect�ons for gay couples also have laws or const�tut�onal amendments def�n�ng marr�age as a str�ctly het-erosexual r�ght. opponents of gay marr�age protest that allow�ng marr�age between two men or two women �s one step closer to condon�ng polygamy, �ncestuous marr�ages, or human-an�mal marr�age. They argue that the sanc-t�ty of marr�age must be preserved, and �f even a port�on of the def�n�t�on of marr�age �s relaxed, the �nst�tut�on would be mean�ngless. Th�s emot�onal argument appealed to voters, and most amendments passed w�th h�gh per-centages of the vote �n states where they were proposed. At an extreme level, Pres�dent George w. Bush put forward a Federal Marr�age Amendment dur-�ng h�s 2004 campa�gn, wh�ch would mod�fy the Const�tut�on to def�ne mar-r�age as belong�ng only between a man and a woman and would el�m�nate the already establ�shed benef�ts �n any c�ty or state that has prev�ously allowed them.

some states are battlegrounds over gay marr�age and c�v�l un�ons. In May 2006, the Nebraska ban on gay marr�age, c�v�l un�ons, domest�c partnersh�ps, and all other forms of gay partnersh�ps was struck down by a d�str�ct court on the grounds that �t v�olated the r�ghts of gay couples to assemble for advo-cacy, protected both by the 1st Amendment and the due process clause of the 14th Amendment. only a month later, a s�m�lar ban, on both gay marr�ages and c�v�l un�ons, was struck down �n Georg�a, based on a rul�ng that the ban v�olated the state’s rule that all amendments be l�m�ted to a s�ngle subject. However, the ban was almost �mmed�ately re�nstated by a super�or court. The struggle over the real def�n�t�on of marr�age �s ongo�ng.

family

Just as marr�age changed �n revolut�onary Amer�ca, the �deals of mother-hood and fam�ly changed as well. out of the ashes of the revolut�on was born the cult of true womanhood, a set of �deals that m�rrored the V�ctor�an �deal�zat�on—even fet�sh�zat�on—of the mother as a v�rtuous, perfect, almost goddess-l�ke ruler of the domest�c sphere. As the Industr�al revolut�on and the chang�ng econom�c patterns drew fam�l�es from farms �nto c�t�es, and


workers �nto factor�es, men became the dr�v�ng force for econom�c support, and women were establ�shed as the backbone of the home. Though some so-c�al conservat�ves have enjoyed �nvok�ng th�s nostalg�c p�cture, w�th everyone �n an appo�nted role and content to stay there, the trad�t�onal p�cture of a fam�ly—mother, father, and 2.5 ch�ldren—has been stead�ly chang�ng over the last half decade �n the Un�ted states. Not only do mothers work outs�de the home at �ncreas�ng rates, but fam�l�es themselves are structurally chang-�ng, and the numbers of heterosexual nuclear fam�l�es have been shr�nk�ng. In 2005, just over 67 percent of ch�ldren l�ved w�th two parents, down from the nearly 90 percent who d�d so �n 1960. The major�ty of the rema�n�ng th�rd of ch�ldren l�ved w�th just the�r mother, though 5 percent l�ved w�th just the�r father and 7 percent d�d not l�ve w�th e�ther parent, l�v�ng e�ther w�th a grandparent or �n foster care. The average fam�ly s�ze has also been shr�nk�ng over the years, from an average of 2.3 ch�ldren per fam�ly �n 1960 to 1.18 �n 2005.13

Because of these changes �n fam�ly structure, many �n the Un�ted states who feel an emot�onal or rel�g�ous connect�on to the nuclear fam�ly are eager to hear pol�t�c�ans speak of fam�ly values. over the past 15 years, fam�ly val-ues have been coded by conservat�ve groups to refer to an overtly Chr�st�an v�ewpo�nt that opposes abort�on, homosexual�ty, pornography, sex educat�on �n schools, and other such morally quest�onable act�v�t�es. They rhetor�cally look back on an eas�er, more morally sound t�me �n h�story. However, l�berals have begun to co-opt the term, po�nt�ng out that support�ng un�versal health �nsurance, equal�ty �n educat�on, regular ra�ses �n the m�n�mum wage, and worker’s r�ghts may contr�bute more concretely to the well-be�ng of fam�l�es, speak�ng to an econom�c sens�b�l�ty, rather than a moral one.

As women began to enter the workplace �n large numbers, the goddess of the household �deal held, at the same t�me that her econom�c �mpact on the fam�ly was greatly �ncreased. Mothers were effect�vely turned �nto super-women, capable of hav�ng a reward�ng career and lovely fam�ly at the same t�me, w�th seem�ng effortlessness. Th�s effortlessness was only �n ev�dence �n magaz�ne art�cles and advert�sements, however. women were able to perme-ate the work�ng world w�th much more ease than they were able to share respons�b�l�t�es for the work that st�ll needed do�ng at home, a second sh�ft of labor that they were expected to perform when they got home from work. The women’s l�berat�on movement that ga�ned force �n the 1980s emphas�zed a change �n women’s roles, w�thout a correspond�ng emphas�s on change �n men’s roles, w�th the result that housework became an odd sort of m�nef�eld. A prom�nent soc�olog�st �n Cal�forn�a, Arl�e Hochsch�ld, performed a study �n the late 1980s on gender equal�ty �n housework. she found that �n her sam-pled study of heterosexual, dual-�ncome, m�ddle- and work�ng-class fam�l�es


w�th young ch�ldren, women performed the vast major�ty of the housework (ch�ld care, cook�ng, clean�ng), desp�te the�r own expectat�on of an equal partnersh�p �n the�r fam�ly l�fe. Th�s d�spar�ty rema�ns largely unchanged: �n a 2005 t�me use study, 84 percent of women performed some household tasks on an average day, wh�le 65 percent of men d�d so. of the respondents, women reported do�ng 2.7 hours of housework on an average day, wh�le men reported only 2.1. Care of young ch�ldren was s�m�larly skewed along gender l�nes, w�th women averag�ng 3.6 hours of care to men’s 1.8.14

There are many poss�ble explanat�ons for the negot�at�on to result �n th�s d�fferent�al. The f�rst, and most often c�ted, �s that women choose to do the work, w�ll�ngly or no. e�ther she or her husband bel�eves �n trad�t�onal male and female roles around the house, and thus the woman does the house-work that needs do�ng. The second explanat�on �s that women do not have as much barga�n�ng power �n the household relat�ve to men because of women’s weaker pos�t�on �n the workforce. Because women cannot afford to push the �ssue and r�sk the marr�age, part�cularly when ch�ldren are �nvolved, they must accept a less than equ�table negot�at�on. The average �ncome of women after d�vorce decl�nes sharply, wh�le men’s �ncome actually r�ses modestly. Because the past econom�c system has created a s�tuat�on �n wh�ch most women are the pr�mary careg�vers for ch�ldren after a d�vorce, they are more l�kely than men to be awarded custody of the�r ch�ldren. Ma�nta�n�ng two households �s more expens�ve than one, and the one w�th ch�ldren �s more l�kely to exper�-ence a d�p �n �ts standard of l�v�ng. Perhaps �mpl�c�tly, �t �s understood by women that accept�ng a larger port�on of the household work w�ll avert th�s cr�s�s.

A th�rd explanat�on for the d�fferent�al �n shar�ng household work �s that because women typ�cally work �n lower-pay�ng jobs, at a rate of about 75 cents to every man’s dollar, they can afford to take t�me and energy away from the job, but men tend to be more well pa�d and thus have to devote more energy �nto ma�nta�n�ng the career. The second and th�rd explanat�ons are related, obv�ously, because women cannot strengthen the�r pos�t�on �n the workplace unt�l they can devote the�r full energy �nto the�r careers, but they cannot afford to do so at the r�sk of the�r partners’ pos�t�ons.15 Most of these expla-nat�ons apply more broadly than at the level of the �nd�v�dual fam�ly—few, �f any, couples have th�s blunt conversat�on expl�c�tly. Many couples even descr�be the�r housework arrangement as equal, even when �t �s clear that �t �s not, and some happ�ly embrace the d�spar�ty. However, women w�sh�ng for a l�ghter share of the second sh�ft must we�gh the�r unhapp�ness more carefully than men when dec�d�ng to d�ssolve a marr�age.

Many women avo�d th�s struggle before tens�ons can escalate and devote themselves to full-t�me housew�fery and motherhood. There �s a small but


grow�ng number of men who make th�s cho�ce as well, leav�ng the�r partners �n the workforce wh�le they choose to rema�n at home. only 52 percent of marr�ed couples w�th ch�ldren under 18 are both employed full-t�me, though that number �s much h�gher �n the upper M�dwest and Northeast and much lower �n the south and west, part�cularly �n rural areas. wh�le th�s cho�ce may contr�bute to fam�l�al harmony, there are s�gn�f�cant econom�c costs, even the obv�ous loss of a second salary as�de. The fam�ly �s dependent on the ma�n earner for health �nsurance and ret�rement sav�ngs. There �s also a r�sk the at-home parents take because by leav�ng the pa�d workforce, they are allow�ng the�r résumés and sk�lls for pa�d work to deter�orate. If d�vorce or death of the�r spouse forces them back �nto the workplace, they are thus at a s�gn�f�cant d�sadvantage. Nonetheless, many stay-at-home parents are happy to be deeply �nvested �n the�r home l�fe and are aware of the d�ff�cult�es of the path they have chosen.

There are d�ff�cult�es �n any fam�ly l�fe, espec�ally at the very beg�nn�ng. Most countr�es guarantee a few weeks of pa�d maternal leave, and a few guar-antee a few days to a few weeks of pa�d paternal leave. The Un�ted states does not guarantee so much as a s�ngle day of pa�d leave, e�ther maternal or paternal, though as long as an employee has worked for at least a year for a certa�n type of large employer or the government, they are allowed up to 12 weeks of unpa�d leave w�th�n each year. Th�s leave �s protected by the Fam�ly Med�cal Leave Act of 1993, wh�ch also guarantees leave to take care of any fam�ly member or oneself, not just a new �nfant. some states have more generous pol�c�es, such as Cal�forn�a’s recently guaranteed s�x weeks of pa�d fam�ly leave, but fam�ly-fr�endly pol�c�es are generally left to the uncerta�n goodw�ll of �nd�v�dual compan�es. smaller compan�es are more l�kely to be flex�ble �n help�ng employees, wh�le larger compan�es have more resources to be generous w�th benef�ts, leave, and programs l�ke on-s�te day care.

when th�s last benef�t �s not prov�ded by the employer, parents must make other arrangements for the care of the�r ch�ldren. There are a number of op-t�ons for those who can afford to pay: �n-home care, such as a nanny, can be qu�te expens�ve, and places �n good day care centers can be hard to f�nd. The cost and ava�lab�l�ty of qual�ty care �s a s�gn�f�cant factor, espec�ally when the mother of a young ch�ld wants or needs to work. F�nd�ng and pay�ng for day care �s a problem, espec�ally for s�ngle parents, and may be �nvolved �n keep�ng one partner at home, �f h�s or her job does not pay enough to cover the expenses �nvolved �n tak�ng �t.

A few work�ng-class or s�ngle parents, for whom work�ng �s not a matter of cho�ce, are lucky enough to have fam�ly nearby who can pool resources to care for ch�ldren. If they can f�nd a small prov�der, l�kely a woman who cares for several ch�ldren �n her own home, th�s �s l�kely to be the next most


cost-effect�ve opt�on. some low-�ncome fam�l�es also qual�fy to send the�r ch�l-dren to federally funded preschools known as Head start, although fund�ng has been stead�ly decreas�ng for these programs. Just as the U.s. government does not prov�de for mandatory parental leave, �t also does not prov�de for ad-equate day care for those same work�ng parents. day cares can range s�gn�f�-cantly �n qual�ty, and the effects are frequently reflected �n the behav�or of the ch�ldren that they help to ra�se. Ch�ldren who were �n day care at young ages for longer per�ods of t�me were more l�kely to be cons�dered aggress�ve, asser-t�ve, and d�sobed�ent when start�ng k�ndergarten, though better-qual�ty care was less l�kely to encourage those behav�ors. However, parental sens�t�v�ty, �ncome level, and educat�onal atta�nment were s�gn�f�cant m�t�gat�ng factors �n decreas�ng undes�rable behav�or. Nonetheless, there are publ�c f�gures that cons�stently express d�sapproval at parents—mostly at mothers, �n fact—who send the�r ch�ldren to day care, as �f by work�ng, they have somehow fa�led the�r ch�ldren through part�c�pat�on �n pa�d employment.

For a s�gn�f�cant amount of t�me �n the h�story of the Un�ted states, ch�ldren were expected to contr�bute to the household economy, espec�ally ch�ldren of lower and work�ng classes. when born to a farm�ng fam�ly, they would perform chores from a young age; when born to a c�ty fam�ly, they m�ght help at a fam�ly bus�ness, be apprent�ced out, or be expected to take factory work. After 1938, however, the m�n�mum age for ch�ld workers was set at 16, w�th poss�ble except�ons for 14- and 15-year-olds, �f the�r work d�d not �nterfere w�th the�r school�ng. In modern households, ch�ldren are generally expected to perform l�ght chores, for wh�ch they may or may not rece�ve an allowance, unt�l they turn 16. There are a number of younger teens w�th lawn-mow�ng or babys�tt�ng g�gs, but after age 16, unless the casual work �s lucrat�ve, most teenagers take a part-t�me job �n reta�l or food serv�ce—low-pay�ng but flex-�ble pos�t�ons. Most dangerous jobs are restr�cted from teenagers, but �t has become an expected norm that h�gh school students w�ll e�ther hold a part-t�me pos�t�on or pursue a part�cularly r�gorous academ�c schedule—�dleness �s seen as laz�ness or sloth, and work�ng even low-status pos�t�ons can confer adult respect to teenagers. The jobs can also prov�de some adult freedoms, allow�ng the teenager to purchase an �nexpens�ve car and pay for dates and other soc�al act�v�t�es away from the parental home. Th�s �ndependence �s en-couraged, w�th�n l�m�ts. There are l�m�ts on how many hours teenagers may work, and some areas st�ll have curfews that restr�ct the�r free movements.

There are other laws that are des�gned to help protect ch�ldren such as laws restr�ct�ng certa�n behav�ors unt�l a set age, such as dr�nk�ng or sexual act�v�ty. The dr�nk�ng age �n the Un�ted states �s set at 21, though adulthood, �n the form of vot�ng r�ghts or part�c�pat�on �n m�l�tary serv�ces, �s usually conferred at the age of 18. Th�s leaves young adults between 18 and 21 �n a somewhat


awkward pos�t�on, un�quely among the�r global peers. It �s only �n the Un�ted states that a 20-year-old, who may be legally marr�ed w�th a ch�ld or two, cannot be served a glass of w�ne w�th d�nner—for h�s or her own protect�on. There are also laws govern�ng the age that a young adult can consent to sex or marr�age, generally from 16 to 18 �n most states.

There are also mandated protect�ons for ch�ldren’s safety and welfare at a younger age. There �s a program known as wIC, the spec�al supplemental Nutr�t�on Program for women, Infants, and Ch�ldren, run by the federal government, that prov�des low-�ncome women and the�r under-f�ve ch�ldren w�th health care screen�ng, nutr�t�on educat�on, and some subs�d�zed foods, ma�nly da�ry products, ju�ces, and cheap prote�ns such as beans, tuna, and peanut butter. Beyond the most bas�c needs, the state also carefully mon�tors ch�ldren’s phys�cal safety w�th the�r parents, w�th mandatory report�ng laws mak�ng nearly every publ�c employee a requ�red reporter of suspected abuse. when a parent cannot adequately or safely care for a ch�ld, there �s a system for foster care �n place. Though there are federal laws govern�ng the gen-eral requ�rements, each state has �ts own gu�del�nes �n place for �nvest�gat�ng cla�ms and mak�ng care plans for at-r�sk ch�ldren.

If a ch�ld has been abused, a report �s made to Ch�ld Protect�ve serv�ces (�n some states, th�s department �s known as the department of Ch�ldren and Fam�ly serv�ces, �n an attempt to create a less content�ous atmosphere). If the cla�m �s judged as val�d after �nvest�gat�on, the ch�ld �s removed from the parents’ home and placed �n foster care, e�ther w�th foster parents or �n a group home. Foster parents generally rece�ve a small st�pend for the care of the ch�ldren they take �n, and states may requ�re that they be l�censed or other-w�se credent�aled to prov�de care. There have been several well-publ�c�zed cases of foster parents tak�ng �n more ch�ldren than they can handle for the st�pend that they would br�ng, but those cases are vastly outnumbered by the people who choose to br�ng abused, needy, and t�me- and emot�onally demand�ng ch�ldren �nto the�r homes, for a sum that �s laughably �nadequate for the costs of the care requ�red. Add�t�onally, some foster parents later adopt foster ch�ldren they have cared for, once parental r�ghts have been term�nated.

Adopt�on, however, would be an except�onally good outcome; most ch�l-dren rema�n �n foster care for several years and have mult�ple placements, bounc�ng from home to home. There are over half a m�ll�on ch�ldren �n foster care nat�onw�de, a number that has more than doubled �n the last 40 years due to t�ghten�ng of report�ng laws for ch�ld abuse. A d�sproport�onate num-ber of these ch�ldren are ch�ldren of color, part�cularly Afr�can Amer�can ch�l-dren, largely ow�ng to rac�al �nequal�ty �n treatment by the system—wh�te ch�ldren rece�ve more serv�ces and are more l�kely to be reun�ted w�th


parents, and are thus removed more qu�ckly from the system. Though the stated goal of foster care �s to f�nd ch�ldren fam�l�es, whether through recon-c�l�at�on or adopt�on, many more ch�ldren are placed �nto foster care each year than leave the system. The Adopt�on and safe Fam�l�es Act of 1997 was passed �n an attempt to l�m�t the amount of t�me ch�ldren spend �n the system by shorten�ng the amount of t�me between the�r entry �nto foster care and the term�nat�on of parental r�ghts to 15 months and demanded that a care plan be made for ch�ldren so that they and the�r caseworkers have a stated goal. However, most ch�ldren �n foster care are emot�onally and psycholog�cally frag�le, and many have spec�al phys�cal needs as well; f�nd�ng adopt�ve parents �s a b�t more eas�ly sa�d than done. A few hundred Afr�can Amer�can ch�ldren are f�nd�ng homes outs�de of the Un�ted states, revers�ng a popular trend for fore�gn adopt�on, but th�s �s st�ll an �nf�n�tes�mal port�on of the ch�ldren need�ng permanent homes.

If the reason for a fam�l�al upheaval �s not abuse, but the parents are st�ll unable to care for the�r ch�ldren, a soc�al worker may help the fam�ly place the ch�ld w�th relat�ves such as grandparents. As s�ngle parenthood has �n-creased, the role of the grandparent has �ncreased �n many fam�l�es. A s�gn�f�-cant number of ch�ldren l�ve w�th a grandparent, some w�th parents present and many w�thout. These types of households are more l�kely than any other to be �n poverty for a number of reasons. Mult�generat�onal homes of th�s sort are l�kely to be composed of Afr�can Amer�can or Lat�no fam�l�es, who are more l�kely to be �n poverty �n general compared to wh�te fam�l�es. Also, the sort of fam�l�al upheaval that produces the soc�al cond�t�ons under wh�ch th�s �s an opt�on—teen parenthood, drug abuse, un- or underemployment of a parent—�s not one that lends �tself to econom�c success. Add�t�onally, the grandparents may l�kely be ret�red from the workforce and on a l�m�ted pens�on or soc�al secur�ty benef�t and less capable of f�nd�ng supplemen-tal �ncome than a younger caretaker. There are many households headed by grandparents that rece�ve publ�c ass�stance.

There are a number of couples, or s�ngle people, who w�sh to have ch�l-dren but cannot. For them, adopt�on can be a good opt�on. There are several d�fferent types of adopt�on �n the Un�ted states. Ch�ldren can be adopted publ�cly, from foster care. As d�scussed prev�ously, th�s can be a troubl�ng process, but foster ch�ldren benef�t greatly from rece�v�ng a permanent, car�ng home. Prospect�ve parents can also choose to go to a pr�vate agency, espec�ally �f they part�cularly w�sh to adopt an �nfant or a ch�ld w�thout the r�sk of the soc�al problems that affect the abandoned and neglected. Th�s can be an expens�ve opt�on, and the wa�t for an appropr�ate ch�ld may be several years long. If the parents w�sh to ensure that they adopt an �nfant w�th part�cular character�st�cs—h�s curly ha�r, or her blue eyes, for �nstance—they can pursue


an adopt�on �ndependently, w�th a pregnant young woman w�th whom they reach an agreement. Th�s �s not legal �n all areas of the Un�ted states, how-ever, and can be just as expens�ve as pr�vate agency adopt�on.

Another opt�on for prospect�ve parents �s �nternat�onal adopt�on. About 13 percent of adopted k�ds are from overseas, nearly 21,000 of the 65,000 that took place �n 2006. Th�s can be a h�ghly expens�ve opt�on for would-be parents: there are agency fees, at least two tr�ps overseas to v�s�t the ch�ld’s country, and there �s a h�gh r�sk of expens�ve health care be�ng needed. de-sp�te th�s f�nanc�al barr�er, the number of �nternat�onal adopt�ons has been stead�ly r�s�ng for over a decade, and the opt�on has been seen as an �ncreas-�ngly popular one, part�cularly because of some h�ghly publ�c�zed cases of celebr�t�es adopt�ng fore�gn orphans. However, the �ncreas�ng demand for orphaned fore�gn ch�ldren also �ncreases the r�sk of ch�ld traff�ck�ng, e�-ther by desperately poor parents w�ll�ng to sell the�r ch�ldren to orphanages for mutual prof�t, or by pr�vate brokers steal�ng ch�ldren to sell to Amer�can parents. The Internat�onal Cr�m�nal Court (ICC) at the Hague has attempted to prevent th�s sort of explo�tat�on, but �t rema�ns a concern for adopt�ve par-ents, and enforcement �s d�ff�cult w�th�n the Un�ted states as �t �s not a mem-ber of the ICC as of 2007. Countr�es that prov�de the largest numbers of adopted ch�ldren have been tak�ng steps to slow �nternat�onal adopt�ons them-selves, at least �n some cases. In 2006, there were t�ghten�ng restr�ct�ons on parents w�sh�ng to pursue fore�gn adopt�ons from Ch�na, south Korea, and roman�a, and those new barr�ers have led to decreas�ng numbers of adoptees. Prospect�ve parents have new requ�rements for age, we�ght, mental health h�story, and sexual or�entat�on—s�ngle people adopt�ng from Ch�na must aff�rm that they are heterosexual, for �nstance—and fewer parents can pass the more str�ngent tests.

Adopt�on �s not open to all �n the Un�ted states, e�ther. There are several states, �n the south and M�dwest, that expl�c�tly ban gay couples from adopt-�ng, and Utah even bars cohab�t�ng stra�ght couples from adopt�ng ch�ldren together. every state but Flor�da allows gay and lesb�an people to adopt �n-d�v�dually, though the parental r�ghts cannot be legally shared. some states, mostly those that have more l�beral gay un�on laws, allow for second-parent adopt�on, but most areas have �ncons�stent court records on the matter. In many cases, one partner loses all v�s�tat�on r�ghts over ch�ldren that they may have ra�sed from �nfancy should the partnersh�p d�ssolve, and they would be cons�dered legal strangers.

when all �s sa�d and done, the real def�n�t�on of fam�ly �s created by the part�c�pants; however, much legal def�n�t�on m�ght restr�ct or allow some r�ghts. In the Un�ted states, there are as many def�n�t�ons of fam�ly as there are mem-bers of fam�l�es. extended k�nsh�p t�es can be strong, creat�ng a small-town


feel�ng w�th a large and close-kn�t group of members, or weak, w�th great d�stance among �ts members, who m�ght see each other rarely. A fam�ly can be composed of mother, father, and seven ch�ldren, or a cohab�t�ng couple, or a grandmother w�th a clutch of grandbab�es—and any poss�ble permutat�on thereof. The only necess�ty for a fam�ly �s t�es of love.

eduCation

educat�on �n the Un�ted states �s seen as a great equal�zer; 72,075,000 Amer�cans, from prek�ndergarten ch�ldren to graduate students and adults of all ages, were enrolled �n educat�onal �nst�tut�ons �n the fall of 2005. Pre-k�ndergarten, k�ndergarten, elementary, and secondary enrollment totaled 54.7 m�ll�on, and postsecondary enrollment, 17.3 m�ll�on. of all these stu-dents, over 61 m�ll�on, or a b�t more than 85 percent, were enrolled �n publ�c schools where opportun�t�es are thought to be equal. There are some prob-lems w�th th�s �dea, but �n general, a mot�vated student of any race or class can �ndeed succeed throughout the publ�c school system. The more than 10 m�ll�on students �n pr�vate educat�onal �nst�tut�ons have not only equal opportun�ty, but also rece�ve a del�berately value-based educat�on: 7.6 m�l-l�on of the pr�vate school enrollment �s �n roman Cathol�c schools, col-leges, and un�vers�t�es, dwarf�ng the enrollment of other rel�g�ously based schools and colleges. The l�teracy rate �n the Un�ted states �s est�mated by

A fam�ly cons�st�ng of seven adopted ch�ldren hold hands �n prayer before eat�ng d�nner. © AP Photo/The da�ly News, B�ll wagner.


the Un�ted Nat�ons to be 99.9 percent, t�ed for the top spot w�th 20 other nat�ons.16

school�ng �n the Un�ted states can beg�n for ch�ldren as young as three or as old as s�x, depend�ng on the reg�on. s�x out of every 10 ch�ldren attended some form of prek�ndergarten school �n 2005.17 some larger c�t�es have Head start preschool programs for poor or at-r�sk ch�ldren; parents can also choose pr�vate or church-run preschools to beg�n teach�ng the�r ch�ldren. Among more exclus�ve c�rcles, such as the Upper west s�de of Manhattan �n New york C�ty, entrance �nto the correct preschool �s seen as cruc�al to gett�ng �nto a h�ghly ranked prep school, and from there �nto a top-t�er un�vers�ty. wa�t�ng l�sts for those schools are often longer than the prospect�ve student �s old.

The next step for most ch�ldren �s k�ndergarten, begun at age f�ve. N�nety-e�ght percent of Amer�can ch�ldren attend at least four hours of k�ndergarten per day before beg�nn�ng pr�mary school. The f�rst Amer�can k�ndergarten was begun �n 1856 �n watertown, w�scons�n, by a German �mm�grant, and �t was conducted ent�rely �n German. The f�rst engl�sh-speak�ng k�ndergarten was begun four years later �n Boston, Massachusetts. The program, or�g�nally a nurtur�ng env�ronment for young ch�ldren to trans�t�on �nto school�ng, gradually became more of a pract�cal learn�ng env�ronment: many or most programs have read�ng and math �nstruct�on every day. K�ndergarten, wh�ch can be e�ther a half- or a full-day program, �s more common �n large c�t�es and small towns, where �t �s offered �n 64 percent of publ�c schools, than �t �s �n suburban areas or smaller c�t�es, where only 46 percent of publ�c schools offer �t. Add�t�onally, students �n the south are more l�kely to benef�t from k�nder-garten programs as 84 percent of publ�c schools offer full-day programs.18 In the M�dwest, 57 percent of publ�c schools have full-day programs, and only 38 percent �n the west and 37 percent �n the Northeast offer full-day pro-grams. Ch�ldren who take full-day k�ndergarten classes beg�n f�rst grade w�th a d�st�nct learn�ng advantage over the�r half-day or no-day peers. desp�te th�s, there �s no nat�onal requ�rement for k�ndergarten. K�ndergarten �s requ�red �n only 14 states and �s generally ava�lable, but not requ�red, �n the other 36.19

After k�ndergarten comes pr�mary school, or elementary school; grade levels �n the Un�ted states are counted w�th ord�nal numbers, not card�nal numbers. Thus, wh�le one m�ght f�nd a Canad�an ch�ld �n grade one, the cor-respond�ng Amer�can ch�ld would be �n f�rst grade. elementary school lasts for s�x years, and the 12- and 13-year-old ch�ldren leave �n seventh grade to attend jun�or h�gh school for two years. some areas add s�xth grade to the�r jun�or h�gh, and others add n�nth grade—th�s �s commonly called a m�ddle school, rather than a jun�or h�gh school.

secondary educat�on �ncludes 9th through 12th grades. In most states, stu-dents are requ�red to rema�n �n h�gh school unt�l they are 18, wh�le �n others,


they are perm�tted to leave school at age 16 �f they choose. Nearly 90 per-cent of Amer�can students complete h�gh school, although dropout rates tend to be h�gher �n urban than �n suburban and rural areas. Boys are more l�kely to leave school earl�er than g�rls, and Afr�can Amer�can and H�span�c students are more l�kely to leave earl�er than non-H�span�c wh�te students. Those who leave h�gh school w�thout a d�ploma f�nd themselves at a s�gn�f�cant d�sad-vantage �n the job market, and many—up to two-th�rds—of those who leave school early choose to pursue a d�ploma or General educat�onal development cert�f�cate w�th�n e�ght years.20

Publ�c h�gh schools are open to all students who w�sh to attend, though several d�fferent vocat�onal tracks are ava�lable. For students who plan to con-t�nue �n the�r educat�on, and who score well on tests conducted �n the e�ghth grade, a college preparatory track, cons�st�ng of upper-level mathemat�cs, sc�-ence, and l�terature courses, w�ll prov�de a thorough ground�ng �n bas�cs that the students can draw on. some of these courses, Advanced Placement and Internat�onal Baccalaureate, can even be g�ven college cred�t �f a h�gh score �s ach�eved on an exam�nat�on. For those students who do not plan to cont�nue the�r educat�on or who tested below the benchmark for college preparatory classes, less r�gorous courses are ava�lable as well as some vocat�onal tra�n�ng. In many c�t�es and towns, all-vocat�onal h�gh schools are becom�ng more frequent for �ncreas�ng numbers of students.

Arguments have been made that th�s track�ng system �s unfa�r to the stu-dents who m�ght be plann�ng to attend college but do not test well enough �n jun�or h�gh to enter the most el�te math and sc�ence courses. even �f they �mprove m�dway through h�gh school or change the�r m�nds about the�r col-lege plans, �t �s d�ff�cult, �f not �mposs�ble, to catch up and move upward �n the track. The track�ng system benef�ts the top 20 percent of students, but the students who perform well �n the average classes are �nadequately prepared for college coursework, even �f they express a des�re to cont�nue to college. The debate over track�ng �s further charged by the fact that many students who tend to be systemat�cally m�sd�rected toward lower tracks are poor or belong to ethn�c and rac�al m�nor�ty groups.

There are other systemat�c forms of rac�al d�scr�m�nat�on that st�ll pers�st �n the schools. Follow�ng world war II, mass�ve expans�on of suburbs com-b�ned w�th h�gh levels of race-based hous�ng d�scr�m�nat�on left urban and suburban areas rac�ally segregated. As a result, ne�ghborhood schools were largely rac�ally segregated, and �n 1971, the supreme Court found that the separate schools perpetuated and exacerbated a system of �nequal�ty between wh�te students and Afr�can Amer�can students, and the Court mandated the buss�ng of students of color from the�r local schools to ma�nly wh�te, subur-ban schools, and wh�te students to ma�nly Afr�can Amer�can, urban schools.


Th�s was not a popular order �n many c�t�es, and �n south Boston, several ant�buss�ng protests turned v�olent throughout the 1970s. As of the 1990s, buss�ng programs have been phased out, although some school d�str�cts have voluntar�ly reta�ned the pract�ce.

desp�te attempts at correct�ng the �nequal�t�es, �t cannot be den�ed that some schools are better funded than others. schools are pr�mar�ly funded by local property taxes, w�th major fund�ng com�ng from the state and a small proport�on of the funds com�ng from federal money. Because of th�s emphas�s on the local, schools tend to reflect the soc�oeconom�c status of the ne�ghborhood that supports them. In wealthy suburbs, publ�c schools can be lav�sh, w�th well-ma�nta�ned athlet�c fac�l�t�es and pools and h�gh levels of per-student spend�ng. At the other extreme are schools �n poor, urban d�str�cts; wh�le poor parents may pay a h�gher proport�on of the�r �ncome �nto property taxes, the schools struggle to prov�de an adequate env�ronment, let alone suff�c�ent books or desks for the large number of students �n each class.

Another attempt at correct�ng th�s d�fferent�al �s through establ�sh�ng mag-net schools �n urban areas, wh�ch have a broad area of potent�al recru�tment. rather than accept�ng only students from a l�m�ted ne�ghborhood, magnet schools have an entrance process—e�ther apt�tude or lottery based—for all students w�th�n buss�ng d�stance. To make these schools appeal�ng to po-tent�al students, magnet schools w�ll offer spec�al�zed or part�cularly �nnova-t�ve programs such as �n the arts or sc�ences. These schools tend to be more rac�ally and ethn�cally d�verse and to have a better academ�c reputat�on than many nearby schools. The downs�de, of course, �s that there are l�m�ted spots for students eager to attend. These types of schools account for only 3 percent of publ�c schools nat�onw�de, w�th predom�nance �n Cal�forn�a, Ill�no�s, and V�rg�n�a.

other types of educat�onal reforms �n publ�c schools are frequent, �n an attempt to �mprove performance and accountab�l�ty of schools and teach-ers. Usually, those reforms have been enacted at the state and local level, not at the nat�onal level. A nat�onal �n�t�at�ve was, however, s�gned �nto law on January 8, 2002—the No Ch�ld Left Beh�nd Act—was �ntended to �n-crease the qual�ty of educat�on by �ncreas�ng the accountab�l�ty of schools. The act (commonly known as NCLB) requ�res states to outl�ne gu�del�nes for �mprovement, wh�ch are to be assessed yearly, and schools that do not �m-prove are subject to �ncreas�ng adm�n�strat�ve sanct�ons as well as prov�s�ons that requ�re the d�str�ct to offer parents the opt�on to transfer the�r ch�ldren to another school. NCLB also requ�res that all teachers be rated as “h�ghly qual�f�ed” by the end of the 2005–2006 school year. Under these gu�del�nes, many students have tested h�gher �n read�ng and math than ever before, and


the gaps �n ach�evement between Afr�can Amer�can and wh�te n�ne-year-olds as well as a few others �n some areas have lessened. Add�t�onally, NCLB prov�des more deta�led data on the ach�evement of marg�nal�zed groups of students than has been prev�ously ava�lable such as poor students, students w�th d�sab�l�t�es, and students of color. Although �t �s true that �f even one such group fa�ls to �mprove over a year, the ent�re school �s rated as need�ng �mprovement, track�ng the econom�c or rac�al ach�evement gaps that ex�st �n schools �s the f�rst step to clos�ng them. each school must also prov�de a de-ta�led report to parents on the progress of the school as a whole every year.

NCLB has a few major shortcom�ngs, however, that l�m�t �ts helpfulness �n total educat�onal reform. Though the str�ngent requ�rements that even the poorest school d�str�ct �s expected to complete are thoroughly outl�ned, the fund�ng for those requ�rements has not been attached. Many school d�str�cts are already stretched to the�r l�m�ts, and though they would l�ke to h�re only h�ghly qual�f�ed teachers and afford them all poss�ble profess�onal develop-ment, that �s s�mply not feas�ble w�thout �ncreas�ng funds. There has also been �ncreased pressure over test scores, lead�ng to cla�ms that some adm�n�s-trators are e�ther encourag�ng teachers to coach students d�rectly to the tests or are outr�ght man�pulat�ng the�r schools’ stat�st�cs. Many schools have had to cut t�me from other subjects to prov�de more t�me for teach�ng read�ng and math, the only two subjects currently tested. For poor, urban schools that exper�ence h�gh student turnover each year, �nclud�ng a large �nflux of new �mm�grants who are not fluent �n engl�sh, the annual test�ng and sanct�on�ng procedure seems extraord�nar�ly harsh. some school d�str�cts �n Cal�forn�a have restr�cted access of ch�ldren of �llegal �mm�grants to publ�c educat�on, at least partly because of the effects of NCLB. In Utah, a law has been passed that rejects several of the prov�s�ons of NCLB, and at least e�ght other states are on the verge of follow�ng Utah’s lead. The act �s up for reauthor�zat�on �n 2007, and all s�gns po�nt to s�gn�f�cant rev�s�ons that may leave more leeway for states’ use of federal funds.

At a more local level, d�str�ct school boards have a great deal of leeway over what �s and �s not taught �n schools. school boards may have control over controvers�al po�nts of curr�cula, but the publ�cly elected boards can be forced from off�ce, as happened �n dover, Pennsylvan�a, over the requ�red teach�ng of creat�on�sm, newly renamed and reframed as �ntell�gent des�gn. Intell�gent des�gn �s a b�bl�cally based or�g�n theory that presupposes the ex-�stence of a creator. some conservat�ve Chr�st�an groups are try�ng to lobby publ�c schools to “teach the controversy,” or present the rel�g�ous explanat�on as an alternat�ve to the sc�ent�f�c theory of evolut�on, desp�te the fact that �n the sc�ent�f�c commun�ty, no such controversy ex�sts. Intell�gent des�gn �s not testable and not provable and thus cannot be cons�dered to be a sc�ence.


The teach�ng of or�g�n theor�es �n sc�ence classes has been controvers�al s�nce 1925, when a teacher, John scopes, was arrested and f�ned over the teach�ng of evolut�on �n a Tennessee publ�c school. e�ghty years later, a Pennsylvan�a court found that ment�on�ng creat�on�sm as a d�scla�mer to a d�scuss�on of evolut�on v�olated the establ�shment clause of the F�rst Amendment, and the members of the school board who supported �ntell�gent des�gn were voted out of off�ce �n late 2005.

The d�v�s�on between church and state �n schools �s a flex�ble one that �n more rel�g�ous areas of the Un�ted states may be nonex�stent. In Texas, one would be hard-pressed to f�nd a h�gh school football game that d�d not beg�n w�th a prayer, for example, and most courts have ruled that the students may express themselves �n prayer, unless they cause a substant�al d�srupt�on thereby. Follow�ng these rul�ngs, there have been attempts to re�ntroduce a formal prayer at the beg�nn�ng of the school day �n many areas, but the most that seems to be allowed �s a s�lent moment for prayer or reflect�on, rather than allow�ng outr�ght prayer �n schools. In add�t�on to a level of support for rel�g�ous express�on �n schools, there are also voucher systems �n some states that allow parents to pull the�r ch�ldren from publ�c school to attend rel�g�ous pr�vate schools and help pay the students’ tu�t�on, thereby prov�d�ng some level of publ�c fund�ng to paroch�al schools.

There are steps short of pr�vate school�ng, however. If trad�t�onal publ�c schools cannot serve a student suff�c�ently, �n 40 states, there are alterna-t�ve forms of publ�cly funded schools: charter schools, wh�ch were created �n 1988. These generally urban schools have relat�vely more autonomy from procedures and requ�rements than trad�t�onal publ�c schools and serve stu-dents who may not do as well �n publ�c schools. The�r purpose �s �nnovat�on and �nsp�rat�on to best serve the�r students, most of whom had bad exper�-ences �n other schools. In M�ch�gan and Cal�forn�a, the only states where �t �s allowed, many of these schools operate on a for-prof�t bas�s, wh�ch g�ves r�se to concerns that the fund�ng that m�ght otherw�se benef�t students �s �nstead reserved for prof�ts. even �n nonprof�t charter schools, though, per-pup�l fund�ng tends to be lower than trad�t�onal schools, even w�th donat�ons from bus�nesses and foundat�ons, and �t �s common for newly chartered schools to flounder. recent stud�es have suggested that students �n charter schools do not perform as well as students �n trad�t�onal schools, but charter proponents argue that more accurate demograph�c correlat�on of the data would d�sprove that cla�m.

one of the reasons students m�ght have for choos�ng to attend charter schools m�ght be �n relat�on to v�olence and bully�ng �n publ�c schools. F�ght-�ng and bully�ng are ser�ous problems for nearly one-th�rd of students, and about 6 percent of h�gh school students felt so unsafe that they d�d not attend


class at all. yet from a stat�st�cal v�ew, students are far safer at school than nearly anywhere else, but schools, espec�ally h�gh schools, are perce�ved as part�cularly dangerous. Less than 1 percent of hom�c�des among teenagers occurred at school, but those hom�c�des rece�ved an extremely h�gh level of med�a attent�on. The shoot�ng at Columb�ne H�gh school �n L�ttleton, Colo-rado, on Apr�l 20, 1999, �n part�cular, �n wh�ch 12 students and a teacher were k�lled, and another 24 �njured, served to fr�ghten the ent�re nat�on. In the wake of the Columb�ne shoot�ngs, there seemed to be a rash of d�saf-fected, bull�ed young men br�ng�ng guns to school and tak�ng a�m at the�r tormentors. Columb�ne and the other shoot�ngs spurred drug searches, often w�th dogs, and the �nstallat�on of metal detectors. Zero tolerance pol�c�es became popular for pun�sh�ng m�nor �nfract�ons. However, these pol�c�es are fall�ng out of favor, nearly a decade later, as they l�m�t d�scret�on on the part of the school, and there �s l�ttle ev�dence that they are effect�ve.

Another tact�c taken by school boards �n an attempt to �ncrease levels of d�sc�pl�ne �s mandat�ng a dress code or un�form pol�cy. Most schools have dress codes, wh�ch restr�ct students from wear�ng obscene or �nappropr�ate cloth�ng, but some publ�c schools, about one-f�fth nat�onw�de, w�th that number much h�gher �n urban areas, requ�re a un�form. A few un�form pro-grams are voluntary, but �n most cases, any students who w�sh to attend that school must purchase and wear the un�form. There are frequently programs �n place to help prov�de low-cost or free un�forms to needy students, and at $35–40 each, depend�ng on reg�on, many un�forms cost less than street cloth�ng. The benef�ts of un�form pol�c�es �nclude reduct�ons of school v�o-lence, reduct�ons of gang-related act�v�ty, reduct�ons of obv�ous econom�c d�fferences among students, and �ncreased focus on stud�es. However, there have been few stud�es that track long-term effects of un�forms, and most of the reports of �ncreases �n d�sc�pl�ne have been anecdotal. Add�t�onally, some students have brought su�ts aga�nst school d�str�cts, argu�ng that un�form pol-�c�es v�olate the�r freedom of speech. Courts have tended to uphold the r�ght of the school d�str�ct to �mpose un�forms to �mprove learn�ng cond�t�ons, and the lawsu�ts have been largely unsuccessful.

w�th all the controversy and fear surround�ng publ�c school�ng, �t �s un-surpr�s�ng that some parents would w�sh to send the�r students to pr�vate or paroch�al schools or choose to teach them at home. As of october 2005, ap-prox�mately 12 percent of students were enrolled �n pr�vate schools.21 Parents w�th means have always had the opportun�ty to dec�de on pr�vate school-�ng, and there are several thousand day schools and a few hundred board�ng schools, many of wh�ch are qu�te expens�ve. These pr�vate schools can, and do, offer a number of h�gh-level college preparatory courses, but they can also offer help to struggl�ng or troubled students, preparat�on for a m�l�tary career,


educat�on �n the arts, or rel�g�ous educat�on. The student-to-teacher rat�o �s usually much lower than �n publ�c school, wh�ch allows students much more �nd�v�dual attent�on.

These pos�t�ves come w�th a hefty pr�ce tag, however, and many lower-�ncome parents—or even m�ddle-class parents—want the opt�on to w�thdraw the�r ch�ldren from publ�c schools and apply the funds that would otherw�se be prov�ded to the publ�c schools to the pr�vate school tu�t�on. Th�s presents the obv�ous problem that only a few parents would have th�s opt�on open to them, and remov�ng fund�ng from the publ�c schools only worsens con-d�t�ons and the qual�ty of educat�on for the students who are forced to rema�n �n the absence of other opt�ons. Add�t�onally, many pr�vate schools have a rel�g�ous aff�l�at�on, and channel�ng government funds to the pr�vate schools �nstead of the publ�c schools could be seen as a v�olat�on of the separat�on of church and state. The const�tut�onal�ty of a voucher system was upheld �n w�scons�n but struck down �n Flor�da, and several other cases are currently ongo�ng �n other states.

There are several other opt�ons for parents who feel that ne�ther trad�-t�onal publ�c nor pr�vate schools can prov�de the r�ght educat�on for the�r ch�ldren. There are about 5,000 schools that follow the Montessor� method, some 300 of wh�ch are publ�cly funded, and 157 waldorf schools, both of wh�ch espouse part�cular hol�st�c teach�ng ph�losoph�es that are not cons�d-ered ma�nstream by current educat�onal theory. The Montessor� schools are based on the ph�losophy that ch�ldren want to learn and w�ll teach themselves �f gu�ded properly �n a collaborat�ve env�ronment. students are not str�ctly age segregated, most school ass�gnments are not graded, and pos�t�ve soc�al sk�lls are emphas�zed. success �s met w�th �ncreas�ng academ�c challenge, and much of the learn�ng �s self-paced. The waldorf schools s�m�larly emphas�ze commun�ty—students stay w�th the same teacher from f�rst through e�ghth grade. However, the waldorf method �nvolves more structure and a slower �ntroduct�on to task-based work. read�ng �s taught later than �s trad�t�onal, and the educat�on �s mapped onto preestabl�shed developmental stages. Both of the methods �nclude preparat�on for college as a stated goal for the students.

Parents who decl�ne these opt�ons, or who l�ve �n an area where they are not ava�lable, may choose to homeschool the�r ch�ldren. In many nat�ons, homeschool�ng �s not a legal opt�on, but as long as students pass compulsory test�ng, parents are afforded much leeway �n the Un�ted states. Trad�t�on-ally, homeschool�ng has been perce�ved as h�ghly rel�g�ously or�ented, but �t �s ga�n�ng �n popular�ty among less conservat�ve fam�l�es. Nearly 1.1 m�ll�on students were be�ng taught at home �n 2003, wh�ch �s about 2.2 percent of the student populat�on.22 The major�ty of these students were �n rural areas,


�n the south, and w�th one parent �n the labor force and one parent who was not. There are many reasons for choos�ng to homeschool such as the parents’ feel�ng that they can do a better job of educat�ng the�r ch�ld, the�r object�on to th�ngs that are taught �n publ�c school, a lack of challenges or resources prov�ded by the local schools, or even transportat�on �ssues for rural fam�l�es, among many others. There are several curr�cular cho�ces for the parent who homeschools, from Montessor� and waldorf to a var�ety of pr�vate home-school�ng organ�zat�ons. Churches and rel�g�ous �nst�tut�ons also prov�de some mater�als, as do some publ�c schools. Homeschooled students tend to do vastly better than the�r trad�t�onally schooled peers on ach�evement tests and self-esteem measures. opponents to homeschool�ng argue that students’ soc�al�zat�on �s l�m�ted by not attend�ng school, but most homeschool�ng fam�l�es are careful to foster c�v�c engagement �n the�r ch�ldren.

After h�gh school, students can cont�nue on to postsecondary stud�es �f they so choose. In 2005, nearly half of young adults—over 17 m�ll�on of them—were enrolled �n some form of h�gher educat�on, though the major�ty of students �n h�gher educat�on are women—56 percent of those who are enrolled. College attendance has r�sen sharply �n the last few decades, and nearly one-th�rd of Amer�cans have a bachelor’s degree, though the propor-t�on who have degrees �s h�gher �n the Northeast and lower �n the south. Th�s �s l�kely due to populat�on dens�ty and the number of urban centers, wh�ch employ more degreed profess�onals, rather than any real geograph�cal character�st�c. There �s also a rac�al gap �n educat�onal atta�nment, w�th pro-port�onately low numbers of Afr�can Amer�cans and H�span�cs ach�ev�ng an advanced degree, though these numbers have r�sen every year.23

Access to h�gher educat�on �s open to all students, �n theory, though some opt�ons may be l�m�ted by a student’s means. The U.s. m�l�tary pays for the h�gher educat�on of �ts veterans through a program called the G.I. B�ll, f�rst �ntroduced after world war II. Many young men and women who would not otherw�se have the resources to attend college jo�n the m�l�tary for three or four years to take advantage of th�s benef�t. Add�t�onally, there are federal grants and loans for wh�ch needy students may apply as well as loans and grants awarded by pr�vate �nst�tut�ons and foundat�ons. students �n pr�vate colleges, even rel�g�ously based ones, are el�g�ble for federal f�nanc�al a�d �f they qual�fy on a standard needs bas�s. some states also subs�d�ze the h�gher costs of pr�vate college expenses w�th f�xed grants that go d�rectly to �ts student c�t�-zens. Church-state separat�on �s not v�olated, �t �s argued, because grants and loans go through the schools d�rectly to the students. Pr�vate schools are also el�g�ble for federal research and other spec�al funds w�th the prov�so that no federal money may be used for rel�g�ous purposes. Colleges and un�vers�t�es also have the�r own need- and mer�t-based f�nanc�al a�d awards for poor or


part�cularly talented—academ�cally or athlet�cally—students. desp�te these attempts at f�nanc�al a�d, tu�t�on r�ses every year, and many students graduate w�th a heavy student loan burden.

There �s no nat�onal system of colleges �n the Un�ted states, w�th the excep-t�on of the m�l�tary academ�es; �nstead, the ex�st�ng publ�c un�vers�t�es have been establ�shed by �nd�v�dual states. These schools can be qu�te affordable for low-�ncome and work�ng students, and though some have better reputat�ons than others, m�ll�ons of students matr�culate �n state un�vers�t�es and colleges each year. There are several opt�ons other than state college. For students w�th even more constra�ned budgets, commun�ty colleges and techn�cal �nst�tutes offer cert�f�cat�ons and pract�cal degree opt�ons at a lower level. There are also colleges that serve part�cular groups, such as women’s colleges, h�stor�cally Afr�can Amer�can colleges, or tr�bal �nst�tut�ons. For students w�th greater loan or scholarsh�p opportun�t�es, or s�mply wealth�er parents, pr�vate colleges abound, from the small and local schools to the large and prest�g�ous Ivy League un�vers�t�es. These prest�g�ous schools also attract nearly a half m�ll�on fore�gn students, from all reg�ons of the globe.

entrance to these prest�g�ous schools can be h�ghly compet�t�ve. As �n many other countr�es, there �s a strong market for tutor�ng and test prepara-t�on tools. In try�ng to ga�n entrance to the college of the�r cho�ce, students and the�r parents may spend thousands of dollars on profess�onal preparat�on. H�gh school students pay a fee to take standard�zed tests, e�ther $41 for the sAT reason�ng Test for students on e�ther coast, or $29 for the ACT Assess-ment for students �n the M�dwest and south, or both, �f they plan to apply to colleges �n a d�verse geograph�cal area, though these fees may somet�mes be wa�ved �f a student can demonstrate hardsh�p. There are a number of compa-n�es that offer tutor�ng d�rected toward ra�s�ng scores on these tests, and there �s a large market �n manuals and preparatory books. Because th�s �ntens�ve tra�n�ng �s usually qu�te effect�ve �n ra�s�ng test scores, teenagers w�th greater access to econom�c resources are advantaged �n th�s aspect of un�vers�ty ad-m�ss�on. They also have an advantage �n the academ�c black market; there are a grow�ng number of serv�ces from wh�ch a struggl�ng student can purchase a prewr�tten essay. Though the specter of expuls�on hangs over th�s market, desperate students w�th means have been known to go to desperate lengths for better grades.

There are other transgress�ons, bes�des the poss�b�l�ty of cheat�ng the�r way �n, for determ�ned troublemakers to f�nd at college. students at res�dent�al colleges are less l�kely to be v�ct�ms of v�olent cr�me than the�r nonstudent peers.24 However, the popular percept�on of a college exper�ence �ncludes a great deal of Animal House–esque drunken revels, result�ng �n the sort of cr�mes that generally result from he�ghtened levels of alcohol consumpt�on


such as sexual assaults, haz�ng, and assaults. Though many res�dent�al cam-puses are qu�te pretty—a haven of green grass and shady trees �n the m�dst of a c�ty—they are often not nearly as much as an uncorrupted sanctum as they appear. Increas�ngly, cr�me on campus �s attract�ng attent�on. A hor-r�fy�ng �nc�dent at V�rg�n�a Tech on Apr�l 16, 2007, �n wh�ch a 23-year-old male student opened f�re �n two d�fferent locat�ons, k�ll�ng 32 students and faculty and wound�ng many more, brought awareness to campus v�olence, just as the shoot�ng �n L�ttleton, Colorado, brought awareness of h�gh school v�olence �n 1999. However, such v�olence at un�vers�ty campuses �s rarer than at h�gh schools; the last such �nc�dent occurred �n 1966. desp�te these well-publ�c�zed horror stor�es, the fact rema�ns that cr�me �s much lower on campus than �n the Un�ted states overall: the murder rate �n the Un�ted states was 5.7 per 100,000, and the murder rate on campus was 0.13 per 100,000.25

After safely obta�n�ng an undergraduate degree, many students opt for fur-ther school�ng, cont�nu�ng to graduate, med�cal, law, and bus�ness colleges for advanced degrees. F�fty-n�ne percent of the students who choose to do so are women. Many of the students who cont�nue the�r educat�on work full-t�me, �n add�t�on to attend�ng school. Though some f�elds pay st�pends to graduate students, full fund�ng �s rare for all but the most h�ghly sought after students. Graduate school �s trad�t�onally a t�me of poverty for students, even wh�le work�ng or w�th fam�ly support. There �s not necessar�ly an expectat�on of a large payoff, as there m�ght be at profess�onal schools, such as med�cal school, �f the graduate student expects to rema�n �n academ�a as a professor, though a master’s degree or doctorate may pay d�v�dends �n the pr�vate sec-tor. The salar�es for those w�th advanced degrees are cons�derably h�gher than for those w�th bachelor’s degrees, of course. Tra�n�ng for the h�gher-pay�ng profess�ons of bus�ness, med�c�ne, and law also causes students to �ncur h�gh levels of debt, �n most cases. doctors, �n part�cular, must tra�n for many years before see�ng any benef�t of the h�gh expected salary and must pay down stu-dent loans for many years after graduat�ng. Th�s r�sk of debt �s not enough to d�scourage prospect�ve doctors, �t must be noted.

other types of educat�on come at a b�t of a prem�um. There has recently been a r�se �n the f�eld of un�vers�t�es operat�ng for prof�t. There are dozens of schools offer�ng degree opt�ons, typ�cally to older students who are already �n the workforce and want to return to school to max�m�ze the�r earn�ngs po-tent�al but have trouble attend�ng trad�t�onal college. some of these schools offer d�stance learn�ng, so students anywhere can take courses from the Un�-vers�ty of Phoen�x, for �nstance. Unl�ke trad�t�onal models of colleges, wh�ch requ�re students to take general educat�on courses and expect professors to be leaders �n academ�c research, these for-prof�t schools offer d�rected courses �n


f�elds w�th h�gh demand—nurs�ng, computer sc�ence, and account�ng, for example—and h�re teachers only to teach. Anyone w�th the money for tu�t�on �s accepted �nto the program, and the course schedules are qu�te flex�ble.

detractors of for-prof�t educat�on ra�se some leg�t�mate concerns over these programs. Pr�vat�z�ng educat�on seems contrary to Amer�can �deals, and the prospect of publ�c knowledge becom�ng the property of a corporat�on seems ant�thet�cal to trad�t�onal academ�c systems. In th�s model, the students become customers, and the qual�ty of the�r educat�on may suffer �n deference to the company’s prof�t marg�n. There have been some scandals and lawsu�ts �nvolv�ng some of these schools, and students must be careful to research the�r schools of cho�ce. Many of these schools, however, are careful to em-phas�ze the�r comm�tment to the�r students’ success and boast h�gh rates of postgraduate career placement.

There �s yet another mode of adult educat�on; �n part�cular, new �mm�-grants who w�sh to become natural�zed c�t�zens of the Un�ted states must pass an exam�nat�on—�n engl�sh—on the U.s. government and swear an oath of loyalty to the Un�ted states. To pass th�s test, many �mm�grants enroll �n engl�sh as a second language courses and c�v�c educat�on courses, ava�lable �n most commun�t�es free or at a low cost. There are currently about

Imm�grants from Bosn�a-Herzegov�na become Amer�can c�t�zens as they l�sten to the Pledge of Alleg�ance dur�ng a natural�zat�on ceremony. © AP Photo/east Valley Tr�bune, Jenn�fer Gr�mes.


35 m�ll�on fore�gn-born Amer�cans, 13 m�ll�on of whom have undergone the process to become natural�zed c�t�zens. They go to great lengths to learn about the�r adopted country and how to succeed as Amer�cans—and what, really, could be as Amer�can as that?

notes

1. Centers for d�sease Control and Prevent�on, “CdC Fact sheet: young People at r�sk—HIV/AIds Among Amer�ca’s youth,” January 31, 2001, http://www.the body.com.

2. A. d� Censo, Gordon Guyatt, A. w�llan, and L. Gr�ff�th, “Intervent�ons to reduce Un�ntended Pregnanc�es among Adolescents: systemat�c rev�ew of ran-dom�zed Controlled Tr�als,” British Medical Journal 324 (2002), www.bmj.com.

3. U.s. Census Bureau, “Income, earn�ngs, and Poverty data from the 2005 Commun�ty survey,” http://www.census.gov.

4. rasmussen reports, “w�ll�ngness to Vote for woman Pres�dent,” Apr�l 8, 2005, http://www.rasmussenreports.com.

5. r. Cla�re snyder, Gay Marriage and Democracy (New york: rowman and L�ttlef�eld, 2006), 15.

6. U.s. Census Bureau, “Fam�l�es and L�v�ng Arrangements: 2005,” http://www.census.gov.

7. Centers for d�sease Control and Prevent�on, “B�rths, Marr�ages, d�vorces, and deaths: Prov�s�onal data for 2004,” Table A, http://www.cdc.gov.

8. dan Hurley, “d�vorce rate: It’s Not as H�gh as you Th�nk,” New York Times, Apr�l 19, 2005.

9. rose M. Kre�der, “Number, T�m�ng, and durat�on of Marr�ages and d�vorces: 2001,” �n Current Population Reports (wash�ngton, dC: U.s. Census Bureau, 2005), 70–97.

10. steven P. Mart�n, “educat�on and Mar�tal d�ssolut�on rates �n the U.s. s�nce the 1970s” (work�ng paper, Un�vers�ty of Maryland, College Park, n.d.), http://www.russellsage.org.

11. U.s. Census Bureau, “Amer�can Commun�ty survey, 2005,” http://www.cen sus.gov.

12. Defense of Marriage Act, Publ�c Law 104–199, U.S. Statutes at Large 100 (1996), 2419, cod�f�ed at U.S. Code 1 (2000), §7 and U.S. Code 28 (2000), §1738C.

13. U.s. Census Bureau, Populat�on d�v�s�on, Fert�l�ty and research Branch, “L�v�ng Arrangements of Ch�ldren under 18 years old: 1960 to Present: Household Fam�l�es,” http://www.census.gov.

14. U.s. department of Labor, Bureau of Labor stat�st�cs, “Amer�can T�me Use survey, 2005,” http://www.bls.gov.us.

15. shelly Lundberg, “Gender and Household dec�s�on-Mak�ng” (lecture notes, Un�vers�ty of s�ena Internat�onal school of econom�c research, Certosa d� Pont�g-nano, Italy, 2005).


16. Nat�onal Center for educat�on stat�st�cs, Digest of Education Statistics, 2005, Table 1, http://nces.ed.gov; Nat�onal Cathol�c educat�on Assoc�at�on, “Cathol�c edu-cat�on Quest�ons,” http://www.ncea.org.

17. U.s. Census Bureau, Populat�on d�v�s�on, educat�on and soc�al strat�f�cat�on Branch, “school enrollment—soc�al and econom�c Character�st�cs of students: october 2005,” http://www.census.gov.

18. Nat�onal Center for educat�on stat�st�cs, “Trends �n Full- and Half-day K�n-dergarten,” 2004, http://nces.ed.gov.

19. Nat�onal Center for educat�on stat�st�cs, “reg�onal d�fferences �n K�ndergart-ners’ early educat�on exper�ences,” 2005, http://nces.ed.gov.

20. Ch�ld Trends databank, “H�gh school dropout rates,” summer 2006, http://www.ch�ldrensdatabank.org.

21. U.s. Census Bureau, “soc�al and econom�c Character�st�cs of students: octo-ber 2005,” http://www.census.gov.

22. Nat�onal Center for educat�on stat�st�cs, “Homeschool�ng �n the Un�ted states: 2003 stat�st�cal Analys�s report,” http://nces.ed.gov.

23. U.s. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States 2007, Tables 215–218: educat�onal Atta�nment by race, sex, and state, http://www.census.gov.

24. U.s. department of Just�ce, Bureau of Just�ce stat�st�cs, “V�olent V�ct�m�za-t�on of College students,” december 7, 2003, http://www.ojp.gov.bjs.

25. Federal Bureau of Invest�gat�on, Crime in the U.S. 2004, september 2005, http://www.fb�.gov; U.s. department of educat�on, “summary of Campus Cr�me and secur�ty stat�st�cs, 2002–2004,” october 6, 2006, http://www.ed.gov.

BiBliograPhy

Amato, Paul r., et al. Alone Together: How Marriage in America Is Changing. Cam-br�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 2007.

Baker, dav�d. National Differences, Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling. stanford, CA: stanford soc�al sc�ences, 2005.

Carlson, Allan C. Conjugal America: On the Public Purposes of Marriage. New Bruns-w�ck, NJ: Transact�on, 2007.

Hochsch�ld, Arl�e. The Second Shift. New york: Avon, 1989.Lyons, w�ll�am. Punishing Schools: Fear and Citizenship in American Public Educa-

tion. Ann Arbor: Un�vers�ty of M�ch�gan Press, 2006.Nat�onal Center for educat�on stat�st�cs. The Cond�t�on of educat�on, 2000–2006.

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe.Newton, Jud�th Lowder. From Panthers to Promise Keepers: Rethinking the Men’s Move-

ment. Latham, Md: rowman and L�ttlef�eld, 2005.Popenoe, dav�d. War over the Family. New Brunsw�ck, NJ: Transact�on, 2005.rosenf�eld, M�chael J. The Age of Independence: Interracial Unions, Same-Sex Unions,

and the Changing American Family. Cambr�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 2007.


sacks, Peter. Tearing Down the Gates: Confronting the Class Divide in American Edu-cation. Berkeley: Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a Press, 2007.

snyder, r. Cla�re. Gay Marriage and Democracy: Equality for All. New york: row-man and L�ttlef�eld, 2006.

Th�stle, susan. From Marriage to the Market: The Transformation of Women’s Lives and Work. Berkeley: Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a Press, 2006.

wolfson, evan. Why Marriage Matters. New york: s�mon and schuster, 2004.

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.—stephen K�ng, The Shining

Americans are notorious for the�r reluctance to make t�me for play. on average, they work f�ve more weeks each year than Braz�l�ans or the Br�t-�sh and two and a half weeks more than Canad�ans, Mex�cans, Austral�ans, or the Japanese. wh�le the French average 39 vacat�on days each year—and use them—Amer�cans accrue only 14 vacat�on days and typ�cally leave four of those unused. And when Amer�cans do go on vacat�on, 41 percent of off�ce workers br�ng the�r laptops and plan to work.1

Th�s appet�te for work must be a surpr�se to the soc�olog�sts who pre-d�cted, back �n the 1950s, that Amer�cans would soon be burdened by an excess of le�sure. At the same t�me, the Amer�can standard of 14 vaca-t�on days and half a dozen pa�d hol�days represents a s�gn�f�cant �ncrease �n le�sure t�me from 150 years ago, when 12-hour workdays and s�x- or even seven-day workweeks were common—and even Chr�stmas was not necessar�ly a day of rest. Although fa�rs, celebrat�ons, sports contests, and hobb�es appear �n the f�rst records of Amer�can h�story, not unt�l 1870 were there off�c�al hol�days that guaranteed many workers a day w�thout labor. Today, as Amer�cans come to expect around-the-clock shopp�ng and enterta�nment, hol�days are aga�n becom�ng unstuck from the �dea of rest and play.

4

Hol�days and Le�sure

Wende Vyborney Feller

153


holidays

Hol�days �n Amer�can culture encompass a w�de range of events. The clos-est approach to a l�st of nat�onal hol�days �s the 10 federal hol�days, wh�ch represent vacat�on days g�ven to employees of the federal government and wh�ch are often also g�ven as pa�d hol�days by state and pr�vate employers: New year’s day, the b�rthday of Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr., wash�ngton’s b�rth-day, Memor�al day, Independence day, Labor day, Columbus day, Vet-erans day, Thanksg�v�ng, and Chr�stmas. Th�s federal hol�day l�st scarcely def�nes what Amer�cans see as events worth celebrat�ng s�nce �t om�ts three of the hol�days that Amer�cans celebrate most enthus�ast�cally: Valent�ne’s day, Mother’s day, and Halloween.

Broaden�ng the def�n�t�on to �nclude off�c�al observances makes almost every day a hol�day. There are enough federal observances to average one per week, year-round. Add state observances, and �t �s poss�ble to pack a dozen hol�days �nto a s�ngle day: May 1 �s Loyalty day, B�rd day, Fam�ly day, Law day, Le� day, and a nat�onal day of Prayer as well as the f�rst day of month-long commemorat�ons of As�an Amer�cans, fam�l�es, keep�ng Massachusetts beaut�ful, k�ndness, law enforcement workers, ch�ldren, composers, sen�or c�t�zens, the steel �ndustry, and women veterans.

G�ven that Thanksg�v�ng was a trad�t�onal event before �t became a federal hol�day, perhaps a hol�day may be def�ned as a commun�ty fest�val that ga�ns nat�onw�de popular�ty. Certa�nly there are plenty of fest�vals vy�ng for con-sumers’ le�sure and dollars. Popular fest�val themes �nclude local h�story, local �ndustry or agr�culture, mus�c, ethn�c her�tage, gay pr�de, food, and flowers. A typ�cal fest�val �ncludes a parade, a craft or art show, food vendors, face pa�nt�ng, mus�cal performances, and poss�bly a compet�t�on to crown a queen or pr�ncess from among local young women.

Although �t �s easy to assume that a fest�val honor�ng a commun�ty’s swed-�sh her�tage or plethora of rattlesnakes has roots �n the d�stant past, few fest�-vals predate world war II. one researcher found that �n M�nnesota, about one-th�rd of commun�ty fest�vals started �n the 1980s, and fully 12 percent were part of a B�centenn�al-era surge of �nterest �n local h�story. Fest�vals do not necessar�ly grow organ�cally from local trad�t�on, e�ther. when organ�zers of the wh�gham rattlesnake roundup were asked why they chose rattle-snakes, they responded that �t was the�r f�rst �dea other than a f�sh fry.2

even when a fest�val commemorates an h�stor�c event, the fest�val �tself may not be h�stor�c. In Apache Junct�on, Ar�zona, the Lost dutchman days fest�val celebrates the legend of a myster�ous van�sh�ng m�ne supposedly d�s-covered �n the 1880s. The fest�val dates only to 1965, about 15 years after the commun�ty was establ�shed.3

HoLIdAys ANd LeIsUre 155

The Lost dutchman may be a myth, but be�ng f�ct�t�ous does not stop events from �nsp�r�ng a fest�val. Impersonators of characters from Gomer Pyle’s f�ct�t�ous town of Mayberry appear at fest�vals throughout the rural south, culm�nat�ng �n Mayberry days �n A�ry, North Carol�na. Mena, Arkansas, celebrates Lum ’n’ Abner days, based on a rad�o show that was popular �n the 1930s.4

Not all commun�ty fest�vals are recent �nvent�ons, of course, nor are they all �n small towns. In rochester, New york, the L�lac Fest�val has been cel-ebrated cont�nuously s�nce 1902 (organ�zers cla�m 1892), draw�ng about 250,000 people each year.5 san Franc�sco’s Ch�nese New year was celebrated as early as the 1860s; New orleans’s Mard� Gras �s older yet. one researcher argues that the appeal of fest�vals �s how they allow part�c�pants to belong to a commun�ty w�th m�n�mal effort or comm�tment.6

Certa�nly there are plenty of commun�t�es vy�ng for membersh�p. In a s�ngle weekend �n late February, people who l�st cook�ng and eat�ng as the�r favor�te le�sure act�v�t�es can choose from seven events. At the top of the food cha�n �s the south Beach w�ne and Food Fest�val, a Flor�da weekend that �ncludes the Food Network Awards and �s expected to draw 20,000 gourmets who can afford to spend upward of $1,000 on t�ckets. wh�le th�s fest�val dates only to 2002, the Tw�n C�t�es Food and w�ne exper�ence and the Newport seafood and w�ne Fest�val are somewhat older (13 years and 30 years, respect�vely) and offer more modest t�cket pr�ces.

More access�ble, ow�ng to free adm�ss�on, are the Annual Clam Chowder Cook-off �n santa Cruz, Cal�forn�a; the Grant seafood Fest�val, wh�ch draws 50,000 v�s�tors to oregon and dates to 1996; the Parke County, Ind�ana, Maple syrup Fa�r; and the Annual Flor�da Gourd Fest�val. Th�s last event offers not only classes �n gourd�ng, but also free park�ng for recreat�onal veh�cles.7

Perhaps the most fam�l�ar fest�vals are the county fa�r and the state fa�r. The trad�t�onal county fa�r, w�th l�vestock exh�b�t�ons, parades, performances, and bak�ng compet�t�ons, evolved from agr�cultural and employment fa�rs around 1811 and was w�dely popular before the C�v�l war. Although only about 20 percent of Amer�cans l�ve �n rural areas, county fa�rs have stay�ng power. Though fewer than 1 percent of the res�dents of san Mateo County, Cal�for-n�a, work �n farm�ng, f�sh�ng, or forestry, the county st�ll holds �ts fa�r. even a completely urban�zed county l�ke san Franc�sco sees per�od�c efforts to start a county fa�r.8

County fa�rs are held dur�ng the summer, as a precursor to the b�g event: the state fa�r, trad�t�onally held near Labor day weekend. As county fa�rs be-came popular, the state fa�r was a natural way to p�t county w�nners aga�nst one another and to showcase the state’s agr�cultural bounty—a powerful


means of attract�ng �mm�grants to settle the front�er states. These larger fa�rs requ�re a permanent exh�b�t�on ground that �s also used for other events throughout the year. The state Fa�r of Texas can gross $2.3 m�ll�on �n a s�ngle day.9

Most commun�t�es put more fervor �nto the�r county fa�r than �nto cel-ebrat�ng a federal hol�day l�ke wash�ngton’s b�rthday. yet �t �s unl�kely that anyone has ever sent a greet�ng card to commemorate the san Mateo County Fa�r. send�ng hol�day cards �s such a thoroughly entrenched Amer�can trad�-t�on that the term Hallmark holidays �s used to descr�be occas�ons that were reputedly �nvented by—or at least promoted by—major card company Hall-mark to boost sales. suspected Hallmark hol�days range from Valent�ne’s day and Mother’s day to more obscure sweetest day, secretary’s day, and Grandparents’ day.

Greet�ng cards and true hol�days from work both became popular at about the same t�me, the m�d-n�neteenth century. Unt�l the federal government declared four bank hol�days �n 1870—Independence day, Thanksg�v�ng, Chr�stmas, and New year’s day—there was no connect�on between a cel-ebrat�on and a day off from work.

wh�le even Chr�stmas was celebrated sporad�cally for years before be-com�ng a major event, Independence day has been w�dely celebrated s�nce 1777, the year after the declarat�on of Independence was s�gned. Bands, f�reworks, parades, and p�cn�cs have been part of the celebrat�on as far back as records go. Today, commemorat�ng �ndependence from Great Br�ta�n re-qu�res 150 m�ll�on hotdogs, or approx�mately one for every two people. No one records how many sheet cakes decorated l�ke a flag w�th strawberr�es, blueberr�es, and wh�pped cream are served, though the rec�pe has been a staple of women’s magaz�nes s�nce the 1830s. It �s also one of the least contro-vers�al hol�days. other than a gay r�ghts protest �n Ph�ladelph�a �n 1965, there �s l�ttle record of the controvers�es over �nclus�on that enl�ven st. Patr�ck’s day, the Ch�nese New year, and Columbus day.10 enjoy�ng outdoor fun ra�ses no publ�c compla�nts about forgett�ng the mean�ng of the day.

For Thanksg�v�ng, the c�v�c mean�ng—thankfulness for the harvest—sl�pped away so gradually that l�ttle protest surrounds today’s custom of serv-�ng a large meal am�d a long day of watch�ng telev�s�on, notably the Macy’s Thanksg�v�ng day parade and var�ous football games. Although the hol�day reputedly dates to the P�lgr�ms’ f�rst harvest �n 1621, and George wash�ngton establ�shed a late November date for a day of thanksg�v�ng �n 1789, Thanks-g�v�ng was not celebrated cons�stently unt�l after 1863. In 1941, the date was set as the fourth Thursday �n November.

Turkey and pumpk�ns were cons�dered trad�t�onal as early as 1854, but the fam�l�ar menu for the largest eat�ng hol�day of the year was def�ned largely


by army fare �n world war II. The d�nner served to sold�ers �n 1941 started w�th celery and ol�ves, then �ncluded almost all of today’s standard fare: roast turkey, sage dress�ng and g�blet gravy, cranberry sauce, cand�ed sweet pota-toes and mashed potatoes, hot rolls, a vegetable, salad, and pumpk�n p�e as well as other desserts. The most cruc�al m�ss�ng �tem was green bean casserole, a rec�pe �nvented for Campbell’s soup �n 1955. By the early 1990s, cook�ng mavens were promot�ng nontrad�t�onal menus to sp�ce up the day.11 Turkey rema�ns the centerp�ece, but s�de d�shes are where ethn�c commun�t�es �ncor-porate the�r own cul�nary trad�t�ons.

The Thanksg�v�ng feast has become a source of stress. Turkey producer Butterball offers v�deos on thaw�ng, stuff�ng, roast�ng, or barbecu�ng the tur-key; the san Franc�sco Chronicle offers Turkey Tra�n�ng Camp for the worst cooks �n the Bay Area. More than half of all cooks �ncorporate restaurant-prepared take-out �tems �n the�r feast, usually s�de d�shes or dessert, up from one-th�rd �n 2002.12 No wonder people are ready to collapse �n front of a football game.

rest �s v�tal, as the Fr�day after Thanksg�v�ng marks the k�ck-off of the hol�day shopp�ng season. Although so-called Black Fr�day �s not the heav�est shopp�ng day of the year, the flood of shoppers �nto stores, along w�th the

shoppers, some of whom have been shopp�ng s�nce 5:00 a.m., barga�n hunt to grab spec�als on everyth�ng from toys to flat screen TVs on Black Fr�day, the beg�nn�ng of the hol�day shopp�ng season. © AP Photo/Jeff Ch�u.


popular�ty of door-buster barga�ns offered as early as 5:00 a.m., prov�des suf-f�c�ent mayhem to just�fy the day’s n�ckname.

The goal of all the shopp�ng �s Chr�stmas: the most sent�mental�zed hol�day of the year. wh�le 77 percent of Amer�cans �dent�fy as Chr�st�ans, 95 percent celebrate Chr�stmas. Amer�cans send 1.9 b�ll�on hol�day cards, cut 20.8 m�ll�on trees, spend almost $32 b�ll�on �n department stores alone �n december, and ma�l 1 m�ll�on packages.13 spec�al hol�day programm�ng rules the telev�s�on. The most famous Chr�stmas class�c, A Charlie Brown Christmas, ment�ons the b�rth of Chr�st and ends w�th a loosely Chr�st�an message of peace and acceptance, but most of the class�c programs from the 1960s are more focused on rem�nd�ng ch�ldren that Chr�stmas �nvolves santa Claus and that santa br�ngs presents.

Although there �s a st. N�cholas �n the Cathol�c pantheon, the legend that he br�ngs presents to good ch�ldren d�d not become popular �n the Un�ted states unt�l the early n�neteenth century. Before then, �t was New year’s day, not Chr�stmas, that was assoc�ated w�th presents. The v�s�on of a st. N�ck as a jolly br�nger of presents who drove a re�ndeer-drawn sle�gh and sl�d down the ch�mney to f�ll stock�ngs f�rst appears �n Clement Moore’s poem “The N�ght before Chr�stmas” �n 1823. Moore’s work was part of a movement to establ�sh a trad�t�onal hol�day based loosely on customs current �n Germany, where Amer�cans bel�eved fam�ly l�fe was better apprec�ated.

The fat, jolly, fur-clad santa Amer�cans know �s largely the creat�on of �llustrator Thomas Nash �n the 1860s. department store santas became com-mon at about the same t�me, and now no shopp�ng venue �s complete w�th-out a jolly old elf. A sk�lled santa can make up to $18,000 �n the s�x weeks between Thanksg�v�ng and Chr�stmas. so popular �s v�s�t�ng santa that the Herald square Macy’s alone gets 1,000 v�s�tors per hour. The mag�c may be more �n the eyes of the parents than the ch�ldren, though: one bus�ness pro-fessor observed that 82 percent of the ch�ldren �n one l�ne to see santa seemed bored. It �s est�mated that a full 20 percent of the people cl�mb�ng on santa’s lap are adults.14

Bel�ev�ng �n santa Claus �s one of the benchmarks of ch�ldl�ke �nnocence; learn�ng that there are no fly�ng re�ndeer, and that the presents come from parents, �s an �mportant, �f not traumat�c, r�te of passage. santa �s also the s�gn of the so-called wars over Chr�stmas, �n wh�ch some Chr�st�ans worry that greed for g�fts, and concern over the sens�t�v�t�es of the non-Chr�st�an m�nor�ty, has taken the Chr�st out of Chr�stmas. In 2005, the uproar was over wal-Mart’s dec�s�on that clerks should say happy holidays! �nstead of merry Christmas! By 2006, wal-Mart was back to merry Christmas! Another frequent controversy �s whether government agenc�es can sponsor nat�v�ty scenes or other d�splays of Chr�st�an symbols; the answer �s usually no.15


Chr�stmas �s so pervas�ve that, as one rabb� noted, “Th�s month of de-cember �s a rather d�ff�cult t�me for Jews.”16 Amer�can Jews have transformed Hanukah, the fest�val of l�ghts that falls �n december, from a m�nor legend to an e�ght-day extravaganza of part�es and g�fts, complete w�th �ts own s�lver-and-blue g�ft wrap. (In sp�r�tual terms, Hanukah �s far less �mportant than yom K�ppur, the day of atonement, and rosh Hashanah, the Jew�sh new year, both of wh�ch fall between Labor day and Halloween.)

Th�s sh�ft �n the �mportance of Hanukah br�ngs �ts own controvers�es about how much Jews should ass�m�late w�th the Chr�st�an major�ty. It w�ll be �n-terest�ng to see what happens �f the H�ndu populat�on of the Un�ted states cont�nues to double each decade s�nce the major H�ndu fest�vals also cluster �n the spr�ng and autumn. w�ll some lesser H�ndu legend ga�n prom�nence at m�dw�nter? even more compl�cated �s the s�tuat�on w�th Musl�ms, the second largest non-Chr�st�an rel�g�on �n the Un�ted states, as the monthlong dayt�me fast of ramadan falls dur�ng the hol�day season at least every 12 years.

Attach�ng a hol�day to Chr�stmas has worked for Kwanzaa, the Afr�can Amer�can celebrat�on �nvented by ron Karenga �n 1966. Celebrated the week after Chr�stmas, Kwanzaa devotes one day to each of the values of un�ty, self-determ�nat�on, collect�ve respons�b�l�ty, cooperat�ve econom�cs, purpose,

santa Claus prepares before mak�ng an appearance �n december. © AP Photo/Nevada Appeal, Brad Horn.


creat�v�ty, and fa�th. As the fest�val grows �n popular�ty, some leaders worry that commerc�al�sm �s water�ng down �ts or�g�nal mean�ng of ethn�c pr�de and self-respect.17

Perhaps the most potent rebell�on aga�nst Chr�stmas, surpass�ng even Ad-buster’s Buy Noth�ng day on Black Fr�day, �s Fest�vus, “the fest�val for the rest of us,” �nvented by the h�t telev�s�on comedy Seinfeld. The hallmarks of Fest�vus are erect�ng a bare Fest�vus pole �nstead of a Chr�stmas tree, a�r�ng gr�evances, and perform�ng feats of strength. As qu�ckly as �t caught on, the hol�day became commerc�al�zed: Ben and Jerry’s launched a Fest�vus-themed �ce cream flavor �n 2000, and by 2006, manufacturers were warr�ng over who produced the authent�c Fest�vus pole.18

The last of the or�g�nal four hol�days �s New year’s day, or the morn�ng after a New year’s eve party that �s supposed to �nclude toast�ng the str�ke of m�dn�ght w�th champagne, k�ss�ng, and s�ng�ng “Auld Lang syne.” once day breaks, about 40 percent of Amer�cans make New year’s resolut�ons, most often to stop smok�ng, lose we�ght, and “be a better person.” A wTVU/Mar�st College poll found that at the end of 2005, 63 percent of those surveyed had kept the�r resolut�ons, though men were more l�kely than women to cla�m success.19

A member of s�stahs support-�ng s�stahs l�ghts the candle of Uj�ma, mean�ng “collect�ve work and respons�b�l�ty,” dur-�ng a Kwanzaa celebrat�on. © AP Photo/The Holland sent�-nel, J. r. Valderas.


Add�t�onal federal hol�days were added to the calendar gradually, then gen-erally moved to Mondays w�th the Un�form Monday Hol�day Act of 1968 (actually �mplemented �n 1972). These lengthened weekends were supposed to benef�t reta�lers, but �t �s doubtful that anyone pred�cted how thoroughly barga�n shopp�ng and m�n�vacat�ons would d�stract attent�on from the people be�ng honored.

Many of these hol�days were somewhat controvers�al �n the�r or�g�ns. For �nstance, Memor�al day (or�g�nally decorat�on day) started �n 1866 as a way to honor Un�on sold�ers �n the recent C�v�l war. The south had �ts own Confederate Memor�al day, most often celebrated on Apr�l 26. It has been noted that Afr�can Amer�cans observed federal Memor�al day celebrat�ons, wh�le wh�tes �n the south st�ll preferred Confederate Memo-r�al day.20 Now settled on the last Monday �n May, Memor�al day may be more recogn�zed as an excellent weekend for wedd�ngs than as a day of remembrance.

Memor�al day �s also often confused w�th Veterans day, wh�ch honors all who fought, �nclud�ng the l�v�ng. L�ke Memor�al day, Veterans day started w�th a d�fferent name, Arm�st�ce day, and a sl�ghtly d�fferent purpose: to honor those who fought �n world war I, then bel�eved to be the war to end all wars. After world war II, the day became a more general celebrat�on for veterans. of the approx�mately 24.5 m�ll�on l�v�ng veterans �n the Un�ted states, about one-th�rd fought �n world war II, wh�le 15 percent fought �n V�etnam.21 Although Veterans day was among the Monday hol�days def�ned �n 1968, �t has s�nce returned to �ts or�g�nal date of November 11. Appropr�-ate act�v�t�es for both Memor�al day and Veterans day �nclude decorat�ng the graves of dead sold�ers.

Labor day, ass�gned to the f�rst Monday �n september, developed �n the 1880s as a symbol�c day of rest for the work�ngman. At the t�me, rest was controvers�al: even sundays were commonly workdays. As late as 1910, labor leaders and m�n�sters were lobby�ng for an e�ght-hour workday and a s�x-day workweek. w�th�n the next decade, labor leaders adopted Labor day as an occas�on for speeches promot�ng un�on�zat�on. workers must have ach�eved some rest; by the 1930s, Labor day had become a b�g day for tr�ps to the beach.22

wh�le Memor�al day has the Indy 500 race, Labor day has the Muscular dystrophy Assoc�at�on telethon, hosted by Jerry Lew�s s�nce 1966. Perhaps the temptat�on to stay parked �n front of the telev�s�on on a beaut�ful fall day has someth�ng to do w�th the real�ty that school trad�t�onally starts on the day after Labor day. The start of the school year assumes some of the character of a hol�day �n �ts own r�ght, w�th the average fam�ly spend�ng over $500 �n 2006, mostly on cloth�ng and electron�cs.23


Also born �n the 1880s was the far less controvers�al hol�day honor�ng the b�rthday of George wash�ngton. Now celebrated on the th�rd Monday of January and popularly bel�eved to be a Pres�dents’ day that also honors Abraham L�ncoln, the hol�day rema�ns off�c�ally ded�cated to wash�ngton alone. However, enthus�asm for celebrat�ng wash�ngton’s leadersh�p has waned substant�ally s�nce 1855, when New yorkers turned out for a parade w�th m�l�tary bands and floats, plus speeches, songs, and f�reworks. By the 1980s, the Manhattan parade had been reduced to a paroch�al school f�fe-and-drum corps and the Kn�ghts of Columbus, and most celebrat�ng was done at Herald square department stores.24

Mart�n Luther K�ng day, the newest of federal hol�days, demonstrates how a hol�day �s pulled two ways. Celebrated on the th�rd Monday �n January, the day was added to the federal calendar �n 1986 to �nclude an Afr�can Amer�can �n the off�c�al pantheon of Amer�can heroes. The day was not observed �n all 50 states unt�l 2000, when New Hampsh�re renamed �ts n�ne-year-old C�v�l r�ghts day. More pred�ctably, the last ser�ous hold out had been south Caro-l�na, wh�ch balanced honors for the c�v�l r�ghts leader by add�ng Confederate Memor�al day to �ts off�c�al state calendar.25

other than publ�c read�ngs of K�ng’s famous “I Have a dream” speech, there �s not yet consensus on how to celebrate the hol�day. some advocate a nat�onal day of commun�ty serv�ce, descr�bed as “a day on, not a day off.” It

People march �n honor of Mart�n Luther K�ng Jr. © AP Photo/The Fresno Bee, Chr�st�an Parley.


�s st�ll controvers�al when a nat�onal cha�n such as Cather�ne’s, a store offer-�ng plus-s�zed women’s cloth�ng, holds a Mart�n Luther K�ng day sale. Is the cha�n tr�v�al�z�ng the struggle for c�v�l r�ghts, or �s �t recogn�z�ng that Afr�can Amer�cans have d�sposable �ncome and corporate careers? Meanwh�le, one small Flor�da town d�scovered �t could �mprove turnout for the day’s c�v�c events by add�ng floats, arts and crafts, and food booths—just l�ke other com-mun�ty fest�vals.26

w�th floats and craft booths, Mart�n Luther K�ng day may be do�ng bet-ter than Columbus day, arguably a fa�lure among federal hol�days. From �ts or�g�ns �n 1869 �n san Franc�sco, Columbus day was �ntended to celebrate Ital�an her�tage along w�th the european d�scovery of Amer�ca. The day was added to the off�c�al federal calendar �n 1937. s�nce then, observance has lagged. workplaces stay open; few trad�t�ons are assoc�ated w�th the day; the Nat�onal reta�l Federat�on does not bother to track spend�ng. H�span�cs have redef�ned the day as día de la raza, a celebrat�on of H�span�c her�tage, wh�le south dakota celebrates Nat�ve Amer�can day.

Th�s amb�guous status �s a comedown from the hol�day’s heyday near the end of the n�neteenth century. In 1892, Columbus day was one of the hol�-days deemed appropr�ate for c�v�c pageants: Br�dgeport, Connect�cut’s, pag-eant �ncluded a reenactment of the land�ng of the santa Mar�a, �n wh�ch locals dressed as sa�lors and pr�ests, and Ind�ans ded�cated the New england coast to spa�n. when Columbus day f�rst became a state hol�day �n New york �n 1909, celebrat�ons �ncluded an 80,000-watcher parade up F�fth Avenue, w�th 300 Ital�an Amer�can soc�et�es part�c�pat�ng. w�th día de la raza celebrat�ons hav�ng taken over the F�fth Avenue parade route and Nat�ve Amer�can com-mun�t�es re�nvent�ng the pageant, Columbus day seems to be mutat�ng �nto a new ethn�c hol�day.27

día de la raza ra�ses the quest�on of how an ethn�c celebrat�on becomes a popular hol�day. represent�ng the her�tage of a large number of Amer�-cans helps: st. Patr�ck’s day, celebrated on March 17 s�nce 1762, has a natural const�tuency among the 34.7 m�ll�on Amer�cans who cla�m Ir�sh ancestry—more than quadruple the populat�on of Ireland. The day calls for eat�ng corned beef and cabbage (an Amer�can var�ant of a trad�t�onal Ir�sh d�sh), v�s�t�ng Ir�sh pubs, and (�n recent years) dr�nk�ng green beer; pa-rades are also popular. In the m�d-1990s, part�c�pat�on �n New york C�ty’s st. Patr�ck’s day parade was a matter of d�spute as the controvers�al Ir�sh nat�onal�st organ�zat�on s�nn Fe�n was allowed to part�c�pate, wh�le gay and lesb�an groups were not.28

s�m�larly, C�nco de Mayo can cla�m support from the fastest grow�ng ethn�c group �n the Un�ted states: H�span�cs. The day commemorates the 1862 Battle of Puebla, when an outnumbered Mex�can army defeated French


forces. An off�c�al hol�day �n Mex�co, the celebrat�on of C�nco de Mayo f�rst became popular �n states along the Mex�can border. L�ke st. Patr�ck’s day, C�nco de Mayo has become a bonanza for restaurants and bars; even gr�ngos can apprec�ate barga�n cerveza.29

on the other hand, Ir�sh and Mex�can are only the fourth and s�xth most frequently cla�med ancestr�es among Amer�cans. The others �n the top 10 are German, Afr�can Amer�can, engl�sh, just pla�n Amer�can, Ital�an, Pol�sh, French, and Amer�can Ind�an. wh�le Ital�an Amer�cans have Columbus day and Afr�can Amer�cans have Mart�n Luther K�ng day, celebrat�ons of the other dom�nant ethn�c�t�es rema�n local: an oktoberfest here, a Bast�lle day there.

Meanwh�le, an ethn�c�ty that represents less than 1 percent of the populat�on puts on one of the b�ggest part�es on the west Coast: Ch�nese New year �n san Franc�sco. The celebrat�on, dat�ng to the 1860s and held on the lunar New year �n February or early March, r�vals New year events �n Ch�na and �s tele-v�sed worldw�de. The event �s so large that southwest A�rl�nes now sponsors �t. And, l�ke the st. Patr�ck’s day parade �n New york, who �s �n and who �s out �s a battlef�eld of �dent�ty. In 2006, members of Falun Gong, a movement banned �n the People’s republ�c of Ch�na, were barred from part�c�pat�ng because they had allegedly broken rules by pass�ng out l�terature dur�ng the 2004 event.30

Ch�ldren from Ballet Folclor�co Quetzalcoatl �n New york celebrate C�nco de Mayo w�th a trad�t�onal dance. © AP Photo/T�na F�neberg.


Touch�ng a chord �n many l�ves may be why some fest�vals grow �nto hol�-days. It �s hard to oppose honor�ng mother and father, so there are huge const�tuenc�es for celebrat�ng Mother’s day, on the second sunday �n May, and Father’s day, on the th�rd sunday �n June. Both hol�days were products of l�nger�ng V�ctor�an sent�mental�ty. Anna Jarv�s of Grafton, west V�rg�n�a, spearheaded Mother’s day �n 1908 to honor her late mother. The same year, Grace Golden Clayton of Fa�rmont, west V�rg�n�a, �ntroduced a day to honor fathers k�lled �n a m�n�ng acc�dent; two years later, sonora smart dodd of spokane, wash�ngton, held an event to honor her father’s devo-t�on as a s�ngle parent. dodd aggress�vely promoted the event, wh�ch was recogn�zed by Congress �n 1956 and became a permanent hol�day �n 1972.31 Mother’s day had been on the calendar s�nce 1914.

Mother’s day el�c�ts sl�ghtly more spend�ng than Valent�ne’s day, at an average of $122 per person. Accord�ng to the Nat�onal reta�l Federat�on, 85 percent of buyers send greet�ng cards, 65 percent send flowers, and 32 percent buy g�ft cards. The enormous greet�ng card spend�ng �s st�ll just 4 percent of annual sales, but Mother’s day �s def�n�tely the year’s bus�est day for phone calls. The trad�t�on most f�rmly assoc�ated w�th the day �s wear�ng a carnat�on: red for a l�v�ng mother and wh�te for a deceased one. However, th�s pract�ce �s an evolut�on from the or�g�nal pract�ce of wear�ng or d�splay-�ng wh�te carnat�ons to honor all mothers, l�v�ng or dead.32

Father’s day packs nowhere near the emot�onal wallop of Mother’s day. only about 100 m�ll�on cards are sent for Father’s day, versus 150 m�ll�on for Mother’s day. Hallmark and Amer�can Greet�ngs agree that funny cards outsell sent�mental ones. wh�le the Nat�onal reta�l Federat�on mourns that spend�ng �s about 20 percent lower than for Mother’s day, the Nat�onal restaurant Federat�on notes that Father’s day �s the fourth b�ggest day of the year for d�n�ng out. (The others, �n reverse order, are Valent�ne’s day, New year’s eve, and Mother’s day.)33

A th�rd hol�day devoted to sent�ment, st. Valent�ne’s day on February 14, has a cloud�er h�story. The sa�nt’s day was establ�shed �n 496 as a celebrat�on of h�s martyrdom more than 200 years earl�er. Not unt�l 1493 d�d the leg-end of Valent�ne help�ng persecuted lovers appear. why a roman Cathol�c sa�nt’s day ga�ned popular appeal �n 1840s Amer�ca—a t�me of w�despread prejud�ce aga�nst roman Cathol�cs—�s unclear. However, �t �s known that mass-produced Valent�ne cards found a market as early as 1847, when es-ther Howland of worcester, Massachusetts, started sell�ng lacy, sent�mental confect�ons.34

Valent�ne’s day rema�ns the second largest hol�day for greet�ng card sales, after Chr�stmas, w�th 190 m�ll�on cards sold. About 25 percent of these cards are humorous, though 45 percent of men and 34 percent of women cla�m


to prefer humorous cards. In general, Valent�ne’s day �s the second b�ggest reta�l hol�day after Chr�stmas, the stars of spend�ng be�ng chocolate, roses, jewelry, and d�nners out. The Nat�onal Confect�oners Assoc�at�on rates Val-ent�ne’s day as fourth among hol�days (Halloween �s b�gger), w�th about 36 m�ll�on heart-shaped boxes of candy sold. one-th�rd of Amer�cans send flowers, amount�ng to 180 m�ll�on roses and g�v�ng flor�sts a reason to ra�se pr�ces up to 30 percent �n the pr�or week. Among barga�n-seek�ng wal-Mart shoppers, at least, romance burns most br�ghtly �n M�ss�ss�pp� (th�rd �n sales of d�amonds, f�rst �n chocolates, and f�fth �n roses) and f�zzles �n Vermont.35

Th�s romant�c hol�day �s also reputedly the best t�me of year to catch lovers cheat�ng. No wonder one poll found that 1 �n 10 adults under age 25 feels “depressed, �nsecure, �nadequate, or unwanted” on the day. The same poll determ�ned that one-th�rd of women feel �nd�fferent toward the hol�day and that two-f�fths of s�ngle people feel �nd�fferent or negat�ve. reta�lers are rush-�ng to serve th�s market of the d�saffected. In 2007, Alto�ds opened Ant�-V day shops �n New york, Ch�cago, and M�am�, wh�le greet�ng card manufac-turers �ntroduced ant�–Valent�ne’s day l�nes.36

The death of sent�mental�ty �s ev�dent �n the sudden r�se of Halloween. The Nat�onal reta�l Federat�on calls �t the s�xth largest hol�day for reta�l spend-�ng, worth about $5 b�ll�on �n 2006, w�th $1.8 b�ll�on spent on costumes alone. Party C�ty says �t �s the second largest hol�day for decorat�ng, tra�l�ng only Chr�stmas, thanks to the popular�ty of plast�c bats and faux gravestones. Two-th�rds of all Amer�cans attend Halloween part�es, w�th part�c�pat�on reach�ng 85 percent among 18- to 24-year-olds.37

Th�s �s not Halloween’s f�rst appearance as a fest�val pr�mar�ly for adults. In the 1920s, Halloween became a styl�sh t�me for h�gh soc�ety galas, �nclud-�ng one �n 1933 that followed the f�rst known scavenger hunt party among New york’s smart set.38 The custom of tr�ck-or-treat�ng at Halloween d�d not become commonplace unt�l the 1940s. w�th w�despread tr�ck-or-treat�ng came rumors of Halloween treats contam�nated w�th razors, po�son, or Lsd. However, the Urban Legends reference can f�nd no documented �nstance of ta�nted food be�ng g�ven to ch�ldren by non–fam�ly members.39

The popular�ty of Halloween has also made �t more controvers�al. Al-though the día de los Muertos has a leg�t�mate h�story as a sp�r�tual precursor to All sa�nt’s day on November 1, some evangel�cal Chr�st�ans call Hal-loween ant�-Chr�st�an because �t shares the calendar w�th the pagan fest�val of samha�n. Pagans, �n turn, cla�m the hol�day �s the�rs and always has been. However, �t �s unl�kely that the fam�l�ar Amer�can celebrat�on w�th costumes, jack-o’-lanterns, and tr�ck-or-treat�ng descends from e�ther of these trad�-t�ons. one of the earl�est ment�ons �n the New York Times appears �n 1879, �n an art�cle that acqua�nts the reader w�th the qua�nt fortune-tell�ng cus-


toms of All Hallows’ eve �n england. Just three years earl�er, the Times had compla�ned that Halloween trad�t�ons were ent�rely forgotten �n the Un�ted states.40 As w�th Chr�stmas, current trad�t�ons are probably �nvent�ons, based only loosely on european customs.

The other popular hol�day for dress�ng up and lett�ng down �nh�b�t�ons �s Mard� Gras, the Fat Tuesday that precedes the start of Lent, wh�ch �n turn leads to easter. In New orleans, the center of Mard� Gras fun, mult�ple pa-rades full of elaborate floats, sponsored by soc�al clubs, or krewes, w�th names l�ke Momus and Comus, have been part of the trad�t�onal celebrat�on s�nce before the C�v�l war; women l�ft�ng the�r sh�rts for Girls Gone Wild v�deos are a newer tw�st on the revelry. wh�le New orleans saw only 350,000 v�s�tors �n 2006, the year after Hurr�cane Katr�na devastated the c�ty, organ�zers �n 2007 hope for a return to numbers closer to 2005s 1.4 m�ll�on.41

Lent—a per�od of prayer, fast�ng, and alms g�v�ng before easter—would seem to be the last event that could attract reta�l sales. The major Jew�sh hol�day of Passover, wh�ch occurs near easter and commemorates the Jew�sh people’s fl�ght from slavery �n egypt �nto the prom�sed land of Israel, at least requ�res unleavened foods that are kosher for Passover. However, the roman Cathol�c requ�rement to eat no meat on Lenten Fr�days makes th�s the season for restaurants to promote the�r f�sh menus. KFC has gone so far as to request that the Pope bless �ts new f�sh sandw�ch.42

Unl�ke Hanukah, Passover has not been transformed by prox�m�ty to a major Chr�st�an hol�day: �t rema�ns an �mportant rel�g�ous fest�val, but adver-t�s�ng does not show the easter Bunny show�ng up for the seder. Kosher gro-cery stores currently do about 45 percent of the�r annual bus�ness at Passover (l�ke easter, �t �s a hol�day that br�ngs out less observant bel�evers), though they are fac�ng �ncreased compet�t�on from ma�nstream grocery stores try�ng to reach a Jew�sh market. For those who dread clean�ng every corner of the house to pur�fy �t (or see�ng the�r relat�ves at the r�tual d�nner), resorts now offer vacat�on packages that prom�se to comply w�th the complex d�etary rules of the season.43

Meanwh�le, Chr�st�ans celebrate easter by buy�ng $2 b�ll�on �n candy, �n-clud�ng 1 b�ll�on Peeps marshmallow ch�cks and bunn�es, 16 b�ll�on jelly beans, and 90 b�ll�on chocolate rabb�ts (most of wh�ch w�ll have the�r ears eaten f�rst).44 The candy goes �nto an easter basket, the trad�t�onal reward to ch�ldren for f�nd�ng decorated eggs that the�r parents have h�dden on behalf of the easter Bunny. Although �t �s now popular to trace the easter Bunny to pagan customs, the rabb�t and the egg hunt were popular�zed �n Amer�ca �n the m�d-n�neteenth century as part of a fash�on for fam�ly-focused German customs. These part�cular customs f�rst appear �n German sources after the Protestant reformat�on.


The connect�on between Jesus and colored eggs rema�ns so unclear that some c�t�es have renamed the�r annual egg hunts to remove references to eas-ter, though the juxtapos�t�on of egg hunt, church serv�ce, and elaborate lun-cheon rema�ns customary. of the major hol�days, easter has the least f�rmly establ�shed menu, though sp�ral-cut hams outpace candy �n dollars spent. It �s also a hol�day that ga�ns appeal from occurr�ng var�ously from late March to late �n Apr�l, so that �t becomes an occas�on for show�ng off new spr�ng clothes.45

The most cloth�ng-or�ented celebrat�on �s ne�ther easter nor even Hal-loween. on few occas�ons w�ll a typ�cal woman spend as much on a dress as she does for her wedd�ng gown, w�th an average pr�ce of over $1,000. Post–world war II prosper�ty started wedd�ngs’ growth to a personal�zed fest�val far larger than Chr�stmas and requ�r�ng over a year to plan. each year, almost 2.3 m�ll�on Amer�can couples plan a formal wedd�ng, at an average cost of $26,800, result�ng �n an �ndustry worth $7.9 b�ll�on.46 wh�le a wh�te gown and ve�l for the br�de rema�n standard, the wedd�ng ceremony has become more �nd�v�dual�zed and complex, w�th couples wr�t�ng the�r own vows, l�ght�ng a un�ty candle to honor the�r fam�l�es, ask�ng the�r attendants to read poems or s�ng, and offer�ng fam�ly medall�ons to ch�ldren from ear-l�er marr�ages. A large wedd�ng can expand to f�ll the ent�re weekend, w�th a br�desma�ds’ lunch, rehearsal d�nner, and bachelor party before the b�g day, a formal recept�on and dance follow�ng the ceremony, and a present-open�ng brunch on the day after.

other r�tes of passage have exh�b�ted the same expans�on. one Boston wr�ter commented that lament�ng mater�al�sm �s as much a Jew�sh bar m�tz-vah trad�t�on as hold�ng a lav�sh party after the rel�g�ous ceremony. Both the ceremony, �n wh�ch a boy of about 13 �s adm�tted to manhood and reads from holy scr�pture �n front of the synagogue, and the subsequent party d�d not become w�despread �n the Un�ted states unt�l the 1970s. Pecul�arly, for a r�tual that was meant to apply only to males, the popular�ty of the bar m�tz-vah may have �ncreased as Jew�sh fem�n�sts promoted a parallel ceremony for the�r daughters.47

The Chr�st�an ceremony of conf�rmat�on, held by roman Cathol�cs at about the same age as the bar m�tzvah, rece�ves a far less lav�sh treatment. The closest equ�valent �s the H�span�c quinceañera, or 15th-b�rthday celebra-t�on, wh�ch calls for elaborate ball gowns, a mass, and a dance. w�th a typ�-cal cost between $5,000 and $10,000, the “qu�nce” �s not qu�te as grand as a wedd�ng. However, the s�m�lar�ty to wedd�ngs �s obv�ous to mass-reta�ler dav�d’s Br�dal, wh�ch markets quinceañera gowns; and just as �t �s poss�ble to have a comb�ned wedd�ng and honeymoon at an exot�c locat�on, �t �s poss�ble to celebrate the quinceañera on a seven-day cru�se. There �s even a magaz�ne


for g�rls plann�ng the�r qu�nces. Although the party has a long h�story �n Lat�n Amer�ca, �t became w�dely popular �n the Un�ted states only w�th a larger cultural sh�ft to embrac�ng ethn�c trad�t�ons, rather than attempt�ng to Amer�can�ze those r�tuals away.48

The 1990s also saw the growth of the k�dd�e b�rthday party from a cake, balloons, and p�n the ta�l on the donkey to extravaganzas w�th clowns, rented zoo an�mals, elaborate favors, and guest l�sts of 50 or more. Parents �n the san Franc�sco Bay area call elaborate b�rthday part�es “a fundamental r�te of passage.” Meanwh�le, �n M�nnesota, the parents beh�nd B�rthdays w�thout Pressure are try�ng to “launch a local and nat�onal conversat�on” about how ch�ldren’s part�es are out of control.49

leisure

self-�ndulgence may have become the theme of today’s le�sure act�v�t�es, compared to past generat�ons’ �nterest �n commun�ty part�c�pat�on and useful hobb�es. In h�s w�dely d�scussed best seller Bowling Alone, Harvard pol�t�cal sc�ent�st robert Putnam lamented how Amer�cans g�ve less t�me to c�v�c ac-t�v�sm, church, clubs, and even play�ng br�dge or p�nochle. In fa�rness, card games rema�n a monthly act�v�ty for about 3.9 percent of Amer�cans, though the survey does not d�sclose whether the game was sol�ta�re. Certa�nly the two most popular le�sure past�mes—d�n�ng out and watch�ng telev�s�on—make no one’s l�st of character-bu�ld�ng act�v�t�es.50

Bu�ld�ng character has been a just�f�cat�on for play as far back as the sev-enteenth century. Pur�tan cler�cs recommended sports that could refresh the sp�r�t but warned aga�nst games that m�ght lead to gambl�ng, dr�nk�ng, and �dleness. of the act�v�t�es that at least 1.5 percent of Amer�cans enjoy once a month, few would have won approval �n colon�al salem. Along w�th d�n-�ng out and play�ng cards, the top act�v�t�es �nclude enterta�n�ng at home, barbecu�ng, bak�ng, cook�ng, go�ng to bars, go�ng to the beach, go�ng to l�ve theater, play�ng board games, photography, scrapbook�ng, and read�ng books. Just over a century ago, a s�m�lar propens�ty for sedentary act�v�t�es led Theodore roosevelt to urge Amer�cans to take up football and b�g game hunt�ng to “develop the rougher, manl�er tra�ts of the�r character.”51

Amer�cans took up football—from the stands. Football’s popular�ty as a spectator sport �s almost unr�valed. From 1990 to 2005, attendance at pro-fess�onal and college football games grew 23 percent, push�ng �t ahead of �ts trad�t�onal r�vals, baseball and basketball. Football �s the most watched sport on telev�s�on, mak�ng the average profess�onal team worth $898 m�ll�on, compared to just $376 m�ll�on for the average baseball team and $353 m�l-l�on for the average basketball team. Thanks to �ts popular�ty and �ts large


squads, football �s also the men’s college sport that f�elds the most players. However, tackle football and �ts gentler var�ant, touch football, rank only 25 and 24 among the most popular part�c�pat�on sports among Amer�cans as a whole, and more than two-th�rds of the players are college-age or younger. By the t�me Amer�cans get �nto the�r f�ft�es, they overwhelm�ngly prefer walk-�ng, f�sh�ng, sw�mm�ng, and golf.52

each of the b�g three sports represents a d�st�nct aspect of Amer�can char-acter. Baseball’s hotdogs and hot July n�ghts, w�th the game played under the sky �n an old-style br�ck stad�um and on real grass, summons nostalg�a for a s�mpler, qu�eter, slower t�me—appropr�ate for a sport that evolved from cr�cket before the C�v�l war. Basketball, wh�ch was �nvented for play �n the ghettos of Ch�cago �n 1891, expresses the l�ghtn�ng-fast pace of urban l�fe and the egal�tar�an �deals of a nat�on of �mm�grants. And football, wh�ch rose to dom�nate homecom�ng games �n the 1920s and became a telev�-s�on phenomenon �n the 1960s, ep�tom�zes the Un�ted states’ movement �nto be�ng a superpower. By the t�me Joe Namath led the New york Jets to v�ctory �n the th�rd super Bowl �n 1969, Pres�dent N�xon was talk�ng foot-ball �n campa�gn speeches to the s�lent major�ty as part of h�s message that Amer�ca should be number one.53

The dr�ve to be number one has resulted �n concerns about brutal play ever s�nce football developed from rugby �n Ivy League colleges �n the 1870s. even Theodore roosevelt called for reforms, a movement that led �n 1905 to the found�ng of the organ�zat�on that �s now the Nat�onal Colleg�ate Athlet�c Assoc�at�on (NCAA). College play has also suffered under cr�t�c�sm that the nat�onal t�tle �s myth�cal or arb�trary because the teams w�th the top records are not p�tted aga�nst one another �n a s�ngle champ�onsh�p game, thanks to a system of rank�ng teams based on votes. Mod�f�cat�ons to the bowl system, wh�ch has matched h�ghly regarded teams on New year’s day s�nce the f�rst rose Bowl �n 1902, have resulted �n a champ�onsh�p game played on the second weekend �n January, but there are st�ll cr�t�c�sms that top teams are excluded.

In profess�onal football, super�or�ty �s more clear-cut. Be�ng number one means w�nn�ng the super Bowl, �n wh�ch the w�nners of the Nat�onal Football Conference and Amer�can Football Conference face off. super Bowl sunday, �n late January or early February, has become a de facto nat�onal hol�day. The only b�gger day for food consumpt�on �s Thanksg�v�ng; the only program to beat the 2006 super Bowl for total v�ewers �s the 1983 f�nale of M*A*S*H. Forbes calls the super Bowl the most valuable brand �n the Un�ted states, poss�bly because people tune �n as much for the �nnovat�ve commerc�als as for the play. A 30-second commerc�al spot cost $2.6 m�ll�on �n 2007.54 The major advert�ser �s usually Anheuser-Busch, an appropr�ate cho�ce for a day


when trad�t�onal party menus feature beer, ch�cken w�ngs, p�zza, ch�ps, and guacamole.

That water systems break dur�ng halft�me as everyone flushes s�multane-ously �s an urban legend.55 Producers of the halft�me show do the�r utmost to hold v�ewers. s�nce 1992, march�ng bands have been supplanted by celebr�t�es such as Glor�a estefan, d�ana ross, stev�e wonder, Paul McCartney, Br�tney spears, the roll�ng stones, Pr�nce, and (most �nfamously) Just�n T�mberlake and Janet Jackson. Jackson’s so-called wardrobe malfunct�on, when T�m-berlake’s playful tug on her bust�er revealed her ent�re breast, resonated so strongly �n popular culture that �t led the Federal Commun�cat�ons Comm�s-s�on to crack down on nud�ty �n soap operas. The �nc�dent also resulted �n a $550,000 f�ne for CBs, the network that broadcast the 2004 super Bowl.56

No one worr�es about excess flush�ng dur�ng Major League Baseball’s world ser�es. A best-of-seven-game ser�es s�mply does not generate the same pass�on as an all-or-noth�ng contest, and the telev�s�on rat�ngs show �t. s�nce the early 1990s, v�ewers have slumped from an average of about 20 m�ll�on households to fewer than 10 m�ll�on households. The 2004 ser�es between the Boston red sox and the st. Lou�s Card�nals temporar�ly reversed the trend, but the 2005 and 2006 ser�es set new record lows.57

The secret �s that watch�ng baseball �s less a past�me than a l�festyle. one type of hardcore fan �s devoted to sabremetr�cs, the sc�ence of stat�st�cal anal-ys�s of at-bats, home runs, and p�tch count. Th�s �nterest �n numbers means that wh�le h�tt�ng a game-w�nn�ng home run at the bottom of the n�nth �nn�ng, w�th the bases loaded and two outs, will earn a player momentary glory, the last�ng heroes are the ones who post numer�c records such as Hank Aaron (most home runs over h�s ent�re career, at 755) and Cy young (most career w�ns as a p�tcher, at 511). The true sabremetr�c�an �s equally del�ghted by more esoter�c records, such as the left-handed h�tter whose ground balls led to the most double plays �n a s�ngle season (Ben Gr�eve of the oakland A’s).58

A second type of fan attends m�nor league games, somet�mes w�th so much enthus�asm that a m�nor league team l�ke the durham Bulls can draw over 300,000 fans each year and f�ll a snazzy new ballpark. A th�rd type of fan turns out, 2.8 m�ll�on strong, for spr�ng tra�n�ng �n Flor�da and Ar�zona, where the more �nt�mate sett�ng makes �t eas�er to get autographs from favor-�te players. some fans fear that as Cactus league stad�ums ramp up conces-s�ons and events to attract more spectators, t�cket pr�ces w�ll skyrocket, and the sense of a spec�al t�me outs�de the profess�onal season w�ll collapse.59

A fourth type of fan cher�shes the ballparks for the�r own sake, poss�bly mak�ng a project of see�ng a game at every major and m�nor league ballpark. even casual fans love ballparks: Amer�cans’ 150 favor�te bu�ld�ngs �nclude


four trad�t�onal-style ballparks (wr�gley F�eld, number 31; the or�g�nal yan-kee stad�um, number 84; retro-style AT&T Park �n san Franc�sco, number 104; and Fenway Park, number 113), but just one mult�purpose sports center (the Astrodome, number 134).60

wh�le baseball’s grass and sunsh�ne g�ve �t a suburban feel even �n the m�ddle of a c�ty, basketball �s relentlessly urban, from �ts asphalt courts to �ts or�g�ns as a low-cost way to keep work�ng-class youth out of trouble. Play�ng baseball �s part of an �dyll�c ch�ldhood, w�th 2.6 m�ll�on k�ds part�c�pat�ng �n L�ttle League, but the romance of p�ck-up basketball appeals more to teen-agers and adults.61 And just as Ch�cago gave b�rth to the game, �t �s also the or�g�n of the Harlem Globetrotters, the Afr�can Amer�can team that amazed Amer�cans w�th �ts stunt-f�lled exh�b�t�on play from 1927 unt�l long after basketball had been �ntegrated, even spawn�ng a saturday morn�ng cartoon �n the early 1970s.

In becom�ng a b�g-league �ndustry, basketball rema�ns the most egal�tar�an of the b�g three sports, offer�ng more opportun�t�es to Afr�can Amer�cans and women than e�ther football or baseball. Profess�onal football banned Afr�can Amer�can players from 1933 to 1946, �ntegrat�ng only when the managers of the new Los Angeles stad�um �ns�sted, and then only w�th two players. Though 65 percent of NFL players are Afr�can Amer�can, there �s some ev�-dence that Afr�can Amer�can players are shunted �nto roles that rely more on athlet�c�sm than on strategy.62

Baseball conf�ned Afr�can Amer�cans to the so-called Negro League unt�l 1947, when Jack�e rob�nson was ass�gned to the Brooklyn dodgers; as late as 1959, there was an un�ntegrated team, and not one Negro League player appears on the All Century Team of the 100 greatest players. s�nce 1975, the proport�on of Afr�can Amer�can players �n Major League Baseball has dropped from 27 to 9 percent—fewer than the proport�on of players from the dom�n�can republ�c.63 Profess�onal basketball, by contrast, perm�tted Afr�can Amer�cans to play �n 1942 and �ntegrated w�th 10 players.64

Both profess�onal football and profess�onal basketball have been good for colleges because Nat�onal Football League and Nat�onal Basketball As-soc�at�on (NBA) rules forb�d recru�t�ng players stra�ght out of h�gh school. F�eld�ng a team g�ves alumn� a chance to watch the next Joe Namath or M�chael Jordan. In turn, football and basketball open doors for young Afr�-can Amer�cans to attend prest�g�ous un�vers�t�es. Th�s s�tuat�on encompasses controvers�es: Afr�can Amer�can student-athletes graduate at a lower rate than wh�te student-athletes but at a h�gher rate than Afr�can Amer�can students as a whole, and there are quest�ons about how standards are appl�ed to male student-athletes.65 There �s no quest�on that basketball seems to �nc�te the strongest loyalt�es at the college level: wh�le profess�onal basketball has stars,


college basketball has decade-long r�valr�es. Matchups between trad�t�onal enem�es, such as duke versus the Un�vers�ty of North Carol�na, help assure that the men’s NCAA champ�onsh�p tournament, n�cknamed “March Mad-ness,” earns telev�s�on rat�ngs h�gher than the NBA champ�onsh�p.66

Basketball �s also more hosp�table to women than football or baseball. desp�te the �nfluence of T�tle Ix federal c�v�l r�ghts leg�slat�on �n d�rect-�ng resources to g�rls’ and women’s athlet�cs s�nce 1972, there �s no NCAA women’s football, and women’s profess�onal leagues struggle for recogn�t�on. Although there are four ser�ous nat�onal women’s football leagues, the only women’s game that rated a ment�on dur�ng 2007 super Bowl commentary was the L�nger�e Bowl, a novelty event featur�ng models play�ng �n shorts and sports bras.67

Baseball ga�ned a more woman-fr�endly reputat�on w�th the 1992 release of A League of Their Own, the mov�e that ra�sed awareness of the All-Amer�can G�rls’ Baseball League (AAGBL) that was popular dur�ng world war II. wh�le the AAGBL drew crowds of over 500,000 �n a good season, only �n the�r last years d�d they play true baseball, rather than a cross between baseball and softball. women are st�ll encouraged to play softball, wh�ch uses a larger ball, a shorter bat, a smaller ballpark, and mod�f�ed rules. even so, women are en-thus�ast�c about h�tt�ng a ball w�th a bat: the fourth largest number of female college players �s �n softball, beh�nd soccer, outdoor track, and �ndoor track.

wh�le basketball �s only the f�fth most popular sport among college women, �t �s the hands-down w�nner among telev�sed women’s college sports and women’s profess�onal sports. Basketball �s the “explod�ng revenue gen-erator,” dr�v�ng esPN’s $200 m�ll�on, 11-year deal to telev�se women’s college sports. The profess�onal league, the women’s Nat�onal Basketball Assoc�at�on, struggles w�th decl�n�ng �n-person attendance (though telev�-s�on v�ewersh�p of champ�onsh�p f�nals was up 33 percent from 2005 to 2006), but has at least managed to outlast the women’s Profess�onal softball League and the women’s Un�ted soccer Assoc�at�on.68

outs�de the b�g three, favor�te spectator sports and favor�te college sports d�verge. Colleges favor sports that requ�re l�ttle expens�ve equ�pment, so soc-cer, track, cross-country runn�ng, and sw�mm�ng all appear �n the top 10 NCAA sports for both men and women. of these sports, only soccer lures more than 1 percent of Amer�cans to games at least once a month. s�nce two-th�rds of soccer players are under age 18, the odds are good that many people at games are the m�ddle-class, suburban soccer moms targeted by B�ll Cl�nton �n h�s 1992 pres�dent�al campa�gn.

Track and f�eld events el�c�t w�despread fan �nterest mostly �n summer olymp�cs years, part�cularly when a telegen�c athlete sets new records, as Florence Gr�ff�th-Joyner and her s�ster-�n-law Jack�e Joyner-Kersee d�d �n the


1980s. s�m�larly, br�ng�ng attent�on to sw�mm�ng requ�res, �f not a Mark sp�tz w�th seven gold medals and seven world records �n the 1972 olymp�cs, at least a Gary Hall Jr., w�th 10 medals �n three olymp�cs, a famous fam�ly, and a penchant for strutt�ng and shadowbox�ng.

The cultural �mportance of a sport �s not, however, necessar�ly t�ed to �ts attendance. More Amer�cans regularly watch horserac�ng than �ce hockey, but hockey jo�ns football, basketball, and baseball as the sports where hav�ng a major league team �s one mark of be�ng a world-class c�ty. Hockey’s narrow aud�ence �s the result of geography: at the college level, �t �s played �n only 38 states, and most of the players come from M�nnesota or Canada. s�nce 1990, when san Jose was granted a team, profess�onal hockey has followed job m�grat�on �nto the sunbelt. C�v�c pr�de and d�splaced m�dwesterners f�ll local arenas, but hockey struggles w�th telev�s�on rat�ngs; the average hockey team �s worth only $180 m�ll�on, about half the value of a baseball or basket-ball team.69

The sport that people are actually attend�ng—and watch�ng on telev�s�on—�s the races sponsored by the Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for stock Car Auto rac�ng (NAsCAr). NAsCAr �s the second most watched sport on telev�s�on, after football, and cla�ms one-th�rd of Amer�cans as fans. About 2.5 m�ll�on Amer-

detro�t shocker’s Cheryl Ford holds up her MVP tro-phy. Bes�de her �s wNBA pres�dent donna orenda. © AP Photo/Gerald Herbert.


�cans go to the races at least once a month, even though auto rac�ng tracks are even less w�dely access�ble than hockey r�nks. For corporate sponsorsh�p, NAsCAr roars past football, w�th $1.5 b�ll�on �n sponsors.70 w�th motors alone cost�ng $40,000 each, and a team us�ng two or more motors every weekend, the need for b�g corporate money �s obv�ous. Happ�ly, NAsCAr fans have a reputat�on for be�ng �ntensely loyal to brands that sponsor cars and races.

desp�te �ts reputat�on for beer-sw�ll�ng, Confederate-flag-wav�ng, redneck ant�cs, NAsCAr owes �ts �mportance �n Amer�can sports to �ts clean-cut, fam�ly-fr�endly, Chr�st�an �mage. More women watch NAsCAr on telev�-s�on than football or baseball, and one esPN survey est�mates that 42 percent of total fans are women.71 NAsCAr �s un�que among the major sports �n that women compete alongs�de men, rather than �n separate leagues, though women dr�vers rema�n few, and none has ever won a major race nor ga�ned the fame of Indy racer dan�ca Patr�ck.

what d�st�ngu�shes Indy from NAsCAr �s the cars: Indy rac�ng uses open-wheel, rear-eng�ne cars, wh�le NAsCAr racers dr�ve stock Fords and Chevys, mod�f�ed to handle the demands of 500-m�le dr�ves at over 200 m�les per hour. The d�fference �n cars parallels the d�st�nct or�g�ns of the two sports. The most famous Indy race, the Ind�anapol�s 500, dates back to 1911 and

NAsCAr beats out baseball and basketball as one of Amer�ca’s most popular sports. Courtesy of Photofest.


has �ts or�g�ns �n owner Carl F�sher’s pass�on for des�gn�ng cars for speed. NAsCAr developed out of a popular past�me �n the prosperous years after world war II, when men would turn out at local d�rt tracks to race the fam-�ly car. Thanks to �nterest �n Patr�ck, the 2006 Indy 500 showed a respectable upsw�ng �n telev�s�on rat�ngs, though �t st�ll ate the exhaust of NAsCAr’s Coca-Cola 600.72

In �ts spectacle of hard-jawed, lacon�c heroes who harness horsepower to the�r w�ll, NAsCAr resembles an older, but equally rural, sport: rodeo. Fo-cused on demonstrat�ng sk�lls at rop�ng cattle and break�ng broncos, rodeo developed from the real chores of ranch hands �n the Amer�can west, almost d�ed w�th the clos�ng of the front�er, then was rev�ved �n the 1920s by en-trepreneurs who sensed a market for nostalg�a for a s�mpler t�me. Today, rodeo’s most popular event �s bull r�d�ng, b�lled as the world’s most danger-ous sport. women compete only �n barrel rac�ng, wh�ch �nvolves gu�d�ng a horse through t�ght turns along a preset course. rodeo �s b�g enough to play Las Vegas, wh�ch cred�ts �ts annual Nat�onal F�nals rodeo w�th br�ng�ng $50 m�ll�on to the commun�ty, compar�ng favorably to the $85 m�ll�on generated by the local NAsCAr weekend.73

NAsCAr and basketball are not the only sports to show upward mob�l�ty as events to watch. Profess�onal box�ng, a rough-edged bachelor past�me �n the late n�neteenth century, turned all-Amer�can �n the 1960s. The f�gure who looms largest �s heavywe�ght champ�on Muhammad Al�, whose popu-lar�ty surv�ved h�s convers�on to Islam and h�s refusal to be drafted �n the V�etnam war. H�s f�ght aga�nst underdog Chuck wepner �nsp�red the 1976 mov�e Rocky, wh�ch �s one of only two f�lms about Amer�can sports to w�n an oscar for Best P�cture. (The other w�nner �s a mov�e about a female boxer, Million Dollar Baby.)

desp�te h�s controvers�al bel�efs and flamboyant l�festyle, Al� became an �con of Amer�can sportsmansh�p, pav�ng the way for bad boy star athletes l�ke boxer M�ke Tyson, basketball player Charles Barkley, and sk�er Bode M�ller. In ret�rement, Al� has been heaped w�th honors, �nclud�ng sports Illustrated’s Athlete of the Century �n 1999, a Pres�dent�al Medal of Freedom �n 2005, and a Nobel Peace Pr�ze nom�nat�on �n 2007.74 In Al�’s gloves, box�ng be-came so respectable that for sheer down-market brutal�ty, �t �s necessary to turn to the profess�onal wrestl�ng man�a of the m�d-1980s, when matches that were more soap opera than sport made stars of Hulk Hogan and future M�nnesota governor Jesse Ventura.

Conversely, tenn�s and golf have tr�ed to shed the�r �mage as sports for the country club set, hop�ng to �ncrease revenues by broaden�ng the�r appeal. Among part�c�pants, the country club �mage st�cks: half of the players boast household �ncomes of $75,000 or h�gher. wh�le wealth�er Amer�cans gener-


ally part�c�pate �n sports at a h�gher rate, the most affluent fam�l�es represent only about one-th�rd of b�ll�ard players, bowlers, or h�kers.

some top players of the past, such as B�ll�e Jean K�ng, who started the f�rst women’s profess�onal tenn�s tour and was the f�rst woman to be Sports Illustrated ’s sportsperson of the year, learned to play on publ�c courts, not at the country club.75 so d�d the f�rst Afr�can Amer�can tenn�s stars, �nclud-�ng act�v�st Arthur Ashe. But the �cons of upward mob�l�ty through tenn�s are s�sters serena and Venus w�ll�ams, whose parents groomed them to be profess�onal players as a path out of the slums of Compton.

Part of the w�ll�ams’ mag�c �s how young they burst �nto the top ranks of profess�onal tenn�s, w�nn�ng the�r f�rst open tournaments �n the�r late teens. s�m�larly, a part Afr�can Amer�can ch�ld prod�gy, T�ger woods, �s cred�ted w�th broaden�ng �nterest �n golf. woods started w�nn�ng amateur matches at age e�ght and won the Masters by age 22, mak�ng h�m the youngest ever w�n-ner as well as the only Masters w�nner of Afr�can Amer�can or As�an descent.

However, �f Venus w�ll�ams’s f�ve Grand slam s�ngles t�tles, serena w�l-l�ams’s e�ght Grand slam s�ngles t�tles, or T�ger woods’s 12 major profes-s�onal golf champ�onsh�ps have �ncreased youth �nterest �n tenn�s or golf, the effect �s not dramat�c. The Nat�onal sport�ng Goods Assoc�at�on reports that between 1995 and 2005, the number of 12- to 17-year-old tenn�s players fell just 1.5 percent, compared to 11.5 percent for all ages. The number of golf players �n the same age group grew 7.4 percent, notably more than the 3 percent �n the general populat�on.76

young people from ages 7 to 17 are los�ng �nterest �n trad�t�onal team sports, w�th the poss�ble except�on of �ce hockey and soccer. even basket-ball and b�cycle r�d�ng, wh�ch �nvolve more than 7 m�ll�on teenagers each, attract fewer part�c�pants than they once d�d. The growth sports are skate-board�ng, snowboard�ng, and (only among the age 7–11 set) alp�ne sk��ng. Part�c�pat�on �n sk��ng may be the result of sk� resorts do�ng more to attract fam�l�es, but the grow�ng appeal of skateboard�ng and snowboard�ng are surely t�ed to the sports’ extreme reputat�ons. Unl�ke older sports that re-ward teamwork or sheer speed, skateboard�ng and snowboard�ng �nclude compet�t�ons that emphas�ze showmansh�p �n perform�ng complex stunts. The tens�on between speed and style was b�tterly demonstrated at the 2006 w�nter olymp�cs, when L�ndsay Jacobell�s lost her command�ng lead �n the snowboard cross event because she �nserted a tr�ck �nto a h�gh-speed run—and w�ped out.77

The not-so-young prefer gentler sports, w�th walk�ng, camp�ng, sw�mm�ng, exerc�s�ng w�th equ�pment, bowl�ng, net f�sh�ng, b�cycle r�d�ng, freshwater f�sh-�ng, b�ll�ards, and aerob�c exerc�se lead�ng the pack. desp�te numerous stud-�es show�ng that Amer�cans are gett�ng fatter, health clubs are a $15.9 b�ll�on


�ndustry, w�th over 41 m�ll�on members. The Internat�onal Health, racquet, and sportsclub Assoc�at�on est�mates that about 15 percent of Amer�cans be-long to a health club; membersh�p �ncreased 17 percent from 1995 to 2005. The number of members who work out frequently has doubled s�nce the m�d-1990s. For affluent profess�onals, the health club may be replac�ng the country club, as half of all health club members have a household �ncome greater than $75,000. Clubs keep the�r revenues up by explo�t�ng trends l�ke P�lates, the yoga-l�ke stretch�ng exerc�ses that burst �nto popular�ty �n 2002, w�th part�c�pat�on �ncreas�ng 96 percent �n a s�ngle year.78

Pass�on for sports �s not l�m�ted to trad�t�onal athletes. Athletes w�th phys�cal challenges, such as cerebral palsy, l�m�ted v�s�on, or amputat�ons, compete �n the Paralymp�cs, wh�ch follow the olymp�cs �n the same venue. Attempts to �nclude athletes w�th �ntellectual d�sab�l�t�es �n the Paralymp�cs have generated controversy; these athletes are more l�kely to compete �n the spec�al olymp�cs. F�rst developed �n 1968 �n Ch�cago by eun�ce Ken-nedy shr�ver, whose s�ster rosemary may have been �ntellectually d�sabled, the spec�al olymp�cs now serves about 550,000 athletes �n the Un�ted states, compet�ng �nternat�onally �n 30 sports. Unsurpr�s�ngly, g�ven the Amer�can bel�ef that sports bu�ld character, one of the spec�al olymp�cs’ off�c�al goals �s

U.s. snowboarder shaun wh�te won several gold medals dur�ng the 2006 w�nter olymp�c games. © AP Photo/L�onel C�ronneau.


to �ncrease respect for people w�th �ntellectual d�sab�l�t�es by d�splay�ng the�r ab�l�ty to succeed on the play�ng f�eld.79

Among ord�nary Amer�cans, the favor�te sports that do not take place at the gym tend to take place �n parks. Interest �n develop�ng parks started around 1838, when the rural cemetery movement remade the outdoors as a place to p�cn�c wh�le mus�ng on eternal values. The f�rst major nonceme-tery park project, New york’s Central Park, developed �n 1858, was w�dely cop�ed �n other major c�t�es. By the end of the n�neteenth century, Ch�cago had become the home of a popul�st dr�ve for play parks, or smaller urban parks where work�ng-class youth could work off the�r excess energy. s�nce the 1920s, play parks have been a rout�ne part of new suburban developments, only recently supplemented by h�k�ng tra�ls.

The or�g�nal �mpetus for develop�ng state and nat�onal parks was less ac-cess to recreat�on than awe of the grandeur of the untamed west. The f�rst nat�onal park was founded �n 1872 to preserve the area known as yellowstone and �ts spectacular geysers; �t was des�gnated a nat�onal park because the area crossed the boundary of wyom�ng �nto Montana and Idaho. of the 33 na-t�onal parks def�ned before 1916, all but 4 are �n the 11 western states.

The popular�ty of motor travel spurred growth �n the number of nat�onal parks after world war II, as a camp�ng tr�p made an affordable and poten-t�ally educat�onal fam�ly vacat�on. As of 2007, there are 390 nat�onal parks. The system has been extended beyond natural wonders and campgrounds to �nclude h�stor�c s�tes as well as urban areas such as the Golden Gate Nat�onal Parks �n san Franc�sco. V�s�tors surpassed 285 m�ll�on �n 1999, the last year for wh�ch the Nat�onal Park serv�ce prov�des stat�st�cs.80

state park systems also prov�de recreat�onal fac�l�t�es. Although Ind�an spr�ngs �n Georg�a has ex�sted s�nce 1825, mak�ng �t the oldest state park, most state park systems had the�r growth spurt �n the 1930s, w�th the help of the C�v�l�an Conservat�on Corps. For sheer s�ze, the w�nner �s Alaska, boast-�ng 3.2 m�ll�on acres of park system.81

The domest�cated cous�n of the state park �s the amusement park, once a raucous and sl�ghtly unsavory scene of r�ckety r�des, bath�ng beaut�es, and bearded lad�es. Today’s fam�ly-fr�endly amusement park was �nvented by walt d�sney �n 1955, w�th the open�ng of d�sneyland am�d the orange groves of Anahe�m, Cal�forn�a. More than 515 m�ll�on people have v�s�ted d�sneyland s�nce �t opened. The second d�sney park, d�sneyworld �n Flor�da, �s the larg-est s�ngle-s�te employer �n the nat�on. The d�sney v�s�on �s so popular that the company was able to populate an exper�mental new urban�st commun�ty �n Celebrat�on w�th people who were eager to l�ve at d�sneyworld.82

Much of the appeal of d�sneyland and d�sneyworld �s the opportun�ty to part�c�pate �n a fantasy, whether of small-town Amer�ca on Ma�n street UsA


or of the future �n Tomorrowland. some people take the�r fantas�es further. over 2 m�ll�on Amer�cans part�c�pate �n more than 180 rena�ssance Fa�res each year, dress�ng �n the garb of the M�ddle Ages and reenact�ng jousts, feasts, and revels.83 Another popular fantasy �s reenact�ng battles, part�cularly from the C�v�l war; part�c�pants cla�m that th�s �s one of the fastest-grow�ng past�mes �n the Un�ted states.84

war takes place on the tabletop, too. wh�le s�mulat�ons of battles have been used as a way to teach strategy all the way back to the �nvent�on of chess, recreat�ng battles on a play�ng board or an elaborate tablescape started a r�se �n popular�ty �n the 1970s, about the same t�me that role-play�ng games l�ke dungeons and dragons became w�despread.85

Perhaps surpr�s�ngly, board games and card games are hold�ng the�r own aga�nst v�deo games. Board games sales �ncreased 18 percent �n 2005, pos-s�bly because these games offer a qu�et way for 20-someth�ngs to gather for fun.86 The most qu�ntessent�ally Amer�can board game must be Monopoly, the real �nvestment game that �s played worldw�de and �ncludes sanct�oned state and nat�onal tournaments. wh�le class�c games l�ke Clue (solve a mur-der), r�sk (�nvade russ�a), and Tr�v�al Pursu�t (answer quest�ons on pop culture) or�g�nated outs�de the Un�ted states, Amer�cans can take cred�t for �nvent�ng the crossword-style game of scrabble and the �con�c game for small ch�ldren, Hungry Hungry H�ppos. scrabble games are found �n one-th�rd of all Amer�can homes, and �ts compet�t�veness has grown to a scale s�m�lar to that of chess, complete w�th �nternat�onal tournaments and books on how to master advanced strategy.87

The most Amer�can of card games �s probably poker, played �n numerous var�ants s�nce �t appeared �n the 1820s �n New orleans. Mov�es about the old west are as �ncomplete w�thout poker games as they are w�thout horses and shoot-outs, and ab�l�ty to ma�nta�n an express�onless poker face wh�le bluff�ng about one’s hand �s a test of a strong, s�lent man. A champ�onsh�p tournament l�ke the world ser�es of Poker can pay over $7 m�ll�on to the w�nner. Telev�sed tournaments have become qu�te popular. The �mportance of s�lence over �nteract�on also makes poker �deal for onl�ne play.88

Not all tabletop games are taken ser�ously. B�ngo, once the terr�tory of blue-ha�red lad�es down �n the church soc�al room, �s enjoy�ng a resurgence as a campy, k�tschy game for younger people, part�cularly at gay bars. There �s onl�ne b�ngo, too, a $710 m�ll�on �ndustry, where only 10 percent of the players are over 55, and 28 percent are under 34.89

Gam�ng �s more ser�ous bus�ness for Nat�ve Amer�can tr�bes, who have been perm�tted by the U.s. government to run cas�nos s�nce the 1988 pas-sage of the Ind�an Gam�ng regulatory Act. In 2006, 387 cas�nos gener-ated over $25 b�ll�on �n revenue. Foxwoods, operated by the Mashantucket


Pequot Tr�bal Nat�on of Connect�cut, �s the largest cas�no �n the world, boast�ng 100 poker tables, over 7,000 slot mach�nes, and more than 40,000 guests each year. However, Ind�an gam�ng tends to benef�t a handful of tr�bes, some of wh�ch appl�ed to be recogn�zed by the government �n order to operate cas�nos: �n 2002, just 13 percent of cas�nos, largely �n states w�th few Nat�ve Amer�cans, generated 66 percent of total Ind�an gam�ng revenue.

The gam�ng tra�l always leads back to the computer because electron�c games have been popular s�nce the heyday of arcade v�deo games �n the early 1980s, when Amer�cans spent 75,000 man-hours play�ng. People st�ll play Pong, the p�ng-pong-l�ke game from 1972 that was the f�rst arcade game to be w�dely successful; �t also was the def�n�ng game of the f�rst home gam�ng un�ts �n 1977. Th�s success was followed by space Invaders, the �con�c shoot-the-al�ens game, but �t was Pac-Man, released �n 1980, that truly captured the popular �mag�nat�on. More than 100,000 mach�nes were sold �n the Un�ted states, followed by 30 l�censed vers�ons of the game and mult�ple sequels; Pac-Man even appears as a guest character �n unrelated games. Pac-Man �nsp�red an eponymous saturday morn�ng cartoon and a board game, along w�th a controversy when Pres�dent ronald reagan sent a congratulatory letter to e�ght-year-old Jeffrey yee for a Pac-Man score that many players deemed �mposs�ble to ach�eve. Pac-Man �s st�ll �n play, now on f�fth-generat�on �Pods.90

Today’s home gam�ng systems, wh�ch feature more real�st�c graph�cs, can be counted on to be among the year’s hot Chr�stmas g�fts when a new vers�on �s released. In 2006, sony’s Playstat�on (Ps) 3 was so heav�ly �n demand that onl�ne auct�on g�ant eBay had to restr�ct sales to establ�shed sellers to decrease fraud. even so, more than 3,000 Ps3s were l�sted two days before the off�c�al launch, w�th b�dders offer�ng over $2,000 for a gam�ng system that would sell for $600. The launch of the compet�ng N�ntendo w��, later �n the same week, exc�ted s�m�lar pass�on.91

More real�st�c graph�cs have led to more real�st�c v�olence. The flagsh�p for compla�nts about promot�ng bad values �s the Grand Theft Auto (GTA) ser�es, �n wh�ch players roam a major c�ty and earn po�nts for comm�tt�ng cr�mes. Grand Theft Auto: V�ce C�ty, �n a sett�ng loosely based on 1980s M�am�, has the d�st�nct�on of �nsp�red compla�nts from Cuban and Ha�t�an �mm�grants for rac�sm, two lawsu�ts cla�m�ng the game caused teenagers to comm�t cr�mes, and an ep�sode of CSI: Miami. The game �s so w�dely recog-n�zable that Coca-Cola’s 2007 super Bowl campa�gn featured a GTA-style character spread�ng sweetness, l�ght, and Coke as he passed through a c�ty.92

The next step from real�sm �s an alternate real�ty, �n�t�ally def�ned by the world-bu�ld�ng computer game s�m C�ty �n 1989, wh�ch was followed by a dozen var�ants, �nclud�ng The s�ms, the best-sell�ng game for personal com-


puters. wh�le s�m C�ty was about bu�ld�ng and manag�ng a metropol�s, The s�ms offered players the opportun�ty to l�ve an alternate l�fe.93 But a true alternat�ve l�fe requ�res jo�n�ng the onl�ne second L�fe, a v�rtual world �n-sp�red by Neal stephenson’s novel Snow Crash. A rush of med�a attent�on �n late 2006 brought 4 m�ll�on accounts to second L�fe, though econom�c stat�st�cs suggest that the number of act�ve part�c�pants �s closer to 450,000, w�th about 230,000 act�ve enough to spend f�ct�onal L�nden dollars. Because L�nden dollars can be converted to normal U.s. currency, �t �s poss�ble to make a real fortune �n the v�rtual world: Ansche Chung of Ch�na was the f�rst person to make $1 m�ll�on from deals �n second L�fe.94

More hands-on hobb�es �nclude collect�ng, cook�ng, garden�ng, hand�-crafts l�ke kn�tt�ng or embro�dery, and model-bu�ld�ng pursu�ts such as tra�n layouts, rocketry, or dollhouses. Not all bu�ld�ng hobb�es are m�n�atur�zed: the number of exper�mental home-bu�lt full-s�zed a�rcraft reg�stered w�th the Federal Av�at�on Adm�n�strat�on has been �ncreas�ng by 1,000 a year for 15 years, surpass�ng 28,000 �n 2007.95

Many hobb�es evolved from hand�crafts, such as sew�ng and bu�ld�ng, that were useful on the front�er, but the heyday of hands-on hobb�es occurred �n the years �mmed�ately follow�ng world war II, when experts recommended hobb�es as a way of cop�ng w�th excess le�sure. Although hands-on hobb�es

Grand Theft Auto �s one of many popular, yet controvers�al v�deo games. © AP Photo/Paul sakuma.


struggle to attract a generat�on accustomed to v�deo games, grac�ous-l�v�ng guru Martha stewart �s cred�ted w�th mak�ng past�mes l�ke needlework and cake decorat�ng respectable for m�ddle-class women w�th profess�onal careers. eas�ly the most popular of the fem�n�ne hobb�es �s scrapbook�ng, wh�ch transforms a bas�c photo album �nto an elaborate product�on of pat-terned papers, crops (ways to cut photos), d�e cuts (paper shapes used as decorat�on), st�ckers, r�bbon, and colored �nk. s�nce �ts �ncept�on �n 1995, scrapbook�ng has grown �nto a $2.55 b�ll�on �ndustry, w�th over 32 m�ll�on part�c�pants.96

The popular�ty of scrapbook�ng may be fueled by the r�se of more elabo-rate celebrat�ons, wh�ch may �n turn be related to how access to le�sure has changed. Trends over the past four decades �nd�cate that the people w�th the lowest-pa�d jobs saw the greatest ga�ns �n le�sure, wh�le the upper m�ddle class are work�ng more hours. so the people who have t�me do not have money, and the people who have money do not have t�me.97 B�gger part�es, w�th more lav�sh enterta�nment plus constant photography and v�deotap�ng, may be try-�ng to pack a month’s worth of fun and a year’s worth of memor�es �nto a few hours’ worth of party. work hard; play hard. That �s the Amer�can way.

notes

1. Porter Anderson, “study: U.s. employees Put �n Most Hours,” August 31, 2001, http://www.cnn.com; Tory Johnson, “The death of the Amer�can Vacat�on,” July 4, 2006, http://www.abcnews.com; ellen wulfhorst, “Laptops �n Tow, More Amer�cans work on Vacat�on,” PC Magazine, July 26, 2006.

2. robert H. Lavenda, Corn Fests and Water Carnivals: Celebrating Community in Minnesota (wash�ngton, dC: sm�thson�an Inst�tute Press, 1997), 11–12; rodger Lyle Brown, Ghost Dancing on the Cracker Circuit: The Culture of Festivals in the American South ( Jackson: Un�vers�ty Press of M�ss�ss�pp�, 1997), 20–21.

3. Lars Jacoby, “F�nd Fun at Lost dutchman days,” Arizona Republic, Febru-ary 21, 2007, http://www.azcentral.com; Troy Taylor, “The Lost dutchman M�ne,” http://www.pra�r�eghosts.com; Apache Junct�on Chamber of Commerce, “Annual events,” http://www.apachejunct�oncoc.com.

4. The Lum n’ Abner s�te, http://www.lum-abner.com; Nat�onal Lum n’ Abner soc�ety, http://www.�nu.net/stemple; Lum and Abner Fest�val, http://gomenaarkan sas.com/lumNabner.asp.

5. “Park H�story,” http://www.l�lacfest�val.com; robert w. Brown, “week of L�lacs at rochester,” New York Times, May 11, 1947, x15.

6. Lavenda, Corn Fests, 45. 7. see http://www.foodreference.com; south Beach w�ne and Food Fest�val,

http://www.sobew�neandfoodfest.com; Tw�n C�t�es Food and w�ne exper�ence, http://www.foodw�neshow.com; Newport seafood and w�ne Fest�val, http://www.


newportchamber.org/swf; “spec�al events,” http://www.c�.santa-cruz.ca.us; Grant seafood Fest�val, http://www.grantseafoodfest�val.com; “Maple syrup Fa�r,” http://www.parkecounty.com; Flor�da Gourd soc�ety, http://flgourdsoc.org.

8. U.s. Census Bureau, 2000 Census, http://factf�nder.census.gov/; san Fran-c�sco County Fa�r, http://www.sfcountyfa�r.com.

9. “Top F�fty North Amer�can Fa�rs,” Amusement Business, december 2004.10. James r. He�ntze, Fourth of July Celebrat�ons database, http://www.amer�

can.edu/he�ntze/fourth.htm; U.s. Census Bureau, “Facts for Features: The Fourth of July,” May 17, 2006, http://www.census.gov; Amy Choz�ck, “A sl�ce of Amer�ca,” Wall Street Journal, July 2, 2004; Jan�ce Podsada, “where Is the Cradle of Gay L�b-erty?,” The Grand Rapids Press, Apr�l 11, 2005, A6.

11. “Make ready for Thanksg�v�ng,” New York Times, November 24, 1854, 4; “The Thanksg�v�ng d�nner,” New York Times, November 19, 1864, 8; “A day for G�v�ng Thanks,” New York Times, November 28, 1878, 5; “Thanksg�v�ng Is at Hand,” New York Times, November 26, 1893, 18; d�splay ad, New York Times, November 28, 1923, 15; “750 Tons of Thanksg�v�ng Turkeys ordered by Army for 1,500,000 Men, Plus All F�x�n’s,” New York Times, November 9, 1941, 44; r�chard L. eldr�dge, “sp�ll�ng the Beans about Hol�day Casserole’s or�g�ns,” At-lanta Journal-Constitution, december 17, 2005, A1; Kr�st�n eddy, “shak�ng up the Trad�t�ons: Alternat�ve Tastes That stay True to Thanksg�v�ng,” Washington Post, November 20, 1991, e1.

12. Butterball, http://www.butterball.com; stacy F�nz, “Thanksg�v�ng 101: Tur-key Tra�n�ng Camp,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 15, 2006; Nat�onal res-taurant Assoc�at�on, “Nat�on’s restaurants ready to A�d Busy Amer�cans w�th The�r Thanksg�v�ng Feasts,” November 13, 2006, http://www.restaurant.org; Janet raloff, “Home Cook�ng on the wane,” Science News 162 (2002), http://www.sc�encenews.org.

13. dana Blanton, “Major�ty okay w�th Publ�c Nat�v�ty scenes,” June 18, 2004, http://www.foxnews.com; U.s. Census Bureau, “Facts for Features: The Hol�day season,” december 19, 2005, http://www.census.gov.

14. Jack Kenny, “yes, V�rg�n�a, There Is a santa employment Agency,” New Hampshire Business Review, december 14–27, 2001, 15–16; “Bob rutan: d�rector of Annual event operat�ons at Macys, New york,” T+D, december 2006, 96; Mary Beckman, “Ho Ho Hum,” Science Now, december 12, 2003, 2–3; Alex M�ndl�n, “santa’s Knee Belongs to everyone,” New York Times, december 17, 2006.

15. M. Z. Hem�ngway, “A Lull �n the war on Chr�stmas,” Los Angeles Times, december 24, 2006, M2; warren r�chey, “Nat�v�ty scene Is Too rel�g�ous for New york schools,” Christian Science Monitor, February 22, 2007, 4.

16. Mar�anne Bernhard, “Jews and december,” Washington Post, december 24, 1980, A7.

17. Maulana [ron] Karenga, The off�c�al Kwanzaa web s�te, http://www.off� c�alkwanzaawebs�te.org; dorothy rowley, “Kwanzaa: Celebrat�on of Culture or re-ta�l Lure?,” Afro-American Red Star, december 23–29, 2006, A1.


18. “Buy Noth�ng day,” http://adbusters.org; Joseph P. Kahn, “yes, V�rg�n�a, There Is a Fest�vus,” Boston Globe, december 18, 2006, d12; “T�me L�ne,” Ben & Jerry’s, http://www.benjerry.com; Br�an Cochrane, “Pole Pos�t�on,” Variety, decem-ber 25, 2006, 4; Ph�l�p recch�a, “‘Fest�vus’ Flap T�ckles the rest of Us,” New York Post, december 24, 2006, 11.

19. “Nat�onal Poll: Amer�cans resolve to Change,” december 28, 2006, http://www.mar�stpoll.mar�st.edu; “Amer�cans Make resolut�ons, st�ck to Them,” decem-ber 29, 2006, http://www.ktvu.com.

20. “An Inc�dent of Memor�al day,” New York Times, June 7, 1868, 3; Tony Horw�tz, Confederates in the Attic (New york: V�ntage Books, 1998), 206.

21. U.s. Census Bureau, “Facts for Features: Veterans 2006, November 11,” oc-tober 12, 2006, http://www.census.gov.

22. “Labor Jo�ns Clergy �n sunday F�ght,” New York Times, March 14, 1910, 4; “Calls Un�on Labor to study Its record,” New York Times, August 31, 1921, 6; “re-cord Throng Here on Labor day Tours,” New York Times, september 6, 1931, 1.

23. Muscular dystrophy Assoc�at�on Telethon, http://www.mda.org/telethon; “electron�cs and Apparel to Fuel Back-to-school spend�ng, Accord�ng to Latest NrF survey,” July 18, 2006, http://www.nrf.com.

24. C. L. Arbel�de, “By George, It Is wash�ngton’s B�rthday!” Prologue Magazine 36 (2004), http://www.arch�ves.gov; “wash�ngton’s B�rthday,” New York Times, February 23, 1855, 1; James Barron, “wash�ngton’s Nonb�rthday Pretty Much a Non-event,” New York Times, February 19, 1980, B1; Jane Gross, “shoppers Honor wash�ngton by Flock�ng to C�ty stores,” New York Times, February 18, 1986, B1.

25. “New Hampsh�re Becomes Last state to Create Mart�n Luther K�ng day,” The Gazette (Montreal), June 8, 1999, B8; “state Hol�day �n s.C. remembers Con-federacy,” Cincinnati Post, May 11, 2001, 2A.

26. Natasha Altam�rano, “Volunteers Take ‘day on’ for K�ng,” Washington Times, January 16, 2007, A1; He�d� Prescott and yaVanda smalls, “It was only a Matter of T�me: Is an MLK day sale an Honor or eneth�cal?,” South Bend (IN) Tribune, January 13, 2007, 1; Gordon Jackson, “K�ngsland Creates Fest�val; organ�zers Put New Tw�st on Annual salute to Mart�n Luther K�ng, Jr.,” Florida Times-Union, January 20, 2004, B1.

27. “Columbus day at Br�dgeport,” New York Times, september 24, 1892, 8; “B�g Crowd Cheers Columbus Paraders,” New York Times, october 13, 1909, 7; robert dom�nguez, “Happen�ngs Honor H�span�c Her�tage,” New York Daily News, sep-tember 15, 2004, 24; Tasha V�llalpando, “NArd open�ng Ceremony K�cks off Nat�ve Amer�can Act�v�t�es,” Au-Authm Action News (scottsdale, AZ), october 2005, 1.

28. U.s. Census Bureau, “Facts for Features: Ir�sh-Amer�can Her�tage Month (March) and st. Patr�ck’s day (March 17) 2007,” January 17, 2007, http://www.census.gov; Adam Noss�ter, “s�nn Fe�n Pres�dent w�ll March �n st. Patr�ck’s day Parade,” New York Times, March 15, 1996, B3.

29. U.s. Census Bureau, “H�span�c Populat�on Passes 40 M�ll�on, Census Bureau reports,” June 9, 2005, http://www.census.gov; Courtney Kane, “Marketers extend


The�r Hol�day efforts to a Mex�can Celebrat�on and even to Lent,” New York Times, May 2, 2003, C2.

30. “From Cal�forn�a,” New York Times, February 23, 1860, 2; southwest A�rl�nes, “H�story of the san Franc�sco Ch�nese New year Parade,” http://www.ch�neseparade.com; Vanessa Hua, “Ch�nese New year Parade Accusat�ons w�den d�spute,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 21, 2006, B3.

31. Kelly Barth, “F�rst Father’s day serv�ce �n 1908,” Morgantown Dominion Post, June 21, 1987, http://www.wvculture.org; V�ck� sm�th, “The F�rst Father’s day,” Martinsburg Journal, June 15, 2003, http://www.wvculture.org.

32. “H�gh Gas Pr�ces No Match for Mom,” Apr�l 19, 2006, http://www.nrf.com; John Hogan, “dear Mom,” Grand Rapids Press, May 10, 2003, d4; James Gallo, “Card Industry �n a slump,” Baltimore Sun, May 4, 2004, 10C; “Celebrate Mother’s day,” New York Times, May 10, 1909, 18; “House Honors Mothers,” New York Times, May 11, 1913, 2; “Keep Mother’s day w�thout Flowers,” New York Times, May 2, 1920, 12.

33. Barr� Bronson, “dump�ng on dad,” Times-Picayune, June 14, 2004, 01.34. “st. Valent�ne,” http://www.cathol�c.org; “Mak�ng Valent�nes: A Trad�t�on �n

Amer�ca,” http://www.amer�canant�quar�an.org.35. “Are Men More romant�c Than women?,” February 2007, http://www.

greet�ngcard.org; Jul�e Jette and Brad Kelly, “Fond of the season,” The Patriot Ledger (Qu�ncy, MA), February 14, 2006, 19; Angus Loten, “For spec�alty reta�lers, Love Is �n the A�r,” Inc., January 22, 2007, http://www.�nc.com; renee deFranco, “10 Th�ngs your Flor�st won’t Tell you,” January 18, 2007, http://www.smartmoney.com; rob Lowman, “we Know what you want for Valent�ne’s day,” Los Angeles Daily News, February 14, 2006, N1; “does your state ‘show the Love’ for Valen-t�ne’s day?,” PR Newswire, February 9, 2007, http://www.prnewsw�re.com.

36. rob Lowman, “we Know what you want for Valent�ne’s day,” Los Angeles Daily News, February 14, 2006, N1; “Valent�ne’s day Broken Hearts,” February 14, 2000, http://www.�psos-mor�.com; “Ant�-Valent�ne’s Pop-up shop,” February 9, 2007, http://www.spr�ngw�se.com; “Card Makers Cap�tal�ze on ‘Ant�-V day,’ ” New York Times, February 11, 2007, http://www.nyt�mes.com.

37. dav�d H�nkley, “Monster Mash,” New York Daily News, october 31, 2006, 37; P�a sarker, “More Treats Than Tr�cks,” San Francisco Chronicle, october 31, 2006, d1.

38. “‘scavenger Hunt’ Prov�des Thr�lls,” New York Times, November 2, 1933, 24.39. “Halloween Po�son�ngs,” http://www.snopes.com.40. “w�tches’ N�ght,” New York Times, september 28, 1879, 3; “The decadence

of Halloween,” New York Times, November 1, 1876, 8.41. Helen Anders, “New orleans r�s�ng to the occas�on,” Austin (TX) American-

Statesman, February 11, 2007, J14.42. “KFC Asks Pope to Bless New F�sh sandw�ch,” February 22, 2007, http://

msnbc.com.43. June owen, “Food News: Passover d�shes rev�ewed,” New York Times,

March 28, 1952, 29; Janet Forgr�eve, “Metro Markets Go Kosher for Passover,”


Rocky Mountain News, Apr�l 7, 2006, 1B; debra Morton Gelbart, “Tr�pp�ng over Passover,” Jewish News of Greater Phoenix, december 22, 2006, s28.

44. Candy sagon, “record easter Candy sales expected,” Tulsa World, Apr�l 12, 2006, d3.

45. C. w. Nev�us, “Chocolate Bunny Meltdown,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 11, 2007, http://www.sfgate.com; Cl�ff Morman, “T�de of easter Purchases r�s�ng,” The Sun (san Bernard�no, CA), Apr�l 14, 2006.

46. The wedd�ng report, http://www.wedd�ngreport.com.47. Mark oppenhe�mer, “My B�g Fat Amer�can Bar M�tzvah,” Boston Globe, May

22, 2005, d2.48. Carol�na A. M�randa, “F�fteen Candles,” Time, July 19, 2004, 83; L�sa Gut�-

errez, “As H�span�cs’ Qu�nceaneras Get More Popular, Many Get More Lav�sh,” Kn�ght r�dder Tr�bune News serv�ce, June 16, 2006; rob walker, “The Pr�ncess Buy,” New York Times Magazine, october 15, 2006, 26.

49. wendy Tanaka, “Party Prof�ts,” San Francisco Examiner, January 28, 1996; Ilene Lelchuk, “Are Ch�ldren’s B�rthday Part�es Gett�ng out of Control?,” January 16, 2007, http://www.sfgate.com; B�rthdays w�thout Pressure, http://www.b�rthday sw�thoutpressure.org.

50. Telev�s�on watch�ng �s the number one use of le�sure hours, accord�ng to the U.s. department of Labor, Bureau of Labor stat�st�cs, T�me Use survey, 2005 (http://www.bls.gov/). Accord�ng to a study by Med�amark research, c�ted �n the U.s. Census Bureau’s Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2007 (http://www.cen sus.gov), d�n�ng out was the le�sure act�v�ty most l�kely to have been performed �n the past 12 months, second most l�kely to take place once a month, and th�rd most l�kely to take place two or more t�mes per week. Unless otherw�se c�ted, th�s study �s the source of all stat�st�cs on part�c�pat�on �n le�sure act�v�t�es and attendance at sport�ng events.

51. “w�th Theodore roosevelt,” New York Times, december 3, 1893, 23.52. Kurt Badenhausen, M�chael K. ozan�an, and Maya roney, “The Bus�ness of

Football,” August 31, 2006, http://www.forbes.com; M�chael K. ozan�an and Kurt Badenhausen, “The Bus�ness of Baseball,” Apr�l 20, 2006, http://www.forbes.com; Kurt Badenhausen, M�chael K. ozan�an, and Chr�st�na sett�m�, “The Bus�ness of Basketball,” January 25, 2007, http://www.forbes.com; Nat�onal Colleg�ate Athlet�c Assoc�at�on (NCAA), 2004–2005 Part�c�pat�on survey, quoted �n Bureau of Labor stat�st�cs, Statistical Abstract; Nat�onal sport�ng Goods Assoc�at�on (NsGA), “sports Part�c�pat�on,” http://www.nsga.org. Unless otherw�se c�ted, throughout th�s chap-ter, stat�st�cs on college part�c�pat�on come from the NCAA study, and stat�st�cs on general part�c�pat�on come from the NsGA survey.

53. stewart Alsop, “N�xon and the square Major�ty,” The Atlantic Monthly, Feb-ruary 1972, 41–47.

54. susan Conley and Matt Baun, “UsdA offers Food safety Adv�ce for your super Bowl Party,” January 27, 2007, http://www.fs�s.usda.gov; “super Bowl 2nd-Most watched show ever,” February 7, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com; Peter J. schwartz, “super Bowl Tops Forbes’ Most Valuable Brands,” January 31, 2007,


http://sports.espn.go.com; Peter Hartlaub, “The 10 Best super Bowl Ads of All T�me,” February 1, 2007, http://www.msnbc.msn.com; seth sutel, “super Bowl w�nner to Be . . . Ad revenue,” Los Angeles Daily News, February 1, 2007, http://www.da�lynews.com; Marc Berman and John Consol�, “CBs’ super Bowl 2nd Most-watched �n H�story,” February 5, 2007, http://www.med�aweek.com.

55. “super Bowl Legends,” http://www.snopes.com.56. “FCC says soaps Need to Be Cleaned Up,” Apr�l 8, 2004, http://www.soap

central.com; John dunbar, “CBs defends ‘wardrobe Malfunct�on’ �n Court,” Washington Post, November 21, 2006, C07.

57. “world ser�es: ser�es’ rat�ngs drop from ’92,” New York Times, octo-ber 25, 1993; r�chard sandom�r, “Baseball: Notebook; world ser�es rat�ngs,” New York Times, october 22, 1997; “world ser�es rat�ngs Lowest ever,” octo-ber 31, 2005, http://www.sportbus�ness.com; rudy Martzke, “Fox Cleans Up �n ser�es rat�ngs desp�te sweep,” USA Today, october 28, 2004, http://www.usatoday.com; M�chael H�estand, “world ser�es starts strong, but rat�ngs Lag,” USA Today, october 25, 2005, http://www.usatoday.com; ronald Blum, “world ser�es rat�ngs H�t record Low,” Washington Post, october 29, 2006, http://www.wash�ngtonpost.com.

58. “Baseball records,” http://www.baseball-almanac.com.59. durham Bulls, http://www.durhambulls.com; Charles Passy and Jon we�nbach,

“rat�ng the Parks of spr�ng Tra�n�ng,” Wall Street Journal, March 8, 2007, d1.60. Amer�ca’s Favor�te Arch�tecture, Amer�can Inst�tute of Arch�tects, http://

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org; Chr�s Ballard, Hoops Nation: A Guide to America’s Best Pickup Basketball (New york: Henry Holt, 1998); T�mothy Harper, “The Best P�ckup-Basketball Player �n Amer�ca,” The Atlantic Monthly, Apr�l 2000, http://www.theatlant�c.com.

62. T�m wendel, “Global Trend remakes the Face of Team sports,” http://www.hoopdreams.org; Jason Chung, “rac�al d�scr�m�nat�on and Afr�can-Amer�can Quar-terbacks �n the Nat�onal Football League, 1968–1999,” october 25, 2005, http://ssrn.com/abstract=835204.

63. Frank deford, “rac�ally Unbalanced,” July 12, 2006, http://sports�llustrated.cnn.com.

64. douglas stark, “Pav�ng the way,” Basketball Digest, February 2001, 74–78.65. “Black Teams and wh�te Coaches: why Afr�can Amer�cans Are Increas�ngly

Be�ng shut out of College Coach�ng Pos�t�ons,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Edu-cation 33 (2001): 44–45; “Afr�can-Amer�can College Athletes: debunk�ng the Myth of the dumb Jock,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 35 (2002): 36–40.

66. “March Madness Br�ngs rat�ngs Upt�ck to CBs,” March 21, 2005, http://tv.zap2�t.com; John Consol�, “NBA F�nals’ rat�ngs s�nk on ABC,” June 14, 2005, http://www.med�aweek.com; Kurt Badenhausen, M�chael K. ozan�an, and Chr�st�na sett�m�, “The Bus�ness of Basketball,” January 25, 2007, http://www.forbes.com.

67. The four women’s leagues operat�ng as of 2007 are the women’s Profess�onal Football League, founded 1999 and offer�ng 15 teams (http://www.womensprofoot


ball.com), the Nat�onal women’s Football Assoc�at�on, founded 2000 and operat�ng 40 teams (http://www.womensfootballassoc�at�on.com), the Independent women’s Football League, founded 2000 and offer�ng 30 teams (http://www.�wflsports.com), and the women’s Football League, founded 2002, currently w�th four teams (http://sportzon.com). The L�nger�e Bowl was a pay-per-v�ew game offered dur�ng super Bowl halft�me from 2004 to 2006; �t �s expected to return �n 2008; Adam Hofstetter, “Trouble Averted: L�nger�e Bowl Tak�ng a year off,” January 31, 2007, http://sport s�llustrated.cnn.com.

68. r�ck Horrow, “March Madness: The Bus�ness of the women’s Tournament,” March 25, 2005, http://cbs.sportsl�ne.com; oscar d�xon, “wNBA showcases Game as It Turns 10,” USA Today, May 19, 2006, http://www.usatoday.com; M�chael H�estand, “Unl�ke wUsA, wNBA Has NBA,” USA Today, september 16, 2003, http://www.usatoday.com.

69. “2006–2007 states of the Game,” december 19, 2006, http://�ns�decollege hockey.com; “old school Hockey Is Back,” June 9, 2006, http://www.cbsnews.com; M�chael K. ozan�an and Kurt Badenhausen, “The Bus�ness of Hockey,” Novem-ber 9, 2006, http://www.forbes.com.

70. Br�an o’Keefe, “Amer�ca’s Fastest-Grow�ng sport,” Fortune, september 5, 2005, http://money.cnn.com.

71. em�ly Murphy, “NAsCAr Not Just for the Boys Any More,” USA Today, July 2, 2004, http://www.usatoday.com.

72. T�m Lemke, “Indy out of the P�ts,” Washington Times, May 24, 2006, C01.73. Jeff wolf, “organ�zers Match Prem�er rodeo event w�th ‘old west’ Locale,

but Many say Money Matters Most,” Las Vegas Review-Journal, december 5, 2004, http://www.rev�ewjournal.com.

74. “Al� the Man,” http://www.al�.com.75. “B�ll�e Jean K�ng,” http://www.w�c.org.76. Nat�onal sport�ng Goods Assoc�at�on, “2005 youth Part�c�pat�on �n selected

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60.78. Internat�onal Health, racquet and sportsclub Assoc�at�on, http://cms.�hrsa.

org.79. Internat�onal Paralymp�c Comm�ttee, http://www.paralymp�c.org; spec�al

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gastateparks.org; state of Alaska, “Parks and Publ�c Lands,” http://www.dced.state.ak.us; donald r. Leal and Holly L�pke Fretwell, “Parks �n Trans�t�on: A Look at state Parks,” rs-97-1, 1997, http://www.perc.org.

82. d�sney, http://home.d�sney.go.com; douglas Frantz and Cather�ne Coll�ns, Celebration, U.S.A. (New york: owl Books, 2000); Andrew ross, The Celebration Chronicles (New york: Ballant�ne Books, 2000).

83. “rena�ssance Fa�res by state,” http://www.renfa�re.com.


84. “How to Get started �n C�v�l war reenact�ng,” http://www.sutler.net.85. H�stor�cal M�n�atures Gam�ng soc�ety, eastern Chapter, “what Is wargam-

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2006, d1.87. “H�story of Monopoly,” http://www.monopoly.com; “All About scrabble,”

http://www.hasbro.com/scrabble.88. dav�d Parlett, “A H�story of Poker,” March 3, 2005, http://www.pagat.com;

world ser�es of Poker, http://www.worldser�esofpoker.com.89. Jod� Lee re�fer, “Bars Cash �n on B�ngo’s Popular�ty,” Times-Picayune, Febru-

ary 21, 2007, 03.90. Leonard Herman, Jer Horw�tz, steve Kent, and skyler M�ller, “The H�story

of V�deogames,” http://www.gamespot.com; “The essent�al 50 Arch�ves,” http://www.1up.com; “Pac-Man,” http://en.w�k�ped�a.org.

91. rachel Conrad, “eBay restr�cts sale of Playstat�on 3,” November 16, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com.

92. Thor Thorsen, “Ha�t�an-Amer�cans Protest V�ce C�ty,” November 25, 2003, http://www.gamespot.com; Thor Thorsen, “Grand Theft Auto sparks Another Law su�t,” February 16, 2005, http://www.gamespot.com. The CSI: Miami ep�sode �s “Urban Hellra�sers” (http://www.cbs.com).

93. s�mC�ty 4, http://s�mc�ty.ea.com; The s�ms, http://s�ms.ea.com.94. “econom�c stat�st�cs,” http://secondl�fe.com; rob Hof, “second L�fe’s F�rst M�l-

l�ona�re,” Business Week Online, November 26, 2006, http://www.bus�nessweek.com.95. Peter F�mr�te, “A H�gh-Fly�ng Hobby,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 6,

2007, http://www.sfgate.com.96. Beth Burkstrand, “Homespun scrapbooks Become Pr�cey Labor of Love for

some,” Wall Street Journal, July 16, 1997; “scrapbook�ng �n Amer�ca™ survey H�gh-l�ghts,” http://www.creat�ngkeepsakes.com.

97. Mark Agu�ar and er�k Hurst, “Measur�ng Trends �n Le�sure” (work�ng paper, Federal reserve Bank of Boston, January 2006).

BiBliograPhy

Berlage, Ga�l Ingham. Women in Baseball: The Forgotten History. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

Cantor, George. Historic Festivals: A Traveler’s Guide. detro�t: Gale research, 1996.Chudacoff, Howard P. The Age of the Bachelor. Pr�nceton, NJ: Pr�nceton Un�vers�ty

Press, 1999.Cohen, Henn�g, and Tr�stam Potter Coff�n. America Celebrates! detro�t: V�s�ble Ink

Press, 1991.djata, sund�ata. Blacks at the Net: Black Achievement in the History of Tennis. Vol. 1.

syracuse, Ny: syracuse Un�vers�ty Press, 2006.draper, Joan e. “The Art and sc�ence of Park Plann�ng �n the Un�ted states: Ch�ca-

go’s small Parks, 1902 to 1905.” In Planning the Twentieth-Century American


City, ed. Mary Corb�n s�es and Chr�stopher s�lver, 98–119. Balt�more: The Johns Hopk�ns Un�vers�ty Press, 1996.

e�nhorn, edd�e. How March Became Madness. Ch�cago: Tr�umph Books, 2006.F�ndlay, John M. Magic Lands: Western Cityscapes and American Culture after 1940.

Berkeley: Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a Press, 1992.F�sher, Jerry M. The Pacesetter: The Untold Story of Carl G. Fisher. Fort Bragg, CA:

Lost Coast Press, 1998.Gelber, steven M. Hobbies: Leisure and the Culture of Work in America. New york:

Columb�a Un�vers�ty Press, 1999.Goodale, Thomas, and Geoffrey Godbey. The Evolution of Leisure. state College, PA:

Venture Publ�sh�ng, Inc., 1988.Green, Ben. Spinning the Globe: The Rise, Fall, and Return to Greatness of the Harlem

Globetrotters. New york: Am�stad, 2005.Groves, Melody. Ropes, Reins, and Rawhide. Albuquerque: Un�vers�ty of New Mex-

�co Press, 2006.Hall, Lee. Olmsted’s America: An ‘Unpractical’ Man and His Vision of Civilization.

Boston: L�ttle, Brown and Company, 1995.Hauser, Thomas. Muhammad Ali. New york: s�mon and schuster, 1991.Herman, dan�el Just�n. Hunting and the American Imagination. wash�ngton, dC:

sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on Press, 2001.Lav�n, Maud, ed. The Business of Holidays. New york: The Monacell� Press, 2004.Marl�ng, Karal Ann. Blue Ribbon: A Social and Pictorial History of the Minnesota State

Fair. st. Paul: M�nnesota H�stor�cal soc�ety Press, 1990.McCarry, John. County Fairs: Where America Meets. wash�ngton, dC: Nat�onal

Geograph�c soc�ety, 1997.Moss, r�chard J. Golf and the American Country Club. Ch�cago: Un�vers�ty of Ill�no�s

Press, 2001.Nat�onal Park serv�ce. The National Parks: Shaping the System, 3rd ed. wash�ngton,

dC: U.s. department of the Inter�or, 2005.N�ssenbaum, stephen. The Battle for Christmas. New york: V�ntage Books, 1997.Perla, Peter P. The Art of Wargaming. Annapol�s, Md: Naval Inst�tute Press,

1990.Pleck, el�zabeth H. Celebrating the Family: Ethnicity, Consumer Culture, and Family

Rituals. Cambr�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 2000.Putnam, robert. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community.

New york: s�mon and schuster, 2000.Putney, Cl�fford. Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America,

1880–1920. Cambr�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 2001.rader, Benjam�n G. American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Tele-

vised Sports. Upper saddle r�ver, NJ: Prent�ce Hall, 1983, 2004.ratjar, steve. United States Holidays and Observances. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and

Co., 2003.rust, edna, and Art rust Jr. Art Rust’s Illustrated History of the Black Athlete. Garden

C�ty, Ny: doubleday and Company, 1985.


schor, Jul�et B. The Overworked American. New york: Bas�c Books, 1992.sloane, dav�d Charles. The Last Great Necessity: Cemeteries in American History. Bal-

t�more: The Johns Hopk�ns Un�vers�ty Press, 1991.sm�th, L�sam, ed. Nike Is a Goddess: The History of Women in Sports. New york:

Atlant�c Monthly Press, 1998.sm�th, ron. The Ballpark Book. st. Lou�s, Mo: The sport�ng News, 2000.wetzel, dan, and don yaeger. Sole Influence: Basketball, Corporate Greed, and the

Corruption of America’s Youth. New york: warner Books, 2000.wh�te, G. edward. Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself, 1903–

1953. Pr�nceton, NJ: Pr�nceton Un�vers�ty Press, 1996.wr�ght, J�m. Fixin’ to Git: One Fan’s Love Affair with NASCAR’s Winston Cup. dur-

ham, NC: duke Un�vers�ty Press, 2002.Z�mbal�st, Andrew. Unpaid Professionals: Commercialism and Conflict in Big-Time

College Sports. Pr�nceton, NJ: Pr�nceton Un�vers�ty Press, 1999.

ameriCan Cuisine

we are barely beg�nn�ng to s�ft down our own cu�s�ne.—Charles Beard

“Let’s grab a b�te to eat.” Th�s typ�cal Amer�can express�on suggests a host of unsavory connotat�ons. Ch�ldren are chast�sed for grabb�ng. There �s a sense of lawlessness and a certa�n �mpropr�ety about grabb�ng th�ngs. Grabb�ng �s not pol�te, but m�ll�ons of Amer�cans are grabb�ng a b�te to eat every day. Grabb�ng �s what �s done on the run. There �s a k�nd of nat�onal fast food cu�s�ne to cater to all these people on the run, but fast food �s just part of the story. Contrary to the�r portrayals �n f�lm, Amer�cans are not always runn�ng. In fact, the�r expend�tures on fast food are a relat�vely small port�on of the�r total food expend�tures.

The same transportat�on and food handl�ng systems that helped to cre-ate a nat�onal fast food cu�s�ne have also blurred the l�nes among reg�onal cu�s�nes. It �s not at all unusual for Ma�ne lobsters to be served �n restaurants �n Cal�forn�a or rhode Island quahogs to show up �n chowder �n Ar�zona. Trad�t�onal Amer�can cu�s�ne �s, however, reg�onal, based on what �s ava�l-able. It �s d�fferent�ated generally by method—fry�ng �n the south and bo�l-�ng �n New england—and by nat�onal or�g�n. The Germans and the engl�sh had the b�ggest effect on the development of Amer�can cook�ng because they represented the largest groups of Amer�ca’s f�rst �mm�grants. It should not be forgotten, however, that the Un�ted states began �ts ex�stence as 13 engl�sh

5

Cu�s�ne and Fash�on

Benjamin F. Shearer

193


colon�es �nhab�ted mostly by engl�sh men and women who brought the�r taste for engl�sh cook�ng w�th them. The development of the jambalaya that became called Amer�can food can be seen, therefore, as a gradual l�berat�on from s�mple engl�sh home cook�ng, decr�ed by v�s�tors to england for cen-tur�es as an abom�nat�on, a trad�t�on kept al�ve today by French pres�dents. M�dwest cu�s�ne �s based heav�ly on the movement and settlement f�rst of Germans and then scand�nav�ans. southern cu�s�ne �s �nextr�cably m�xed w�th the legacy of slavery, as black slaves over t�me turned h�gh-table engl�sh plantat�on cook�ng �nto flavorful d�shes no longer engl�sh or Afr�can, but completely Amer�can. southwestern cu�s�ne can no longer be broken down �nto �ts component nat�ve Ind�an, Mex�can, span�sh, and Anglo components. Cal�forn�a, w�th �ts �ncred�ble ethn�c d�vers�ty, has developed a reg�onal cu�-s�ne that �s consc�ously based on fus�ng the cul�nary arts of var�ous cultures w�th locally produced goods. The Pac�f�c Northwest �s a develop�ng cu�s�ne but �s most certa�nly based on reg�onally ava�lable fresh food.

“That’s Amer�can as apple p�e.” Th�s often heard Amer�can express�on �s meant to refer to anyth�ng an Amer�can th�nks �s really Amer�can, l�ke an old Ford truck or B�ng Crosby s�ng�ng “wh�te Chr�stmas.” The fact �s, of course, that apple p�e �s not Amer�can at all. rec�pes for apple p�es showed up �n el�zabethan england and were even stowed away on the sh�ps br�ng�ng the f�rst colon�sts to Amer�can shores. Typ�cally, apple p�es became so ub�qu�tous that Amer�cans appropr�ated them as the�r own. To most Amer�cans, apple p�e �s a nat�onal emblem of Amer�can cu�s�ne. yet �n sp�te of the Amer�can preoccupat�on w�th un�form�ty �n food—a B�g Mac �s a B�g Mac �n Boston, Kansas C�ty, and Los Angeles—even apple p�es are suscept�ble to reg�onal var�at�on. Germans and Am�sh �n Pennsylvan�a may toss �n some sour cream and ra�s�ns or �ce the top pastry layer. In Massachusetts, some cranberr�es may f�nd themselves baked w�th the apples. Apple ch�ffon p�e �s popular �n upstate New york. In Ill�no�s, apples and pumpk�n m�ght be pureed together �n a p�e. An old Cal�forn�a rec�pe cooked the apples f�rst and la�d them on a bed of caramel sauce before bak�ng.

The case of the lowly bean �llustrates even better the reg�onal nature of Amer�can cu�s�ne. Beans, no matter the var�ety, have always been a staple �n Amer�can d�ets. Boston has proudly accepted the appellat�on “Bean Town” s�nce the 1700s thanks to �ts great northern baked beans flavored w�th brown sugar and molasses. In south Texas, however, barbequed baked p�nk beans get sp�ced up w�th ch�l�es. In Vermont, baked navy beans get a treatment of apples and maple syrup. Hopp�n’ John �n the southern Low Country pa�rs r�ce w�th black-eyed peas and ham. In the southwest, Pueblo Ind�ans com-b�ned chor�zos, a legacy of spa�n, beef, hot peppers, cum�n, corn, and toma-toes w�th Anasaz� beans for a local del�cacy.1

CUIsINe ANd FAsHIoN 195

so what does �t mean to have an Amer�can meal? There �s no rec�pe for cook�ng the Amer�can way. Amer�can cook�ng, l�ke Amer�can l�fe, �s an �n-d�v�dual effort �n wh�ch �nnovat�on and eff�c�ency are pr�zed. Qu�te s�mply, Amer�can food �s what Amer�cans cook and eat. It �s food appropr�ated from the cultures of the people who l�ved or came there and, �n most all cases, changed to f�t local c�rcumstance, taste, and the means of mass product�on.

Eating and drinking in america

In 2002, each Amer�can ate (per cap�ta consumpt�on) 64.5 pounds of beef, 48.2 pounds of pork, 56.8 pounds of ch�cken, 15.6 pounds of f�sh and shellf�sh, 180 eggs, 885.3l pounds of da�ry products, 30.5 pounds of cheese (topped by Amer�can at 12.8 pounds, followed by Ital�an at 12.4 pounds), 26.4 pounds of frozen da�ry products, 191.3 pounds of flour and cereal prod-ucts, 63.2 pounds of sugar, 125.6 pounds of fresh fru�t and 146.0 pounds of processed fru�t, 193.4 pounds of fresh vegetables (potatoes �n f�rst place at 45.0 pounds, and lettuce �n second place at 22.4 pounds), and 208.6 pounds of processed vegetables. Amer�cans also per cap�ta drank 23.6 gallons of cof-fee, 7.8 gallons of tea, 21.9 gallons of m�lk, 8.0 gallons of fru�t ju�ce, 21.8 gallons of beer, 2.1 gallons of w�ne, and 1.3 gallons of d�st�lled l�quor.2

Food �s b�g bus�ness �n Amer�ca, the b�rthplace of casual d�n�ng. In 2006, there were about 925,000 restaurants �n the Un�ted states, wh�ch means there �s roughly one restaurant for every 300 people, and 70 percent of them are s�ngle-restaurant small bus�nesses. More than 50 percent of Amer�can adults have worked at one t�me �n the restaurant �ndustry. est�mates are that Amer�cans spent $511 b�ll�on �n these eat�ng and dr�nk�ng establ�sh-ments, wh�ch have 12.5 m�ll�on employees, thus mak�ng the restaurant �n-dustry second only to government �n number of workers. on a g�ven day, 130,000,000 Amer�cans v�s�t a restaurant for a meal or a snack, and they spend, on average, $2,434 per household, or $974 per person per year, eat-�ng out. Amer�cans spent 47 percent of the�r total food money �n restaurants �n 2006, up dramat�cally from only 25 percent �n 1955. Amer�cans l�ke to eat out. s�xty-s�x percent of them agree that they can get flavorful food eat�ng out that cannot eas�ly be dupl�cated at home.3 Amer�cans spend about $165 b�ll�on a year at full-serv�ce restaurants. snack and nonalcohol�c beverage bars pull �n almost $17 b�ll�on, cafeter�as and buffets, another $5.3 b�ll�on. Bars and taverns have annual revenues of more than $15.2 b�ll�on. Hotel restaurants br�ng �n nearly $25 b�ll�on a year. Bus�ness and le�sure travel help to fuel restaurant sales, as do major hol�days. Mother’s day, for example, br�ngs 62 percent of those celebrat�ng the occas�on w�th spec�al meals �nto restaurants. Many w�ll go out for more than one meal. Twenty-two percent go for breakfast, 51 percent for lunch or brunch, and 59 percent for d�nner.


Fast-food eat�ng places account for over $134 b�ll�on per year of Amer�cans’ food expend�tures.4

All-you-can-eat restaurants and buffets are popular �n Amer�ca. Needless to say, Nouvelle cu�s�ne, as �t morphed �nto Amer�can cook�ng as the new Amer-�can cu�s�ne, was not a h�t w�th the typ�cal hungry Amer�can. The problem was not fresh �ngred�ents, or even the lack of r�ch sauces (gravy to Amer�cans), but the outrage that a speck of meat support�ng an arch�tecture of unknown and strangely cut vegetables am�d dots of red or green stuff dropped strateg�-cally on the plate appeared to be an appet�zer at a ma�n course pr�ce.

Full-serv�ce restaurants, all character�zed by a wa�tstaff serv�ng s�t-down meals �n the establ�shments, run the gamut from t�ny l�ttle �ndependent ne�gh-borhood eat�ng establ�shments to themed, casual d�n�ng cha�n restaurants l�ke Ch�potle Mex�can Gr�ll, outback steak House, ol�ve Garden, and red Lob-ster, all the way to world-class restaurants that have won the coveted f�ve stars from the Mobil Travel Guide. In 2006, only 15 restaurants �n all the Un�ted states earned that d�st�nct�on. New york C�ty had four; the san Franc�sco area, three; Atlanta, two; Los Angeles, Ch�cago, and Ph�ladelph�a, one each. The others were located �n wash�ngton, V�rg�n�a, summerv�lle, south Caro-l�na, and Kennebunkport, Ma�ne. Another 122 restaurants earned four stars, led by New york C�ty, w�th 14, and Ch�cago, w�th 9.5 A meal at any of these restaurants would be beyond the means of most Amer�cans, even for a spec�al occas�on, and even �f they could get reservat�ons.

what do ord�nary Amer�cans order when they go to restaurants on a typ�-cal day? The top 10 select�ons for men �n descend�ng order accord�ng to one survey were a hamburger, French fr�es, p�zza, a breakfast sandw�ch, a s�de salad, eggs, doughnuts, hash brown potatoes, Ch�nese food, and a ma�n salad. women ordered French fr�es, a hamburger, p�zza, a s�de salad, a ch�cken sand-w�ch, a breakfast sandw�ch, a ma�n salad, Ch�nese food, and r�ce.6

Hamburgers, sold �n the b�ll�ons each year from ub�qu�tous franch�ses (Mcdonald’s, Burger K�ng, and wendy’s are, �n order, the largest), bars and taverns, and county and state fa�rs—anywhere there are Amer�cans—are the qu�ntessent�al Amer�can food. Hamburgers are also featured at most back-yard cookouts, ta�lgate part�es, p�cn�cs, and sports events. Most of the beef consumed �n Amer�ca �s �n the form of ground beef—hamburger. Amer�can �ngenu�ty has elevated the s�mple hamburger to a gastronom�c art form. The hamburger cha�ns have attempted to brand the�r burgers by charbro�l�ng them, flame-bro�l�ng them, steam�ng them w�th on�ons, and gr�ll�ng them; by shap-�ng them round, square, and tr�angular; and by heap�ng them w�th var�et�es of cond�ments �nclud�ng lettuce, tomatoes, mayonna�se, spec�al sauces, secret sauces, salad dress�ngs, on�ons, peppers, ch�l�es, mustard, and ketchup, not to exhaust the l�st. Many a local restaurateur cla�ms to have the best hamburger


�n town. Indeed, the var�at�ons are endless. A hamburger steak, ground s�r-lo�n, may be at the p�nnacle of the hamburger h�erarchy, but the Amer�can meatloaf (a baked loaf of ground beef and pork and sp�ces of cho�ce) �s a bas�c Amer�can concoct�on that has reached such gustatory he�ghts that famous Amer�can-born French chef Jul�a Ch�ld called �t Amer�can pâté.

order�ng a hamburger and fr�es �s l�ke order�ng ham and eggs or m�lk and cook�es—they just go together naturally �n the Amer�can m�nd. French fr�es, as the name �mpl�es, are not Amer�can �n or�g�n (they are Belg�an, as the name does not �mply). Ne�ther, of course, �s p�zza, wh�ch Amer�cans have transformed from a s�mple Ital�an tomato bread starter �nto a g�gant�c complete meal. B�gger �s always better; Amer�cans eat around 100 acres of p�zza every day. N�nety-three percent of all Amer�cans eat at least one p�zza a month; about 3 b�ll�on p�zzas are sold every year. L�ke the hamburger, the p�zza has been subjected to Amer�can �nvent�veness. There are nearly 70,000 p�zzer�as �n the Un�ted states, 64.3 percent of wh�ch are �ndependents, but they accounted for a b�t fewer than 50 percent of total U.s. sales of almost $31 b�ll�on. The top 25 p�zzer�a cha�ns w�th nearly 25,000 stores account for just over 50 percent of total U.s. sales. P�zza Hut, the largest cha�n, alone ac-counts for over 17 percent of all sales.7 They, too, are round and square, small and large, and can have just about anyth�ng on them. There are Hawa��an p�zzas (p�neapple and ham), Mex�can p�zzas, barbeque p�zzas, wh�te p�zzas (no tomato sauce), f�sh p�zzas, vegetable p�zzas, Cajun p�zzas, eggplant p�zzas, ven�son p�zzas, duck p�zzas, and even breakfast p�zzas, w�th peanut butter and jelly or bacon and eggs. s�xty-two percent of Amer�cans want meat on the�r p�zza, and 36 percent of all p�zzas ordered have pepperon� on them. other trad�t�onal favor�te �ngred�ents are mushrooms, extra cheese, sausage, green peppers, and on�ons.8

There are about an equal number of Ital�an and Ch�nese full-serv�ce res-taurants �n Amer�ca. Among l�m�ted serv�ce restaurants, mostly carryout es-tabl�shments, Mex�can restaurants outnumber Ch�nese restaurants seven to f�ve and Ital�an restaurants seven to two.9 All together, there are more than 40,000 each of Mex�can and Ch�nese restaurants �n the Un�ted states. Ital�an, Ch�nese, and Mex�can cu�s�nes have been completely �ncorporated �nto what m�ght be called the category of typ�cal Amer�can food, what Amer�cans l�ke to eat, and they eat a lot of �t. spaghett� and meatballs, egg rolls, and tacos are standard fare eat�ng out and at home. If college students can be thought of as future trendsetters, there �s no go�ng back to old-t�me pla�n Amer�can cook-�ng. when asked what the�r favor�te cu�s�nes were, 95 percent l�ked Ital�an; 90 percent l�ked Mex�can; and 83 percent l�ked Ch�nese.10

Many have decr�ed the fact that the trad�t�onal Amer�can s�t-down fam-�ly meal has gone the way of t�ntype and typewr�ters. Most parents work


outs�de the home, and k�ds have busy schedules f�lled w�th athlet�c act�v�-t�es, events, and other after-school obl�gat�ons, to wh�ch they must be shut-tled back and forth. eat�ng on the go �s the new Amer�can meal trad�t�on. There �s l�ttle t�me for food preparat�on and prec�ous l�ttle t�me to gulp �t down. Amer�ca has produced new generat�ons for whom comfort food �n later l�fe �s a box of macaron� and cheese, wh�ch they learned to make �n a m�crowave at the age of f�ve, mostly out of necess�ty. so what are Amer�cans eat�ng at home?

A tr�p to the grocery store, where shelf space �s at a prem�um and grocers g�ve space only to what sells fast, lends some understand�ng. Fresh fru�t and vegetables get half an a�sle, as do fresh meats (a lot of space for hamburger) and breads. soft dr�nks (Coke, Peps�, and tens of var�at�ons) and snacks (po-tato ch�ps, tort�lla ch�ps, peanuts, etc.) get an ent�re a�sle. Ju�ces and var�ous k�nds of sport dr�nks have nearly half an a�sle, and canned vegetables get half that. soups, �n cans, �n ready-to-eat conta�ners, and �n boxes, get about a quarter a�sle. Fru�t, �n cans, but mostly �n ready-to-eat conta�ners, get about a quarter of an a�sle, but cook�es and crackers get more space. There seems to be a lot of boxes: rows of cake m�xes, bread m�xes, muff�n m�xes, and cook�e m�xes. Cereal, the all-Amer�can breakfast food, gets a full s�de of an a�sle. even more �mpress�ve �s the space g�ven to boxes of r�ce, potatoes, and pasta. Boxes of potatoes may seem unnatural, but by just add�ng water, m�lk, and butter or margar�ne, and a few m�nutes of cook�ng, a var�ety of potato d�shes can be created qu�ckly. r�ce gets some space, but not much �n �ts pure form. small boxes of r�ce w�th flavor packets tucked �nto the box get qu�te a b�t of space. Nearly an ent�re row �s f�lled w�th pasta �n all �ts s�zes and shapes, accompan�ed by jars of prepared spaghett� sauce, clam sauce, and Alfredo sauce. The Mex�can food sect�on �s grow�ng, but the Ital�an foods, as under-stood, coopted, and transformed by Amer�cans, are the space w�nner. Busy Amer�can cooks can also go to another a�sle to choose from nearly half a row of boxes of macaron� and cheese, pasta salad, and pasta d�shes. In fact, �n the cont�nu�ng tr�bute to Amer�can food as the ult�mate fus�on cu�s�ne, a ch�cken quesad�lla flavor pasta �s now ava�lable �n a box. Those who f�nd that to be too much fus�on can always rely on Hamburger Helper ava�lable �n several flavors. Just fry the hamburger, add the flavor packet and pasta and some water, and you have an Amer�can meal.

There are often two ent�re a�sles of frozen food cases �n grocery stores, wh�ch stands to reason because 94 percent of Amer�cans somet�mes buy fro-zen food on a typ�cal tr�p to the grocery, and 30 percent always do. s�x t�mes a month, the typ�cal Amer�can s�ts down to a heated up frozen meal.11 In 2003, Amer�cans spent over $6 b�ll�on on frozen d�nners and entrees. In total, they spent $29.2 b�ll�on on frozen foods. Frozen vegetable sales of $2.8 b�ll�on,


wh�ch �ncluded $858 m�ll�on of frozen potatoes, nearly equaled frozen p�zza sales of $2.74 b�ll�on. sales of �ce cream, wh�ch many Amer�cans would con-s�der a homegrown �nvent�on, came to $4.8 b�ll�on.12

w�ne �s sold �n some 3,000 grocery stores as well as other stores across the nat�on. U.s. w�ne consumpt�on has been �ncreas�ng stead�ly s�nce 1991 and across age and ethn�c l�nes. Many Amer�cans now cons�der w�ne to be a requ�rement of a good meal, espec�ally �n a good restaurant, but �t �s also served at home on spec�al occas�ons. w�ne �s a staple at part�es, often replac-�ng hard l�quor. In 2005, w�ne sales �n the Un�ted states totaled 703 m�ll�on gallons, valued at $26 b�ll�on. Table w�nes accounted for most of the sales at 619 m�ll�on gallons; champagne and sparkl�ng w�nes came to only 30 m�ll�on gallons. The rema�nder was dessert w�nes. Amaz�ngly, Cal�forn�a w�nes took a 63 percent market share of all w�nes sold. Cal�forn�a produced 532 m�ll�on gallons of w�ne �n 2005, of wh�ch 441 m�ll�on gallons were sold �n the Un�ted states. Prem�um w�nes, def�ned as $7 or more per bottle, were 66 percent of revenues, and everyday w�nes, below $7 per bottle, const�tuted the rema�n-der. U.s. w�ne exports of 101 m�ll�on gallons were 95 percent Cal�forn�a w�nes. wh�le w�ne �s grown all across Amer�ca, there can be l�ttle doubt that

A long grocery store a�sle �n one of Amer�ca’s large supermarkets. Corb�s.


Cal�forn�a w�nes are the ones that have made Amer�can w�nes respectable around the globe.13

Amer�cans l�ke Amer�can beer. In fact, July �s Amer�can beer month. Brew-er�es were f�rst l�censed �n New england �n 1637. Beer �s now an $83 b�l-l�on bus�ness. In 2005, domest�c beer sales of 178.8 m�ll�on barrels (a barrel equals 31 U.s. gallons) dwarfed sales of 25.7 m�ll�on barrels for �mported beers. The large brewers, such as Anheuser Busch, w�th �ts flagsh�p Budwe�ser brand, dom�nate the domest�c beer market. That company alone accounts for around half of all domest�c beer sales. The b�g brewers—also �nclud�ng M�ller, Coors, and Pabst—have attempted to bolster the�r sales by cater�ng to we�ght-consc�ous beer dr�nkers w�th l�ght and low-carbohydrate brews, wh�ch are overtak�ng trad�t�onal lagers �n sales. There �s, however, another concurrent trend �n Amer�can brew�ng f�lled by Amer�ca’s 1,415 craft brew-er�es, wh�ch are turn�ng out mult�flavored and full-bod�ed 100 percent malt beers. These reg�onal craft brewer�es, contract brewer�es, m�crobrewer�es, and brewpubs together are a $4.3 b�ll�on dollar bus�ness that produces about 7 m�ll�on barrels annually and takes a 3.42 percent share of the Amer�can beer market. That �s not much compared to the noncraft domest�c brewers’ 84.14 percent of the market or even �mported beers’ share of 12.43 percent, but craft brewers are prov�d�ng Amer�cans w�th an alternat�ve to what cr�t�cs have been known to call �ns�p�d Amer�can beer.14

Amer�ca’s or�g�nal contr�but�on to the fam�ly of d�st�lled sp�r�ts was �n-sp�red by a Nat�ve Amer�can food staple comb�ned w�th scotch-Ir�sh �m-m�grant d�st�ll�ng know-how and then g�ven a French name. It even caused a rebell�on �n 1794 �n Pennsylvan�a that George wash�ngton h�mself had to put down after the federal government tr�ed to tax �t. Bourbon wh�skey, the old red eye, rotgut, and f�rewater of the w�ld west, was d�st�ngu�shed from other wh�sk�es by the use of corn �n the mash. Corn was preferred �n southern wh�skey mak�ng, rather than the rye that was used prevalently �n the North. Amer�cans soon came to favor the smoothness of the corn-based wh�sky. By 1784, commerc�al d�st�ller�es were operat�ng �n Kentucky, and Bourbon County, Kentucky, named for the French royal fam�ly who sup-ported Amer�can �ndependence aga�nst the engl�sh, became the center of bourbon wh�skey product�on �n the Un�ted states, thus lend�ng �ts name to the product. Today, regulat�ons requ�re that bourbon be at least 51 percent corn and aged for not less than two years �n new charred barrels. Tennessee wh�skey, a d�st�nct class�f�cat�on from bourbon, has an add�t�onal requ�re-ment of be�ng f�ltered through sugar maple charcoal. Moonsh�ne, untaxed clear wh�skey (the C�v�l war brought �n the permanent taxat�on of wh�skey) legendar�ly d�st�lled �n the h�lls of Kentucky and Tennessee by the l�ght of the moon to avo�d federal agents and aged �n a glass jar, �s the source of much


Amer�can humor and a stepp�ng off po�nt for story l�nes that celebrate �nd�-v�dual freedom over government regulat�on.15

Alcohol�c beverages made up only about 13 percent of each Amer�can’s total consumpt�on of 192 gallons of l�qu�ds �n 2004. In the country that made Coke and Peps� �nternat�onally known trademarks, comb�ned d�et and nond�et carbonated soft dr�nks alone counted for 28 percent of consump-t�on. That �s about 52 gallons a year for each Amer�can, for wh�ch Amer�cans spent about $66 b�ll�on. Far beh�nd �n second place, bottled water was only 12.4 percent. Cur�ously, m�lk, coffee, beer, and all others (�nclud�ng tap water, vegetable ju�ces, and sports dr�nks) each account for between 11 percent and 12 percent of l�qu�d consumpt�on per year. Fru�t ju�ces came �n at 7.6 percent and tea at 4.4 percent. Amer�cans have about 450 soft dr�nks from wh�ch to choose that are produced �n around 400 plants. The most eff�c�ent plants can produce 2,000 cans of soda per m�nute per l�ne to sat�sfy the demand for more than 68 b�ll�on cans a year. only 23 percent of soft dr�nks are founta�n d�spensed, rather than packaged.16

Amer�cans consume legumes �n large amounts, and �n the case of peanuts, w�thout know�ng they are eat�ng them, s�nce most th�nk they are nuts l�ke walnuts or pecans. Peanuts came to the Un�ted states v�a south Amer�ca and are grown today mostly on small farms �n the south that average 100 acres. each Amer�can eats over s�x pounds of peanuts—a favor�te snack food both roasted and salted and great w�th beer and cockta�ls—and products made from peanut butter a year. Most peanuts are used to make peanut butter, wh�ch was patented by Harvey Kellogg �n 1895, who also brought corn flakes to the world, but �t was f�rst sold at the 1904 st. Lou�s world’s Fa�r. By 1908, �t was be�ng produced commerc�ally. The annual consumpt�on of peanut butter, on wh�ch Amer�cans spend $800 m�ll�on a year, �s enough to make 10 b�ll�on peanut butter and jelly sandw�ches (PB&Js). Peanut butter and jelly sandw�ches—soft wh�te bread, peanut butter, and Concord grape (pref-erably) jelly—have a place �n every young student’s lunch pa�l. The typ�cal young Amer�can w�ll have eaten 1,500 PB&Js before graduat�ng from h�gh school.17

In Amer�ca’s sch�zophren�c l�festyle, there �s one th�ng that br�ngs fam�l�es together: the backyard cookout, wh�ch usually takes place on weekends w�th fam�ly and fr�ends. For Amer�cans �n New england and the M�dwest, �t �s a celebrat�on of the outdoors after be�ng shut �n the house all w�nter and l�bera-t�on from the k�tchen. Most fam�l�es have outdoor gr�lls—some cheap and serv�ceable charcoal gr�lls, others gas-f�red and qu�te elaborate. Gr�ll�ng the meat—sparer�bs, steaks, hamburgers, hot dogs, pork chops—�s typ�cally the man’s job for some pr�mord�al reason. Back �n the k�tchen, the woman pre-pares (or opens the conta�ners of ) the staples of the cookout: coleslaw (a g�ft


to Amer�ca from early dutch settlers), macaron� salad, and baked beans. The red ketchup and yellow mustard, the jar of p�ckles, and some sl�ced on�ons and tomatoes are placed on the backyard p�cn�c table w�th the hotdog and hamburger buns, the beer and soft dr�nks are �n the cooler, and the party �s under way. Ice cream, brown�es, and watermelon are for dessert.

regional Cuisines

The East

Amer�can cu�s�ne began, of course, �n New england, where engl�sh cook-�ng and �ngred�ents fused w�th nat�ve Ind�an cook�ng and local �ngred�ents. Ind�an succotash, or m�xed vegetables (green beans, l�ma beans, and corn), �s st�ll the most eaten vegetable �n the Un�ted states. A cookout or p�cn�c any-where �n Amer�ca probably �ncludes Boston baked beans, for wh�ch there are �nnumerable rec�pes. Cranberr�es �n one form or another and Vermont maple syrup are ava�lable �n every b�g grocery store �n the country. Pumpk�n p�e �s a requ�red Thanksg�v�ng dessert. Ind�an pudd�ng, made w�th molasses, yellow cornmeal, and brown sugar, �s a fus�on of engl�sh pudd�ng mak�ng w�th na-t�ve corn. rhode Island Johnny Cakes are popular pancakes made w�th wh�te cornmeal. Boston brown bread �s also made w�th cornmeal.

The coasts off New england make seafood a bas�c staple of the New en-gland d�et. Massachusetts even named the cod �ts state f�sh. Baked cod, cod-f�sh p�e, and cod balls rema�n popular d�shes. rhode Island �s famous for �ts clam cakes. If there were a state soup �n Massachusetts, �t would be creamy wh�te New england clam chowder. The New york vers�on, called Manhattan clam chowder, has tomatoes that redden the broth. The New england clam-bake and Ma�ne lobster bake are, however, the reg�on’s prem�er outdoor eat-�ng events. Quahogs are hard-shelled clams that can be found up and down the eastern coast but are most prevalent between New Jersey and Cape Cod, where env�ronmental cond�t�ons favor them. In order of smallest to larg-est s�ze, quahogs are also known as l�ttle necks, cherrystones, and chowders. Nat�ve Amer�cans used the shells as money, and they were also the probable source of th�s cook�ng techn�que. The clambake, �n �ts elemental form, takes place �n a p�t on a beach, �n wh�ch rocks have been placed and a f�re l�t. The heated rocks steam the clams, unhusked corn, and potatoes, wh�ch have been layered �n seaweed, when the p�t �s covered. The Ma�ne lobster bake employs the same cook�ng techn�que and uses the same �ngred�ents, to wh�ch lobster and mussels are added. Melted butter �s a must w�th the lobster.

on down the coast, every cu�s�ne �n the world �s ava�lable �n New york C�ty’s 17,300 restaurants, �nclud�ng the best Jew�sh del�catessen food any-where. Coney Island hotdogs, wh�ch also made the�r way to C�nc�nnat� v�a


an �mpressed �mm�grant restaurateur, are a local spec�alty. In upstate New york, around end�cott, sp�ed�es, chunks of meat mar�nated �n v�negar, o�l, oregano, and other sp�ces, then skewered, cooked, and usually placed on a bun, were the creat�on of Ital�an �mm�grants. Buffalo helped to make ch�cken w�ngs d�pped �n var�ous sauces a nat�onal food, but �ts beef on weck (Kum-melweck, a potato, caraway, and salted roll) of German or�g�n rema�ns a local spec�alty.

Turtle soup, r�ch, th�ck, and often flavored w�th sherry, are spec�alt�es �n Maryland and Ph�ladelph�a. Meat from terrap�ns �s used �n Maryland, snap-per meat �n Ph�ladelph�a. Crab cakes can be found all along the Maryland coast, but the Chesapeake Bay crab cakes on Maryland’s eastern shore are legendary.

In Ph�ladelph�a are those foot-long submar�ne sandw�ches called hoagies. In Connect�cut, they are called grinders. The Ital�an hoag�e �s made of salam�, cap�cola, and provolone, w�th opt�onal lettuce, tomatoes, red peppers, on-�ons, v�negar and o�l, and oregano. Meatball hoag�es, drenched �n a tomato sauce, are also ava�lable. The Ph�lly cheesesteak, however, �s Ph�ladelph�a’s best-known sandw�ch. Fresh, th�nly sl�ced beef �s gr�lled, and Amer�can cheese (somet�mes provolone) or a processed cheese spread �s placed on the

A fresh Ma�ne lobster sat�sf�es the taste buds of many New englanders dur�ng the summert�me. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


beef �n a long roll. Peppers, on�ons, and other topp�ngs may be added, but �f the cheesesteak �s not dr�pp�ng and nearly �mposs�ble to eat pol�tely, �t �s not a real Ph�lly cheesesteak. Cheese fr�es, French fr�ed potatoes topped w�th cheese, can usually be purchased wherever cheesesteaks are sold. Ph�ladelph�a and the reg�on north and west of the c�ty are famous for soft pretzels, a g�ft of the heavy German �mm�grat�on there. In Ph�ladelph�a, soft pretzels are eaten w�th mustard. It �s worth a tr�p out of Ph�ladelph�a to Am�sh coun-try around B�rd-�n-Hand, Intercourse, and Lancaster to sat�sfy a sweet tooth w�th local spec�alt�es. shoof ly p�e �s an �ncred�bly sweet molasses and sugar p�e. whoop�e p�es are two cook�es, usually chocolate, but oatmeal cook�es can also be found, that are sandw�ched together by a cream f�ll�ng. It seems clear how shoof ly p�e was named, and apparently, whoop�e p�es make one yell whoop�e! at f�rst b�te.

The South

Fr�ed ch�cken �s the south’s pr�mary contr�but�on to a nat�onal cu�s�ne, but �n fact, many southern d�shes have crept far beyond the�r or�g�nal boundar-�es. soul food as well as Cajun and Creole cu�s�nes are subsets of southern cook�ng. They are popular and ava�lable everywhere. Georg�a pecan p�e and Flor�da key l�me p�e, butterm�lk b�scu�ts and corn bread, hush pupp�es and salt-cured V�rg�n�a country ham are not just southern anymore. Trad�t�on-ally, southerners prefer r�ce to potatoes and pork to beef; they l�ke the�r meats fr�ed or barbequed, the�r �ced tea sweet, and gr�ts for breakfast w�th ham, b�scu�ts, and red-eye gravy.

r�ce has long been grown �n the Carol�na lowlands and f�nds �ts way �nto numerous trad�t�onal southern d�shes. (Potatoes do not grow well �n the hot southern cl�mate.) savannah red r�ce, k�n to Lou�s�ana red beans and r�ce, m�xes r�ce w�th bacon, peppers, on�ons, sp�ces, tomatoes, Tabasco sauce, and opt�onal shr�mp or sausage. Flor�da’s yellow r�ce, colored w�th saffron, �s a g�ft from span�sh colon�zers. r�ce p�lau, also called purloo, �s thought to have been brought �nto the port of Charleston by trad�ng sh�ps �n early co-lon�al t�mes. There are many rec�pes for p�lau, a d�rty r�ce d�sh that may conta�n bacon fat, okra, red peppers, on�ons, seafood, and country ham. r�ce pudd�ng �s also an old southern d�sh, but fresh Georg�a and south Carol�na peaches make an even better dessert.

The p�t barbeque probably or�g�nated w�th blacks �n the Carol�nas, and pork was the meat of cho�ce, doused w�th a somewhat v�negary sauce. Ch�ck-ens, too, were barbequed. Today, any k�nd of barbeque, �nclud�ng beef, �s popular �n the south. Along the coasts of southern states, seafood �s abun-dant. Fr�ed f�sh �s a favor�te, but crabs offer spec�al treats. Around Mob�le, Alabama, crabs from Mob�le Bay are the bas�s for the local spec�alty, west


Ind�es salad: fresh crabmeat and d�ced on�ons �n a mar�nade of v�negar and o�l, eaten w�th crackers. soft-shell crabs, when �n season, m�ght be found �n sp�der burgers. stone crabs �n south Flor�da are a very spec�al del�ght. In V�rg�n�a and parts of Maryland, Crab Norfolk �s a spec�alty that comb�nes lump crabmeat, tarragon, r�ce, cream, country ham, and butter for a un�quely southern taste.

The submar�ne sandw�ch, made w�th var�ous cold cuts and lettuce, to-matoes, on�ons, and so on, as opt�onal topp�ngs, �s ava�lable all over the south. Around New orleans, however, the east Coast gr�nder, hero, or hoa-g�e morphs �nto a po’boy. Po’boys can have about anyth�ng �n them—oys-ters, ham, beef, shr�mp, sausage, lunchmeat, ch�cken, hamburger—but the French bread makes them d�st�nct�ve, and eat�ng a po’boy w�th mayonna�se, ketchup, and gravy calls for an �mmed�ate change of cloth�ng. New orleans also has a d�st�nct�ve local sandw�ch of s�c�l�an or�g�n, the muffuletta, wh�ch �s also d�ff�cult to eat da�nt�ly. Th�s large round sandw�ch �s f�lled w�th cold cuts and cheese, over wh�ch �s spread an ol�ve salad flavored w�th garl�c, pep-pers, capers, celery, and oregano. The south also has �ts own vers�on of the m�dwestern wh�te Castle slyder, the Krystal. only true gourmands can d�s-t�ngu�sh between a slyder and a Krystal because �n Amer�ca, a hamburger �s a hamburger.

soul food or�g�nated from slaves �mported pr�mar�ly from west Afr�ca be-fore 1808, when the external slave trade was ended by law. They brought w�th them var�ous cultural cook�ng hab�ts, wh�ch were once �solated to south-ern plantat�ons but moved throughout the country, espec�ally after world war II, to northern urban areas as Afr�can Amer�cans sought employment there �n a tremendous northern m�grat�on. soul food developed from these west Afr�can cultures as they were homogen�zed on plantat�ons, and blacks used the new foods ava�lable to them. Afr�can cook�ng �nfluenced both Cre-ole and southern cook�ng. soul food �s character�zed by the use of pork fat, usually bacon fat, as a subst�tute for palm o�l used �n Afr�ca, the use of sauces and sp�ces (often pepper), beans, mustard and turn�p greens, okra, yams, bananas, and melons. Pork and ch�cken are the preferred meats, and Afr�-cans ate the whole an�mal. Bread �s a staple. Corn �s used to make cornmeal, hom�ny, gr�ts, and bread. Barbeque �s a spec�alty. Typ�cal d�shes �nclude black-eyed pea soup, fr�ed pork chops, ch�tterl�ngs, fr�ed ch�cken, fr�ed f�sh, collard greens, and m�xed greens. Gullah r�ce (r�ce, nuts, butter, and celery) �s a spec�alty of Afr�can Amer�cans �solated on �slands off the Carol�nas and Georg�a who ma�nta�ned old trad�t�ons.18

The Creole and Cajun cu�s�nes of south Lou�s�ana around New orleans are often spoken and thought of together, but they have separate or�g�ns, even though t�me has obscured d�fferences. Creoles were the f�rst born-�n-Amer�ca


ch�ldren of the m�x of europeans (Germans, Ital�ans, French, engl�sh, span-�sh), Afr�cans, and Nat�ve Amer�cans who settled the Gulf Coast from Mo-b�le, Alabama, to New orleans early �n the e�ghteenth century. Creole cook-�ng developed �n New orleans from the contr�but�ons of all these groups. span�sh paella became jambalaya. French bou�llaba�sse became gumbo, fla-vored w�th okra from Afr�cans and f�lé powder (ground sassafras leaves) from nat�ves. German sausage makers contr�buted the�r knowledge to help create Creole hot sausages and chaur�ce. Acad�ans (Cajuns), French Canad�an set-tlers forc�bly cast out from Nova scot�a by the Br�t�sh, began reassembl�ng �n south Lou�s�ana �n the 1750s. Already w�th over 100 years of p�oneer�ng exper�ence, these were hard-scrapple people accustomed to l�v�ng off what the land prov�ded them. More �solated than the Creoles, Cajuns nevertheless came �nto contact w�th the Creole culture that surrounded them. The three class�c d�shes of New orleans—gumbo, b�sque, and étouffée—are bu�lt on a roux, wh�ch �s flour browned �n o�l. on�ons, bell peppers, celery, and garl�c usually are added, along w�th a var�ety of seafood cho�ces. Ch�cken can also be used, and sp�cy sausages l�ke andou�lle and tasso g�ve added flavor to these one-pot stews, wh�ch are usually served over r�ce.19

Cajuns also were known to cook anyth�ng that swam or sl�thered or crawled or flew through the swamps they �nhab�ted. The Cajun crawf�sh bo�l rema�ns a celebratory event. Anyth�ng could end up �n a 20-gallon pot over a propane burner f�lled w�th salted and sp�ced water or beer. Most often, �t �s crawf�sh, but shr�mp and crabs are popular, too. The seafood bo�l �ncludes potatoes, ears of corn, and on�on, l�ke �ts northern cous�ns, but garl�c, v�negar, lemons, and zesty sp�ces may be added, too, wh�ch g�ves th�s bo�l a spec�al flavor. Beer �s the preferred beverage, and d�x�e �s the preferred beer.

The Midwest

Trad�t�onal m�dwestern cook�ng �s qu�te pla�n and, to many tastes, qu�te bland. salt and pepper �n moderat�on are the sp�ces of cho�ce. The engl�sh and German hab�ts of overcook�ng meat and vegetables surv�ve �n th�s bas�c meat and potatoes fare, where a beef roast, mashed potatoes, corn on the cob, green beans, and apple p�e make up a fancy d�nner. The hearty homemade farm meals of the past—ch�cken noodles, pork w�th dumpl�ngs—have g�ven way to hasty box-top rec�pes that reflect the fact that farm fam�l�es, l�ke most Amer�can fam�l�es, need two �ncomes to surv�ve, and t�me �s at a prem�um. Quant�ty �s often more pr�zed than qual�ty—w�tness Ch�cago’s contr�but�on to p�zza, turn�ng �t from a del�cate crust w�th a dash of tomato sauce, cheese, and pepper flakes �nto a deep-d�sh th�ck crust to conta�n all the cheeses and meats ava�lable �n the M�dwest.


The potluck d�nner �s the most rad�cally democrat�c of Amer�can cul�nary exper�ences. There are no rules; no one �s �n charge. All �t takes �s one person w�th the nerve to �nv�te several fr�ends over for a party w�th the �nstruct�on that they have to br�ng someth�ng and br�ng the�r own beverages. (The fomenter of the event usually suppl�es plast�c glasses, plast�c s�lverware, and paper or plast�c plates, and, w�th luck, �ced-down coolers.) Potlucks are, clearly, not upscale soc�al events, or they would be catered at the expense of the host. Potlucks can be found �n homes, off�ces, and church basements. They can be found all over the country, but they are a favor�te �n the M�dwest. Those who accept an �nv�tat�on to a potluck may compare notes about who �s br�ng�ng what, but �t �s a fact that potlucks always seem to work out—there �s never all appet�zers, all ma�n d�shes, all vegetables, all salads, or all desserts, and these are the only f�ve cho�ces.

Potlucks br�ng out foods fam�l�ar to m�dwesterners, �n part ow�ng to the cook’s need for adulat�on, and �n part ow�ng to the cook’s des�re to f�x some-th�ng everyone w�ll l�ke. Typ�cal appet�zers m�ght �nclude dev�led eggs, a tray of cheese and crackers, l�ttle hot dogs enveloped �n a crust (often called p�gs �n a blanket), cut fresh vegetables (carrots and celery are the most popular) w�th a d�pp�ng sauce, and guacamole w�th tort�lla ch�ps.

Casseroles are popular at potlucks. Ma�n courses seem to always �nclude macaron� and cheese, tuna noodle casserole (canned tuna and store-bought noodles baked �n canned cream of mushroom or celery soup, topped w�th po-tato ch�ps, somet�mes w�th peas), and ch�l�-mac (a concoct�on of hamburger and on�on, noodles, tomatoes, and some ch�l� powder, w�th cheese on top, w�th or w�thout red k�dney beans). salads can range from a s�mple shredded lettuce and cheese tossed w�th ranch dress�ng to taco salad, carrot salad (shred-ded carrots w�th mayonna�se, ra�s�ns, and nuts), three-bean salad (green and yellow beans w�th k�dney beans and on�on �n v�negar and o�l), and fru�t salads (canned fru�t encased �n flavored gelat�n). Vegetable select�ons m�ght �nclude creamed corn, scalloped potatoes, a sweet potato casserole sweetened w�th brown sugar and a topp�ng of marshmallows, a broccol� and cheese casserole, and a green bean casserole (canned green beans �n canned mushroom soup w�th fr�ed on�on r�ngs on top). desserts are often spectacular because the real cooks l�ke to show them off. There are apple p�es and cherry p�es w�th golden peaked crusts, chocolate mer�ngue p�es, lemon mer�ngue p�es, and butter-scotch mer�ngue p�es. Creat�ve m�xtures of cherry or raspberry gelat�n and Cool wh�p (a fake wh�pped cream purchased already wh�pped �n a frozen conta�ner) can also be found. every potluck has a least two pans of brown�es, cut �nto squares, from wh�ch to choose. The chocolate-frosted ones go f�rst, but all of those mo�st chocolate l�ttle cakes qu�ckly d�sappear.


The b�g Amer�can breakfast st�ll surv�ves �n the M�dwest, �f not at home, �n the d�ners and l�ttle restaurants that cover the countrys�de. eggs—scrambled or fr�ed, over easy or sunny s�de up—w�th bacon, ham, or sausage, buttered toast w�th jelly or jam, a s�de order of pancakes w�th butter and syrup, or maybe some French toast or hash brown potatoes, and as much coffee as you can dr�nk are expected. Ham and eggs as a breakfast duo �s bel�eved to be an Amer�can �nnovat�on, but the Amer�can breakfast �s of certa�n engl�sh or�g�n.

The M�dwest �s not w�thout �nterest�ng or un�que foods. w�ld r�ce, wh�ch �s actually a large-gra�ned grass, grows naturally �n lakes, r�vers and streams around the Great Lakes area. Nat�ve Amer�cans, part�cularly the oj�bway and Menom�nee, harvested �t from canoes by fla�l�ng the gra�ns off the plants �nto the canoes. Also called water oats, squaw r�ce, and marsh oats, w�ld r�ce (genus Zizania) was a staple to Nat�ves and european adventurers �n the North Country. Today, �t �s often m�xed w�th long-gra�ned r�ce as a s�de d�sh, but �t �s also cooked alone. It was not unt�l 1950 �n M�nnesota that w�ld r�ce began to be grown �n flooded f�elds surrounded by d�kes. M�nnesota rema�ns the largest producer, followed by Cal�forn�a.20

The Germans certa�nly left the�r mark to the extent that nat�ve m�dwest-erners th�nk that goetta, leberwurst, bratwurst, we�sswurst, and blutwurst are Amer�can foods that could be found everywhere. The Germans, of course, also brought beer to the M�dwest to dr�nk w�th the sausages, center�ng brew-�ng emp�res �n st. Lou�s and M�lwaukee as well as C�nc�nnat�. sauerkraut �s a frequently served s�de d�sh and a requ�rement w�th a pork roast. Zw�eback �s often fed to teeth�ng ch�ldren. Pretzels and potato salad are ub�qu�tous. rye and pumpern�ckel breads, dan�sh coffee cakes, and pastr�es are typ�cally ava�lable.

The Poles who m�grated to Pennsylvan�a, many to work �n coal m�nes, gave P�ttsburgh one of �ts cul�nary cla�ms to fame: p�erog�es. P�ttsburgh pr�zes p�erog�es whether fr�ed, baked, or bo�led. They are c�rcles of dough p�nched together �n a half-c�rcle w�th any assortment of f�ll�ngs, �nclud�ng, but not l�m�ted to, mashed potatoes and cheddar cheese, sauerkraut, cabbage, cot-tage cheese, or hamburger. They are perhaps best fr�ed �n butter and on�ons. They can be a meal or a s�de d�sh, and s�nce they can be f�lled w�th anyth�ng, they can be subject to complete transformat�on �n the Amer�can k�tchen, but most p�erog�e af�c�onados want them the way grandma used to make them.

The Norweg�ans who settled �n w�scons�n and M�nnesota remember the�r North Atlant�c her�tage around Thanksg�v�ng and Chr�stmast�me by enjoy-�ng a feast of lutef�sk. Not unl�ke the New england baked cod d�nner, th�s �s served w�th potatoes, peas, and bread, wh�ch �n th�s case �s lefse. However, the cod �s ne�ther fresh nor restored salt cod, but mar�nated and preserved �n


lye. The vapors from lutef�sk, wh�ch translates as “lye f�sh,” �s sa�d to have the power to peel pa�nt from walls, br�ng tears to the eyes, and buckle the knees of a latter-day V�k�ng. Lutef�sk, after several water baths, �s s�mply salted and peppered, baked, and served w�th melted butter. Gently put, a lutef�sk d�nner �s an unforgettable exper�ence.

w�scons�n �s the b�ggest cheese-produc�ng state �n the Un�ted states, ac-count�ng for 2.4 b�ll�on pounds (26.4%) of Amer�ca’s total cheese produc-t�on of 9.13 b�ll�on pounds �n 2005. There are 115 plants mak�ng cheese �n w�scons�n, and where cheese �s be�ng made, cheese curds, the local spec�alty that does not keep over a day or so or travel well, are ava�lable.21 Cheese curds result from the cheese-mak�ng process, and they are plucked from vats be-fore the cheese �s blocked and aged. They may come from any cheese, but Amer�can-type cheese (a cheddar) �s the favor�te and the most produced �n w�scons�n. Cheese curds are a sl�ghtly salty snack�ng treat w�th the cons�s-tency of a penc�l eraser, and they em�t squeaks aga�nst the teeth as �f they were pol�sh�ng the teeth squeaky clean.

The stockyards of Kansas C�ty and omaha, on the edge of the Great Pla�ns, were the last stop for m�ll�ons of an�mals on the way to slaughter. omaha �s so proud of �ts beef that they named a local football team the omaha Beef. There could be no greater honor. The c�ty �s famous for �ts steaks. Kansas C�ty even has a cut of steak named after �t, but the c�ty �s perhaps more famed for �ts barbeque, both beef and pork. Kansas C�ty barbeque �s def�ned by the use of h�ckory �n the f�re for a spec�al flavor and a sauce that �s, �n m�dwestern trad�t�on, ne�ther too sp�cy l�ke Carol�na sauces nor too hot l�ke Texas sauces. Molasses helps to th�cken the tomato-based sauce and lend �t a certa�n sweet-ness. A dry rub �s used to flavor the meat before cook�ng. Kansas C�ty �s f�lled w�th barbeque jo�nts.22

what barbeque �s to Kansas C�ty, ch�l� �s to C�nc�nnat�, a c�ty w�th a old German her�tage. A Texan, however, would f�nd C�nc�nnat� ch�l� to be some-th�ng other than ch�l�, �f not a b�t of a joke. There are more than 180 ch�l� parlors (�t �s not clear why a ch�l� restaurant �s called a parlor) �n C�nc�nnat�, serv�ng a ch�l� that was created by a Greek �mm�grant restaurateur of the 1920s who had trouble sell�ng Greek food to Germans. He �nvented what he called a ch�l� out of a Greek d�sh, subst�tut�ng ground beef for lamb, add�ng some ch�l� powder, but keep�ng sp�ces l�ke c�nnamon, allsp�ce, and cloves �n the d�sh. In th�s great fus�on of cu�s�nes, he also dec�ded to serve h�s ch�l� over spaghett�. Today, th�s �s known a two-way ch�l�. Add grated cheese and �t �s three-way ch�l�; add on�ons and �t �s four-way; add k�dney beans and �t �s f�ve-way. Coneys are hot dogs w�th mustard, ch�l�, and grated cheese.23

For folks who l�ve around the upper Great Lakes �n M�ch�gan, w�scons�n, and M�nnesota, the f�sh bo�l �s a Nord�c r�ght of summer and fall. Unl�ke


the New england clambakes and lobster bakes, th�s �s not a celebrat�on of seafood, but rather a celebrat�on of lake food—freshwater f�sh l�ke lake trout and wh�tef�sh. The f�sh bo�l �s an outdoor event. A rag�ng f�re �s stoked under a large kettle or pot f�lled w�th salted water, seasoned w�th bay leaves, pepper-corns, and allsp�ce. F�rst, a w�re basket of potatoes �s lowered �nto the bo�l�ng water. Then on�ons are placed �n the w�re basket to bo�l w�th the potatoes. Then the cleaned f�sh are lowered �nto the kettle �n a separate basket to cook for about 10 m�nutes. A p�nt or so of kerosene �s then thrown on the f�re to produce an overbo�l. After the pyrotechn�cs, the meal �s ready. The f�sh, on�ons, and potatoes are usually accompan�ed by bread and coleslaw, butter, and lemons.24 Beer �s the preferred beverage for adults.

There are two foods born �n the M�dwest that are st�ll largely ava�lable only �n the M�dwest. Long before there was a Mcdonald’s, a wendy’s, or a Burger K�ng, the M�dwest had wh�te Castles and Ma�d-r�tes. The f�rst wh�te Castle restaurant opened �n w�ch�ta, Kansas, �n 1921, sell�ng ham-burgers for a n�ckel. Now w�th 380 locat�ons, many of those �n oh�o, Il-l�no�s, M�ch�gan, Ind�ana, and around st. Lou�s, M�ssour�, wh�te Castle sold around 500 m�ll�on burgers, affect�onately called slyders, �n 2005, and cla�ms to be the f�rst hamburger cha�n to sell 1 b�ll�on hamburgers. slyders are three-and-a-half-�nch square, very th�n, salted and peppered hamburgers w�th f�ve holes punched through them that are steamed w�th dehydrated on-�ons, and then the bun �s placed on top of them so that �t absorbs the flavor of the process. A sl�ce of d�ll p�ckle �s placed on the meat, and the sandw�ch �s placed �n a box. A sack of slyders �s s�x burgers (mustard and ketchup separately packaged) and a l�ttle b�t of heaven. wh�te Castle cons�ders �ts product so un�que that they have based the�r advert�s�ng on crav�ng slyders, a message not lost on m�dwestern college students w�th the munch�es �n the early morn�ng.25

In 1926, a butcher �n Muscat�ne, Iowa, comb�ned “a spec�al cut and gr�nd of meat w�th a selected set of sp�ces” and the Ma�d-r�te sandw�ch was born, when an unknown patron declared on tast�ng the sandw�ch that �t was “just made r�ght.” There are now more than 70 Ma�d-r�te restaurants branch�ng out from Iowa and declar�ng to be “Amer�ca’s #1 Favor�te Made to order Loose Meat sandw�ch.” The spec�al season�ng rema�ns a secret, but �s thought to conta�n garl�c, on�on, tomato ju�ce, brown sugar, worcestersh�re sauce, and seasoned salt. Ma�d-r�te cla�ms to have �nvented casual d�n�ng and pr�des �tself on prov�d�ng an atmosphere of grac�ous, hometown hosp�tal�ty. In ad-d�t�on to the Ma�d-r�te sandw�ch, the menu also �ncludes a pork tenderlo�n sandw�ch, greatly favored �n the M�dwest, and, �n deference to the M�dwest’s chang�ng taste, a Taco-r�te. The restaurants also serve shakes, malts, and �ce cream cones.26


The Southwest and West

In the southwest and on �nto the southern west Coast, span�sh �nfluence, m�xed w�th nat�ve and Mex�can, has created a spec�al reg�onal cu�s�ne. south-western cu�s�ne’s bas�c �ngred�ents are corn, ch�les, beans, and squashes. Tama-les are cornmeal flour, masa, stuffed w�th meat or span�sh r�ce and steamed �n cornhusks. Tacos are soft or fr�ed corn tort�llas stuffed w�th meat and covered w�th salsa and lettuce, tomatoes, and cheese. ench�ladas are corn tort�llas fr�ed and stuffed and d�pped �n ch�l� sauce. Ch�les rellenos are deep-fr�ed m�ld ch�les stuffed w�th cheese and served as an accompan�ment to meals. some ma�n �ngred�ents are chayotes, pear-shaped squashes; ch�les—Anahe�ms, Ch�les del Arbol, ch�mayos, jalapeños, poblanos, and serranos; and dr�ed corn �n the form of cornmeal, posole, and tort�llas. Blue cornmeal �s espec�ally flavorful. Posole �s the hom�ny of the southwest, produced by treat�ng dr�ed kernels of corn w�th l�me. It �s cooked before use and often eaten as a s�de d�sh and somet�mes alone. J�cama �s often used for salads and s�de d�shes. Nopales (cac-tus pears) are eaten as vegetable or �n salads. P�ñones, p�ne nuts, are used �n cu�s�ne, too. Tomat�llos, related to tomatoes but stay�ng green when r�pe, are used �n salads, soups, and sauces. Burr�tos and ch�m�changas are southwestern

A g�ant ench�lada �s cut �nto many p�eces to be d�str�buted to v�s�tors at the whole ench�lada F�esta �n New Mex�co. © AP Photo/The Las Cruces sun-News, Norm dettlaff.


U.s. adaptat�ons of old Mex�can foods. Modern southwestern cu�s�ne fuses var�ous other cu�s�nes w�th trad�t�onal southwestern �ngred�ents to create new flavors. Thus one m�ght f�nd escargot ench�ladas w�th Made�ra sauce and en-d�ve or a cassolette of sweetbreads and p�nto beans on the menu.27

Tex-Mex cu�s�ne can be cons�dered a Texan take on Mex�can food, and s�nce Texas �s cattle country, add�ng beef to the Mex�can d�shes was only natu-ral. Ch�l�, once s�mply beans �n a tomato sauce, became ch�l� con carne, or ch�l� w�th meat. Texas red ch�l� �s not �mag�nable w�thout beef. Ch�l� lends �tself to personal �nnovat�on and the add�t�on of secret �ngred�ents, espec�ally sp�ces and ch�les. Ch�l� cook-offs are frequent and popular events. Faj�tos, wheat tort�llas f�lled w�th mar�nated sk�rt steak, are, l�ke red ch�l�, a pure Tex-Mex creat�on. what passes for Mex�can food �n most of Amer�ca’s Mex�can restaurants �s, �n fact, an Amer�can adaptat�on, l�ke Tex-Mex of true Mex�can food.28 The fre-quent use of ch�les also d�st�ngu�shes Texas barbeque, wh�ch was trad�t�onally beef. The sauces used �n and on barbeque tend to be hot and sp�cy, as opposed to the v�negary Carol�na sauces and sweet Kansas C�ty sauces.

New Mex�co green ch�l� �s often just a hot wedd�ng of p�nto beans w�th green ch�les flavored w�th salt pork. Green ch�le stew adds pork to the pot. Another popular New Mex�co d�sh �s calabacitas, a m�xture of green ch�les, squash, corn, and cream or cheese. In northern New Mex�co, dr�ed and roasted corn kernels called chicos are cooked w�th red ch�les, sp�ces, and pork to make a favor�te d�sh, also called chicos. sopa�p�llas, tr�angle-shaped deep-fr�ed pastry w�th honey, for dessert can help take the st�ng out of the ch�les.

The b�rth of Cal�forn�a cu�s�ne �s generally traced back to Al�ce waters �n the early 1970s and her restaurant Chez Pan�sse. waters �ntroduced the �dea of us�ng natural, locally grown fresh �ngred�ents to produce her d�shes. Cal�-forn�a cu�s�ne �s, therefore, not any one th�ng, ne�ther a method of cook�ng nor any group of part�cular �ngred�ents—�t �s local, based l�ke most trad�t�onal reg�onal cook�ng on ava�lable �ngred�ents, �nclud�ng abundant seafood. Fresh vegetables, l�ghtly cooked, and fresh fru�ts, berr�es, and herbs character�ze the cu�s�ne generally, but Cal�forn�a cook�ng �s also �n fact a fus�on of tastes from all over the world. The favor�te ma�n courses for 2006 of san Franc�sco’s top chefs make the po�nt. They �nclude “seared yellow f�n tuna, mar�nated summer cucumbers, da�kon sprouts, yuzu-wasab� crème fraîche,” “lobster roe crusted Japanese hamach� w�th a warm Mau� on�on shellf�sh v�na�grette,” and “shellf�sh tom yum noodles w�th Tha� bas�l pesto.”29

The fus�on of �nternat�onal cu�s�nes �s also go�ng on �n casual d�n�ng and fast food. In 1988, the three wahoo brothers w�ng, ed, and M�ngo founded wahoo’s �n southern Cal�forn�a. The�r object�ve was to �ntroduce the Mex�-can f�sh taco to the Cal�forn�a market but also to g�ve the�r food a Braz�l�an flare (they grew up �n Braz�l) w�th some or�ental h�ghl�ghts (the�r parents


ran a Ch�nese restaurant �n Braz�l). Now w�th 30 locat�ons �n Cal�forn�a and Colorado, wahoo’s offers f�sh, ch�cken, steak, and vegetar�an tacos, ench�la-das, and burr�tos. The combo plate comes w�th ah� r�ce and black beans or sp�cy Cajun wh�te beans.30 yet even �n Cal�forn�a, the cheap and portable hamburger �s st�ll a hamburger, great for eat�ng wh�le s�tt�ng on a freeway. In-N-out Burger, w�th around 150 locat�ons �n Cal�forn�a, allowed custom-ers to order the�r hamburgers on a two-way speaker �n 1948. Jack �n the Box, the f�rst dr�ve-through franch�se, started sell�ng hamburgers �n san d�ego �n 1951. Fatburger, a Cal�forn�a hamburger franch�se that cla�ms to be “a cul-ture” and “a phenomenon,” started �n 1952. Mcdonald’s d�d not open �ts f�rst locat�on unt�l 1955, and �t was �n des Pla�nes, Ill�no�s.31

It would be far from the mark to say that Ch�nese food began �n Cal�for-n�a, of course, but Ch�nese-Amer�can food d�d �ndeed beg�n there. Ch�nese, most from the Canton area, f�rst came to Cal�forn�a �n the 1840s to work on ra�lroads and �n gold m�nes, often �n men�al pos�t�ons. some Ch�nese entre-preneurs �n the restaurant bus�ness d�scovered that they could sell Amer�can-�zed vers�ons of Ch�nese foods successfully. Chop suey houses spread across the nat�on. Many of them featured trad�t�onal Cantonese fare for the�r Ch�-nese patrons and an engl�sh menu w�th such Ch�nese-Amer�can d�shes as egg rolls, wonton soup, chop suey, sweet and sour pork, and even meats w�th lobster sauce. wh�le Ch�nese fast food �n Amer�ca �s for the most part Ch�nese-Amer�can food, excellent reg�onal Ch�nese cook�ng has become ava�lable �n the Un�ted states as Amer�cans’ tastes have matured. Cantonese d�m sum �s very popular. Mandar�n d�shes l�ke mu-shu pork and pot st�ck-ers have become ma�nstays of Ch�nese restaurants. even the hot cu�s�nes of szechwan and Hunan f�nd the�r place now �n Amer�ca.32

The Pac�f�c Northwest �s known for salmon, oysters, apples, berr�es, and oregon and wash�ngton w�nes to dr�nk w�th them. In fact, however, th�s area of the country also produces tremendous amounts of wheat, potatoes, lamb, beef, and da�ry products. A great var�ety of vegetables are also successfully grown there. ra�nbow trout are abundant �n the freshwater streams all over the west, and �n add�t�on to salmon, the ocean prov�des Pac�f�c cod, hal�but, pollock, and other var�et�es of f�sh. The bays that produce the oysters also produce crab. da�ry product�on has g�ven r�se to local cheese mak�ng. wash-�ngton produces more apples than any other state. w�ld mushrooms abound �n the forests. Nat�ve berr�es �nclude raspberr�es, strawberr�es, blueberr�es, blackberr�es, boysenberr�es, gooseberr�es, and the very spec�al huckleberr�es, to name just a few. Grapes for w�ne have been grown �n wash�ngton s�nce 1825. The develop�ng cu�s�ne of the Pac�f�c Northwest makes use of these local foods much �n the sp�r�t of Cal�forn�a cu�s�ne. Fresh local food, perhaps w�th an accent of As�an �nfluence, character�zes the taste of the Northwest.33


The luau �s Hawa��’s vers�on of the New england clambake. Ch�cken and taro plant leaves cooked �n coconut m�lk �s called luau, thus the name of th�s trad�t�onal and symbol�c feast. Today, of course, a luau may �nclude roasted p�g and other meats, f�sh �n great var�ety, p�neapples and coconuts, fru�ts, macadam�a nuts, and so on. whatever d�shes a modern luau may �nclude, �t �s never w�thout po�, the Hawa��an spec�alty made by beat�ng tarot root �nto a paste. Po�, l�ke scand�nav�an lutef�sk, �s an acqu�red taste. Luaus, w�thout the po�, are popular for part�es on the ma�nland, but �n Hawa��, they are held mostly for the benef�t of tour�sts. Indeed, the large Japanese populat�on of the �slands has made Hawa�� the best state �n the nat�on for Japanese food.

ameriCan fashion

That’s hot!—Par�s H�lton

Par�s, M�lan, London, Tokyo, and New york are the recogn�zed fash�on cap�tals of the world. Amer�cans had long looked to Par�s for h�gh fash�on. It could be argued that only the dem�se of Par�s because of Naz� Germany’s

Fresh f�sh caught �n the Pac�f�c ocean are often sold �n street markets such as th�s one �n wash�ngton. Getty Images/Med�oImages.


occupat�on of France from 1940 unt�l 1944 brought New york, and thus Amer�ca, to the party. In fact, however, Amer�ca had been develop�ng and �nvent�ng a d�st�nct�ve fash�on look from �ts beg�nn�ng that was purposely democrat�c, not ar�stocrat�c, and dec�dedly pragmat�c, not flashy, and cer-ta�nly not up to the qual�ty and exact�ng standards of haute couture. when New york took over the �nternat�onal fash�on lead, the effect was to rent the fabr�c of haute couture, so t�ghtly woven for centur�es �n France. Amer�can fash�on des�gners broke all the old rules, des�gned for the masses, and clothed them �n ready to wear (rTw).

Amer�can fash�on des�gn was �n fact democrat�zed �n the face of a mass market. The qu�ntessent�al old rule that fash�on was d�ctated from on h�gh by a few fash�on houses stood �n sharp contrast w�th Amer�can th�nk�ng and trad�t�on. Amer�can des�gners were qu�ck to g�ve the people what they wanted and placed the�r �mpr�maturs on the fash�on that came up from the streets, such as grunge and urban h�p-hop, that complemented the Amer�can casual l�festyle and that put modern tw�sts on Amer�can class�c styles, �nclud�ng western wear. The great Amer�can couture houses make the�r money from rTw l�nes of cloth�ng and accessor�es, not from custom f�tt�ng �nd�v�dual cloth�ng �tems to wealthy patrons. Amer�can cloth�ng �s mass-produced, most of �t outs�de the country, �n what has become a global �ndustry.

oddly enough, men’s cloth�ng was the f�rst to be mass-produced �n the Un�ted states �n mean�ngful quant�t�es. The problem w�th mass-produc�ng cloth�ng �s that some standard �s needed for s�z�ng. The C�v�l war created the need for mass-produced un�forms, and as a pattern emerged from s�z-�ng sold�ers, that m�l�tary standard became the standard for s�z�ng c�v�l�an mass-produced men’s cloth�ng. wh�le women’s cloth�ng began to be mass-produced �n the later 1920s, the movement for standard�zed women’s cloth�ng was pushed by populat�on growth and the development of mass merchand�sers l�ke sears, roebuck and Co. It was not unt�l 1941, however, that the bas�s for a standard for women’s s�zes emerged after a nat�onal study of women’s s�zes was publ�shed by the U.s. department of Agr�culture �n 1941. yet �t was st�ll later, �n 1958, that the government publ�shed a commerc�al standard, Cs215-58, for women’s s�zes. The standard was updated and made voluntary �n 1971 and then completely w�thdrawn �n 1983.34 Cloth�ng marketers were qu�ck to understand that a dress marked s�ze 6 but cut to a standard s�ze 10 sold better than the same dress marked s�ze 10 and cut to a s�ze 10.

Amer�cans spent $326.5 b�ll�on on cloth�ng and shoes �n 2004. At the wholesale level, consumpt�on totaled more than 18.4 b�ll�on garments and 2.15 b�ll�on pa�rs of shoes. Imports accounted for 91 percent of apparel and 98 percent of footwear. Most Amer�cans are wear�ng clothes made �n Cen-tral Amer�ca and the dom�n�on republ�c, ow�ng to a trade agreement, and


Ch�na and Mex�co. Most Amer�cans are wear�ng shoes made �n Ch�na, wh�ch alone accounted for 82 percent of footwear �mports. one �nd�cat�on of the total commod�t�zat�on of cloth�ng and shoes �s that even as reta�l pr�ces have �ncreased overall by 15.9 percent from 1993 to 2004, the reta�l pr�ces of cloth�ng and shoes have sl�pped 9.5 percent and 6.8 percent, wh�le wholesale pr�ces have rema�ned about the same.35 The fash�on �ndustry can make good money �n th�s g�gant�c market only when �t successfully brands �ts products to support h�gher noncommod�ty pr�ces �n the marketplace. of course, a per-sonal fash�on statement cannot be made w�th cloth�ng and shoes alone. The whole package also �ncludes jewelry, accessor�es l�ke handbags and rucksacks, and a scent. Market�ng and advert�s�ng are therefore every b�t as �mportant as des�gn and fabr�c �n sell�ng the Amer�can look.

There was a t�me even w�th�n the frames of baby boomers’ l�ves when Amer�cans travel�ng abroad were adv�sed not to dress l�ke Amer�cans to avo�d be�ng consp�cuous �n a crowd. Today, however, much of the world dresses l�ke Amer�cans. From Moscow to Capetown, Buenos A�res to Tokyo, and Madr�d to Be�j�ng, the casual style �nvented by Amer�ca has taken hold �n a sea of human�ty dressed �n jeans and T-sh�rts. Amer�can fash�on has long been sent around the world �n Hollywood mov�es and, more recently, as a t�e-�n to Amer�can pop mus�c.

Amer�can fash�on reflects the d�vers�ty and complex�ty of Amer�can soc�ety as the personal express�on of urban and country, r�ch and poor, young and old, ethn�c, reg�onal, rel�g�ous, and even mus�cal cultures. In very general terms, northeasterners are sa�d to dress rather formally; southerners dress con-servat�vely and ma�nta�n the old-fash�oned nostrums—straw hats and seer-sucker su�ts may be worn only between easter sunday and Labor day—that are pretty much dead elsewhere; m�dwesterners are cons�dered to be qu�te cost-consc�ous, w�th a preference for pract�cal and pla�n cloth�ng; and west-erners seem to prefer casual cloth�ng. Cowboy boots and stetson hats w�th a bus�ness su�t would look normal �n dallas and Houston but qu�te out of place �n Boston and Ph�ladelph�a. For most of the older �mm�grant populat�ons, trad�t�onal dress comes out only for fest�vals and spec�al events. Although most Amer�can roman Cathol�c orders of rel�g�ous women have abandoned hab�ts for pla�n dress, rel�g�ously �nsp�red dress may be seen occas�onally on Amer�ca’s streets. The Hass�d�c Jews, mostly �n New york C�ty, have ma�n-ta�ned the�r trad�t�onal garb, as have the Am�sh who settled f�rst �n Pennsyl-van�a and have moved westward over t�me. some Amer�can Musl�m women choose to be �n hijab, that �s, wear head scarves, but �t �s not unusual to see them ma�nta�n the requ�rement for head-to-toe cover�ng w�th a sweater or sh�rt and blue jeans rather than an overgarment. Indeed, �t would be the ex-cept�on, rather than the rule, that any Amer�can would stand out �n a crowd


of fellow Amer�cans by v�rtue of dress. The mass culture has assured a certa�n sameness �n dress.

wh�le there �s no real d�st�nct�ve eastern, m�dwestern, or southern style, the same cannot be sa�d of the western style of dress. In fact, �f there �s �ndeed an �nd�genous Amer�can style, the western style would be �t. The cowboy �s, of course, the myth�cal �con�c Amer�can. Tough, Golden rule fa�r, a true �nd�-v�dual �n command of all around h�m, he roams the golden pla�ns freely and uses h�s gun only when he has to. H�s dress �s s�mple: cowboy hat; po�nted leather cowboy boots; jeans (chaps opt�onal), held on by a sturdy belt w�th a b�g buckle; and a den�m sh�rt. on spec�al occas�ons, he m�ght don a sh�rt w�th fancy st�tch�ng and pearl buttons and sl�p on a bola t�e. Celebrated �n w�ld west shows late �n the n�neteenth century and �nto the twent�eth cen-tury, the cowboy mythology grew larger through f�lms and telev�s�on, even as real cowboys v�rtually d�sappeared. Country mus�c appropr�ated western wear, created s�ng�ng rh�nestone cowboys, and seem�ngly moved the center of the west to Nashv�lle, Tennessee. western fash�on �s very much al�ve on the rodeo c�rcu�ts and even �n fash�on des�gners’ collect�ons. The w�ld west cont�nues �ts hold on the Amer�can �mag�nat�on.36

Amer�can fash�on �s �n a constant state of reb�rth, borrow�ng from the past, appropr�at�ng from the present, and m�x�ng up the s�gnals by cross�ng trad�t�onal l�nes. It can be value laden; �t can be dangerous. It can be pract�-cal; �t can be outrageous. Fash�on can also be confus�ng. Amer�cans are never qu�te sure what to wear on occas�ons that demand formal, black t�e opt�onal, sem�formal, casual, bus�ness casual, or �nformal att�re. A “come as you are” party �s an even more dar�ng concept.

A number of famous Amer�can fash�on des�gners have contr�buted �n ach�ev�ng an Amer�can look. New york C�ty’s Fash�on walk of Fame, wh�ch stretches along the east s�de of seventh Avenue from 41st street to 35th street, �s to Amer�can fash�on des�gners as the forecourt to Hollywood, Cal�forn�a’s, Grauman’s Ch�nese Theatre �s to Amer�can mov�e stars. The plaques on the Manhattan s�dewalks (no des�gners’ footpr�nts, but rather de-s�gn sketches) honor Amer�can fash�on des�gners for the�r contr�but�ons to Amer�can fash�on. They were elected from 1999 to 2002 by ballots passed around to 150 �ndustry leaders. Nom�nees were l�m�ted to those w�th “a s�g-n�f�cant New york presence” who owned the�r own bus�nesses a m�n�mum of 10 years and who made a “powerful �mpact on fash�on” through the�r creat�ve des�gns or use of mater�als or who “s�gn�f�cantly �nfluenced the way Amer�ca dresses.”37

Most of the fash�on des�gners memor�al�zed on the Fash�on walk of Fame are household names. L�lly daché (1898–1989) came to New york C�ty from France when she was only 16 years old. By the t�me she closed her shop �n


1968, she had become the c�ty’s most reputed m�ll�ner, hav�ng added acces-sor�es and dresses to her salon. she also des�gned headgear for mov�e stars l�ke Marlene d�etr�ch and Betty Grable. Her sculpted hats helped to def�ne an Amer�can look for decades before hats became costume, rather than every-day wear. Maryland-born Cla�re McCardell (1905–1958), however, �s often cred�ted w�th or�g�nat�ng the Amer�can look. she bel�eved that fundamental Amer�can democrat�c values could and should be expressed �n the cloth�ng she des�gned. McCardell, work�ng out of Townley Frocks, des�gned for work�ng-women, not the �dle class, and she bel�eved that mass-produced cloth�ng could also be fash�onable, comfortable, and affordable. In the 1930s, she came out w�th the monast�c dress, wh�ch women could shape to the�r bod�es w�th a sash or belt. In 1940, McCardell’s des�gns used a natural shoulder and pleats or b�as cuts for comfortable wear. Her 1942 pop-over dress was a k�nd of wrap-around. she des�gned for a casual and free l�festyle—th�s was Amer�can—at the beach, at play, at home, or at work. even the fabr�cs she used, from den�m and corduroy to seersucker and cal�co, expressed a bas�c casual feel.

des�gners, of course, cont�nued to cater to the wealthy. Charles James (1906–1978), though born �n england, spent much the 1940s and 1950s �n New york C�ty des�gn�ng opulent sculpted ball gowns that each �n �ts own r�ght was cons�dered a work of art. Norman Norell (1900–1972) left Ind�ana to des�gn clothes for Paramount P�ctures �n New york C�ty �n 1922. He also des�gned for Broadway product�ons. In 1944, he and h�s partner, Anthony, founded Tra�na-Norell and def�ned the Amer�can look dur�ng the war—emp�re l�ne dresses, fur coats, and sequ�ned even�ng sheaths. In 1960, w�th h�s own label, called s�mply Norell, he des�gned class�c, �mpeccably ta�lored clothes meant to last and, �n establ�sh�ng the New york style, successfully translated couture to rTw. James Galanos (1924–) had h�s f�rst show �n Los Angeles but opened a shop �n New york �n 1952. H�s expens�ve off-the-rack ornamented gowns, favor�tes of Nancy reagan, were superbly constructed. Ma�n rousseau Bocher (1891–1976), brand�ng h�mself as Ma�nbocher, was born �n Ch�cago but made h�s name �n Par�s. one of h�s famous cl�ents was wall�s s�mpson, the duchess of w�ndsor. As war �n europe loomed, he re-turned to the Un�ted states, where he contr�buted jeweled sweaters and short even�ng dresses to the Amer�can look and des�gned un�forms for the new women’s m�l�tary un�ts as well as the G�rl scouts. Paul�ne Tr�gère (1909–2002) left her Par�s b�rthplace �n 1937 and started her own fash�on house �n New york �n 1942. when she began mak�ng rTw �n the late 1940s, she was already a respected New york label. Her contr�but�ons to Amer�can fash�on, �n add�t�on to her costume jewelry, �ncluded removable scarves and collars from dresses and coats, class�c su�ts, sleeveless coats, opera capes, and revers-�ble coats.


Anne Kle�n (1921–1974) was, �n her day, the most popular sportswear des�gner �n the Un�ted states. Her plaque on the Fash�on walk of Fame notes that the coord�nated day and even�ng separates she developed, �nclud�ng her “body su�ts and z�ppered sk�rts, have become class�c staples of the modern wardrobe.” In 1948, she founded Jun�or soph�st�cates, and �n 1968, Anne Kle�n and Company, where she nurtured future des�gners who would �mpact Amer�can fash�on. Bonn�e Cash�n (1915–2000), after des�gn�ng handbags for Coach, work�ng for 20th Century Fox and, des�gn�ng women’s m�l�tary un�forms, formed her own bus�ness �n 1953. Her loose-f�tt�ng, layered, �n-terlock�ng women’s cloth�ng and the poncho as fash�on as well as canvas and popl�n ra�ncoats were des�gned to express �ndependence, adaptab�l�ty, and the taste of the wearer.

Amer�can fash�on could be playful. Geoffrey Beene (1924–2004) set up h�s own f�rm �n 1962. A dress from h�s f�rst collect�on made �t to the cover of Vogue, and he suddenly had made �t �n the fash�on world. Beene was one of the f�rst to show short sk�rts, and h�s football jersey even�ng gown w�th jewels ga�ned h�m some notor�ety. rud� Gernre�ch (1922–1985) came to Cal�forn�a from V�enna �n 1938. He formed rud� Gernre�ch Inc. �n 1964. Gernre�ch �ntroduced to Amer�ca and the world such �nnovat�ons as kn�tted tube dresses, sh�rt-wa�st dresses, the women’s topless bath�ng su�t (the fash�on sensat�on of 1964), the no-bra bra, and women’s boxer shorts, a statement of the 1980s. Ital�an by b�rth and bred �n Argent�na, G�org�o d� sant’Angelo (1933–1989) came to the Un�ted states �n 1962 and started a rTw bus�ness �n 1966. He exper�mented w�th stretch fabr�cs, w�th the goal of free�ng body movement. H�s body su�ts, devo�d of z�ppers and buttons, could double as sw�mm�ng wear.

Iowan roy Halston Frow�ck (1932–1990) began h�s career as a m�ll�ner, hav�ng des�gned p�llbox hats for Jack�e Kennedy. He opened h�s own des�gn bus�ness �n 1966 and got �nto the rTw market. Halston was Amer�ca’s f�rst m�n�mal�st des�gner—clean and s�mple l�nes w�th class�c fabr�cs. Many con-s�dered h�m to be the best even�ng wear des�gner �n the nat�on. H�s foray �nto mass merchand�s�ng a cheaper l�ne w�th J.C. Penney put h�s jet set bus�ness �n a ta�lsp�n, but th�s exper�ence would not hold out for later des�gners. ralph Lauren (1939–) �s, �n many ways, the qu�ntessent�al Amer�can des�gner. Born �n Bronx, New york, he has cleverly re�nterpreted great Amer�can fash�on of the past for the contemporary age and, �n the process, has produced class�-cally elegant men’s wear and women’s wear. H�s Polo brand �s ub�qu�tous, but he des�gns beyond cloth�ng for a total l�festyle. Lauren v�rtually �nvented the casual preppy style that has def�ned the look of the well-to-do. Another Bronx nat�ve, Calv�n Kle�n (1942–), �s perhaps the �con of late-twent�eth-century and early-twenty-f�rst century Amer�can fash�on. From the 1970s


onward (Calv�n Kle�n Inc. was founded �n 1994 and sold �n 2003), Kle�n def�ned Amer�can fash�on, �nclud�ng jeans and underwear, w�th a m�n�mal-�st approach and a zest for controvers�al advert�s�ng campa�gns. dom�n�can-born oscar de la renta (1932–), on the other hand, �s known for h�s blend�ng of “Lat�n elegance and Amer�can ease.” In the late 1960s, he notably featured bejeweled hot pants �n h�s Gypsy collect�on, but h�s day wear for work�ng-women, as �n h�s less expens�ve osCAr l�ne, �s qu�te restra�ned. H�s tasteful use of color ma�nta�ns h�s Lat�n roots.

B�ll Blass (1922–2002) bought the company he was work�ng for �n 1970, and B�ll Blass Ltd. was born. H�s plaque on the Fash�on walk of Fame notes that he can “r�ghtly be cred�ted as one of the creators of a true ‘Amer�can style.’ ” Best known for h�s women’s day wear, �t �s Blass who can e�ther be blamed or cred�ted for Amer�cans’ confus�on about what �s sportswear and what �s formal wear because he “brought the comfort and s�mpl�c�ty of sportswear �nto the realm of formal dress�ng.” somet�mes referred to as the dean of Amer�can des�gners, Blass employed class�c fabr�cs �n garments that curved to the body. H�s des�gns, favored by notables such as Nancy reagan and Barbra stre�sand, could exude Hollywood glamour or be su�table for a country club sett�ng. Perry ell�s (1940–1986) founded Perry ell�s Interna-t�onal �n 1978 and shared the des�gner spotl�ght w�th Blass �n the 1980s. ell�s made h�s name �n sportswear. He bel�eved �t should not be pretent�ous, and he sought to br�ng trad�t�onal fash�on a modern Amer�can look. He helped to rev�ve hand-kn�t sweaters.

Norma Kamal� (1945–) opened her f�rst shop �n 1968 des�gn�ng rh�ne-stoned and appl�quéd T-sh�rts. In 1974, she �ntroduced parachute jumpsu�ts made of real parachute s�lk. Her sleep�ng bag coat came �n 1975, and �n 1977, she �ntroduced sw�mwear that would make her famous. In 1978, Kamal� opened oMo (on My own), and �n 1980, she �ntroduced another fash�on �nnovat�on, her Fash�on at a Pr�ce collect�on, that featured her sweatsh�rt col-lect�on. she went on to develop fragrances, cosmet�cs, and gym and athlet�c wear as well as a no-wr�nkle poly-jersey collect�on for travelers. Ph�ladelph�a nat�ve w�ll� sm�th (1948–1987) wanted to des�gn fash�ons that would f�t somewhere between formal even�ng wear and very �nformal jeans. He founded w�ll�wear �n 1976 and �ntroduced moderately pr�ced, br�ghtly colored cloth-�ng or�ented to young people that, w�th baggy pants and overs�zed sh�rts and sweaters, precursed the rap and h�p-hop styles that would come later. Born �n Connect�cut �n 1942, Betsey Johnson had a background �n dance and was a warhol group�e �n the 1960s. she opened a bout�que �n 1969 and des�gned rock ‘n’ roll cloth�ng �n the 1970s. In 1978, she and a partner formed the Bet-sey Johnson label, now w�th stores worldw�de that �nclude accessor�es as well as cloth�ng. Johnson des�gns youthful, sexy—m�crom�n�s—and colorful, even


exuberant clothes, often �n stretch fabr�cs that allow ease of movement. Marc Jacobs (1963–) �s famous for h�s w�t—the Freud�an sl�p dress—and mak�ng grunge h�gh fash�on �n 1982. H�s label Marc for the mass market �s des�gned to be edgy and affordable. New yorker donna Karan (1948–) worked for Anne Kle�n and, after her death, des�gned sportswear for the company. she went out on her own �n 1985 w�th the donna Karan collect�on. Karan’s des�gns for women, whether for sports, work, or even�ng wear, are s�mple, elegant, and comfortable. she l�berated successful, �ndependent women from “the mascul�ne corporate un�form.” Her f�gure su�t �s casual ch�c. In 1988, she started dKNy, a less expens�ve brand more access�ble to the masses.

Perhaps �n recogn�t�on of the global success and preem�nence of Amer�can fash�on des�gn and des�gners, but certa�nly not �n any recogn�t�on of the fact that some Amer�cans des�gners had reached the h�ghest level of couture as pract�ced only heretofore �n France, f�ve Amer�can des�gners were �nv�ted to show the�r des�gns at Versa�lles �n 1973 w�th f�ve French des�gners. The oc-cas�on was actually a fundra�s�ng event for the Versa�lles restorat�on Fund, but that Amer�cans were show�ng the�r fash�ons �n France was a revolut�on-ary event. The Amer�can des�gners �nv�ted �ncluded B�ll Blass, Anne Kle�n (donna Karan f�lled �n for her), oscar de la renta, Halston, and stephen Burrows. Burrows had come to not�ce after he opened a New york bou-t�que �n 1970 and become famous for h�s ch�ffons, jersey dresses w�th lettuce hems, usually �n red, and h�s br�ght colors. He dressed Cher and became the preferred des�gner of the d�sco scene. Thanks �n part to the Versa�lles show, Burroughs became the f�rst Afr�can Amer�can fash�on des�gner to atta�n an �nternat�onal reputat�on. He now sells h�s lesser des�gns on telev�s�on through the Home shopp�ng Network. w�th everyone assembled at the palace on November 28, the Amer�can des�gners showed the�r rTw, wh�le the French des�gners—yves sa�nt Laurent, Hubert G�venchy, emanuel Ungaro, P�erre Card�n, and Chr�st�an d�or—showed the�r haute couture.38

wh�le these noted fash�on des�gners have been �nstrumental �n develop�ng an Amer�can look, �n truth, there are many Amer�can looks, and des�gners are prov�d�ng Amer�cans w�th qu�te eclect�c cloth�ng cho�ces. Carmen webber and Carm�a Marshall of s�stahs Harlem New york attempt to express �n the�r fash�ons the exper�ence and her�tage of New york C�ty’s Harlem, from the people of the streets to the upper class. wh�le the�r style �s dec�dedly Amer�-can, �t �s Amer�can �n the sense that Amer�ca �s a fus�on of cultures. one of the�r collect�ons, for example, �s called rastafar�an street Punk. Tommy H�lf�ger, on the other hand, wants h�s clothes to be fun and to be used to ex-press �nd�v�dual�ty, a treasured Amer�can value. dav�d rodr�guez, a Mex�can Amer�can, opened h�s own label �n 1998 and qu�ckly became known for h�s sleek and sexy cockta�l dresses as well as h�s red carpet ensembles. He came


out w�th a fur collect�on and accessor�es �n 2005. Zac Posen made h�s name by des�gn�ng nostalg�c gowns worn by mov�e starlets to suggest the�r r�ght-ful places �n Hollywood h�story. Mark Badgley and James M�schka are also br�ng�ng back class�c Hollywood glamour �n the�r des�gns. M�chael Kors has been des�gn�ng ch�c, upscale, luxur�ous class�cs for the jet set s�nce 1981. Kors and Posen have used the�r success �n women’s wear to expand �nto men’s wear. wh�le Kors’s des�gns have modern l�nes, Mary P�ng, who launched her own label �n 2001, based her des�gns on the l�nes of postmodern arch�tecture and the shapes found �n nature. Her s�lk and velvet gowns def�ne ch�c �n r�ch colors that are not necessar�ly beholden to symmetry. Luca orland� of Luca Luca des�gns fl�rtat�ous, very fem�n�ne dresses �n bold colors that are �nsp�red by abstract art. ralph rucc� of Chado ralph rucc� creates sculpted and soph�st�cated cloth�ng w�th pr�nts from h�s own artwork. H�s perfect�on got h�m �nv�ted to show h�s haute couture �n Par�s. Kenneth Cole began �n the shoe bus�ness and cont�nues to des�gn shoes �n add�t�on to men’s and women’s wear that cla�m a contemporary urban �nsp�rat�on w�th black jeans and crew neck sweaters. Born �n Colomb�a and ra�sed �n M�am�, esteban Cortazar entered the fash�on des�gn bus�ness �n 2002 at the age of 18. The br�ght colors of h�s fabulous gowns g�ve away h�s consc�ously span�sh �nf lu-ences. des�gner Maz Azr�a at BCBG comb�nes the soph�st�cat�on of europe w�th the sp�r�t of Amer�ca �n h�s fash�ons, wh�ch stretch to den�m, footwear, and fragrances.39

Fash�ons, l�ke ha�rstyles, are safe, nonpermanent ways for Amer�cans to express themselves. Take the cur�ous Amer�can �nvent�on of blue jeans. Lev� strauss began supply�ng jeans to m�ners shortly after the Cal�forn�a Gold rush began �n 1848. In the 1870s, he and h�s partner had perfected the jeans known today by re�nforc�ng stress po�nts w�th r�vets. Jeans, both pants and overalls, became and rema�n the un�form of Amer�cans who work w�th the�r hands—farmers, steel workers, assembly l�ne workers, construct�on workers, m�ners, cowboys. In the 1950s, they were appropr�ated by some youths as a symbol of the�r personal d�saffect�on. Mov�es passed on the message. In the 1960s and 1970s, however, �n one of those strange turns �n Amer�can pol�t�-cal h�story, jeans became the symbol of the youth culture and �ts �mag�ned sol�dar�ty w�th work�ng people, a sol�dar�ty not sought by most work�ng peo-ple. war protesters �n blue jeans f�lled telev�s�on news stor�es, but jeans now had taken on a d�fferent look. Bell-bottoms and flower and bead des�gns were �n, and the scruff�er the pants, the more they were �n. By the 1980s, fash�on des�gners had f�gured out that blue jeans could be cool, even �f stonewashed and w�th holes �n the knees. A pa�r of fash�on des�gner branded jeans could fetch thousands of dollars, even wh�le most Amer�cans were sat�sf�ed w�th a $12 pa�r of Lev�s.


The 1990s saw the reappropr�at�on of blue jeans �nto urban fash�on. Lead�ng the charge were the h�p-hop art�sts, the rappers. These blue jeans were not sleek des�gner jeans f�t to accentuate the buttocks, but to h�de them �n loose-f�tted, baggy pants worn low on the h�ps to expose underwear pants and gath-ered over the ankles. w�th sneakers, T-sh�rt, a hood�e, flashy large jewelry, and a baseball cap worn s�deways or backward, or a do-rag, jeans helped to make a new fash�on statement. Th�s fash�on, assoc�ated w�th the p�mps and hos of dangerous, young, urban Afr�can Amer�can and Lat�no gangster�sm, qu�ckly found �ts way �nto teenage fash�on of all races �n all places.

Fash�on �s changeable as the w�nd. Teenage fash�on �s espec�ally f�ckle. The fortunes of cloth�ng reta�lers l�ke Abercromb�e & F�tch, the Gap, and Amer�-can eagle outf�tters that cater to teens r�se and fall on the ab�l�ty of �ts buyers to catch the wave of what �s hot �n that season. Large d�scount reta�lers have sought to assoc�ate themselves w�th celebr�t�es and fash�on des�gn houses to ratchet up the�r market�ng campa�gns and �ncrease the�r prof�ts and cachet. Actress Jaclyn sm�th, who rose to fame �n the or�g�nal Charlie’s Angels telev�-s�on show, has been sell�ng her l�ne of cloth�ng at K-Mart for over 20 years. It has sales of about $300 m�ll�on a year.40 Mary-Kate and Ashley olsen, the olsen tw�ns, used the�r celebr�ty for many aux�l�ary enterpr�ses, �nclud�ng a l�ne of preteen and young teen cloth�ng sold �n wal-Mart stores. In 2003,

Lev�’s jeans are st�ll one of Amer�ca’s most popular brands. © AP Photo/er�c r�sberg.


Isaac M�zrah� began des�gn�ng cloth�ng for Target. L�ke many fash�on des�gn-ers, M�zrah� cont�nues to work �n h�gh fash�on, but these cheaper des�gns pro-duce a b�g bottom l�ne. Noted des�gner Vera wang followed M�zrah� �nto the mass reta�l trade �n the fall of 2007 w�th a less expens�ve l�ne of sportswear, �nt�mate apparel, handbags, and leather accessor�es along w�th jewelry, furn�-ture, towels, and l�nes for the moderately pr�ced Kohl’s cha�n. J. C. Penney has f�lled �ts cloth�ng racks w�th pr�vate store labels, and �n 2005, wal-Mart even �ntroduced “Metro 7,” �ts own brand of urban fash�on.

The tremendous �nflux of H�span�cs �nto the Un�ted states created a large new market of Lat�nas, who have proved to be qu�te fash�on consc�ous. stud-�es have shown, for example, that 57 percent of H�span�c women preferred cloth�ng that looked better on them for an even�ng out eat�ng and danc-�ng than cloth�ng that was more comfortable. wh�te and Afr�can Amer�can women much preferred the more comfortable cloth�ng, at the rates of 45 per-cent and 46 percent. H�span�c women also spent on average 135.1 m�nutes �n stores shopp�ng for cloth�ng, beat�ng out wh�te women at 89.4 m�nutes and Afr�can Amer�can women at 109.27 m�nutes. In add�t�on, more H�span�c women than the other ethn�c groups were l�kely to use the Internet to shop for apparel.41 Put all together, th�s means that Lat�nas are l�kely to spend more on cloth�ng. G�ven $500, a 2004 study �nd�cated, Lat�nas would spend $305.33 on clothes, whereas Afr�can Amer�can women would spend $297.51 and wh�te women only $219.58.42

Armed w�th th�s �nformat�on, reta�lers have gone after the Lat�na mar-ket. Celebr�ty and model da�sy Fuentes teamed up w�th regatta to des�gn low-pr�ced cloth�ng w�th a l�ttle salsa for Kohl’s. Mex�can-born pop mus�c star Thal�a sod� sells her collect�on of sp�cy and fl�rtat�ous cloth�ng through K-Mart. Color, lace, beads, hoop earr�ngs, and t�ght-f�tt�ng jeans are �n. sears teamed up w�th Lat�na Med�a Ventures, publ�sher of Latina Magazine, to �ntroduce a full l�ne of Lat�na fash�on, shoes, jewelry, and accessor�es �nto �ts stores. Lat�na fash�ons are prov�ng to have a large appeal beyond the�r or�g�-nally targeted market.

Mov�e stars are famous for plugg�ng fash�on des�gners on the red carpet run-ways of such events as the telev�sed emmy and Academy Award shows. Med�a representat�ves dut�fully ask them, “who are you wear�ng?” and the stars dut�-fully tell them. wh�le they are sell�ng h�gh fash�on at h�gh pr�ces �n the Hol-lywood glamour trad�t�on, �t �s the rock bands and rappers who establ�sh for teenagers what �s cool, and �t �s the teens who push new looks for the�r gen-erat�on. These days, a band or group �s not only a mus�cal ensemble, but also a market�ng concept. w�th a market �n the Un�ted states alone of hundreds of b�ll�ons of dollars (and Amer�can mus�c goes around the world qu�ckly), a fract�onal percentage of total market sales could establ�sh a successful brand.


entrepreneur russell s�mmons, a p�oneer of h�p-hop and cofounder of def Jam record�ngs, among other th�ngs, started Phat (for “pretty hot and tempt�ng”) Farm Fash�ons LLC �n 1992. w�th a comb�nat�on of preppy and h�p-hop cloth�ng l�nes, russell reached annual sales of $250 m�ll�on when he sold h�s cloth�ng l�ne �n 2004 for $140 m�ll�on. rapper shawn “Jay-Z” Carter, now Ceo of def Jam record�ngs, started rocawear �n 1999. It ep�t-om�zes urban fash�on, the look of the street, the look of the rappers w�th the�r baggy jeans hang�ng on the�r h�ps, exposed underwear, hood�es, and loose-hang�ng sh�rts. The women’s wear sparkles w�th sequ�ns and rh�nestones. w�th more than $350 m�ll�on �n sales, rocawear has s�gned deals w�th T�f-fany & Co. for luxury accessor�es and has a l�cens�ng deal w�th Pro-Keds sneakers. There are l�nes even for toddlers and �nfants. Th�ngs are chang�ng, however, for rocawear. Not�ng that once he h�t the 30-year mark, he could not show h�s underwear anymore, Carter has come out w�th a Custom F�t label meant to appeal to a more mature (older) populat�on. The closer-f�tt�ng jeans, sh�rts, and track jackets look more trad�t�onal and only suggest the urban fash�on look of an earl�er era.43 des�gner Marc ecko, w�th h�s M.e. and Cut and sew l�nes, �s also try�ng to br�dge the gap between urban and preppy w�th ta�lored but comfortable cloth�ng.

russell s�mmons and h�s former w�fe K�mora Lee s�mmons pose w�th the�r ch�ldren after the debut of one of the�r fash�on collect�ons. © AP Photo/r�ch-ard drew.


If any proof were needed that urban culture and cloth�ng had become ma�nstream Amer�ca, certa�nly sean “P. d�ddy” Combs’s rece�pt of the 2004 Counc�l of Fash�on des�gners of Amer�ca Men’s wear des�gner of the year award would be enough. Combs started sean John �n 1998. w�th th�s suc-cess, he des�gned a women’s l�ne that �s both soph�st�cated and grounded �n street culture. sean John’s reta�l sales exceed $450 m�ll�on.

rappers have taken to fash�on. em�nem has h�s brand shady Ltd. that sells bean�es, h�s famous kn�t scullcap, T-sh�rts w�th logos, sweatsh�rts, and baggy jeans. st. Lou�s rapper Cornell “Nelly” Haynes Jr. actually started h�s men’s l�ne, Vokal, before he h�t the mus�c scene b�g �n 2000. H�s football jerseys, sweatpants, jeans, and tracksu�ts are meant to be clothes that speak for themselves. H�s later women’s l�ne, Apple Bottoms, features sexy sl�m jeans, V-necked hood�es, flounce sk�rts, tanks, and tube dresses. Gwen stefan�’s L.A.M.B. collect�on has sales of around $20 m�ll�on and �ncludes fleece and leopard hood�es as well as pla�d jumpsu�ts and a l�ne of rock ‘n’ roll clothes. Jenn�fer Lopez, w�th partner Andy H�lf�ger, have turned the�r sweetface Fash�on bus�ness, started �n 2001, �nto a $500 m�ll�on bus�ness w�th about a dozen d�fferent l�nes that cover head to toe. even Just�n T�mberlake, former Mouseketeer, has a cloth�ng l�ne of T-sh�rts, jeans, and kn�ts called w�ll�am rast, a label he hopes to make a major brand.44

Amer�can fash�on, no matter the pr�ce po�nt, represents the l�berat�on of self-express�on from old norms and mores. Amer�cans can dress l�ke modern-day cowboys and cowg�rls or Hollywood stars, or gangstas, �f they l�ke. young men can show off the�r underwear and young women the�r m�dr�ffs, or teen-agers can demonstrate the�r �nev�table al�enat�on from everyth�ng of the�r parents’ generat�on �n grunge or goth or punk—about anyth�ng goes fash�on-w�se �n Amer�ca. what most Amer�cans really want �n the�r dress, however, �s comfort and flex�b�l�ty, wh�ch �s what Amer�can des�gners have g�ven them. everyday dress �n the workplace rema�ns rather trad�t�onal—men �n bus�-ness su�ts, women �n bus�ness su�ts and conservat�ve su�ts and dresses—but even there, old standards have been put �nto quest�on w�th the growth of the casual Fr�days movement. At home and at le�sure, however, the sweatpants and sweatsh�rts, the jeans, the shorts and the T-sh�rts come out. That �s the Amer�can look.

notes

1. Ph�ll�p stephen schulz, As American as Apple Pie (New york: s�mon and schus-ter, 1990).

2. U.s. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004/5, http://www.census.gov.


3. “2006 restaurant Industry Fact sheet,” http://www.restaurant.org. 4. susan sp�elberg, “Pos�t�ve sales, Growth Trends to Cont�nue, Analysts say:

H�gh Costs Leg�slat�ve Issues st�ll Concern reg�onal operators,” Nation’s Restaurant News, January 3, 2005, http://www.nrn.com; “More Than s�x out of 10 Amer�cans w�ll Have The�r Mother’s day Meals at restaurants,” Pizza Marketing Quarterly, May 4, 2006, http://www.pmq.com.

5. exxon Mob�l Corporat�on, “Mob�l Travel Gu�de Announces the 2006 Mob�l Four- and F�ve-star Award w�nners,” news release, october 26, 2005, http://www.companyboardroom.com.

6. Bruce Horow�tz, “NPd Group survey of 3,500 respondents to the Quest�on ‘what d�d I order at a restaurant Today?’ as Part of a year-long survey of eat�ng Hab�ts �n 2004,” USA Today, May 12, 2005, http://www.usatoday.com.

7. “P�zza Power 2005; PMQ’s Annual P�zza Industry Analys�s,” Pizza Marketing Quarterly, september/october 2005, http://www.pmq.com.

8. “P�zza Industry Facts,” http://p�zzaware.com. 9. U.s. Census Bureau, “Census Product Update: Chow Me�n, Cacc�atore, or

Faj�tas?,” http://www.census.gov.10. el restaurante Mex�cano, “H�span�c Market Prof�le,” http://www.restmex.

com; “About CrN,” http://engl�sh.c-r-n.com.11. “Frozen Food Trends,” http://www.aff�.com.12. “Industry at a Glance,” http://www.aff�.com.13. “News: 2005 Cal�forn�a w�ne sales Cont�nue Growth as w�ne enters Ma�n-

stream U.s. L�fe,” California Wine and Food Magazine, Apr�l 6, 2006, http://www.cal�forn�aw�neandfood.com.

14. “Craft Brew�ng Industry stat�st�cs: H�ghl�ghts of 2005,” http://www.beer town.org.

15. “sp�r�ts: North Amer�can wh�skey,” http://www.tast�ngs.com.16. “Product Var�ety: soft dr�nk Facts,” http://www.amer�bev.org; “Product Va-

r�ety: what Amer�ca’s dr�nk�ng,” http://www.amer�bev.org.17. “Fun Facts about Peanuts,” http://www.nat�onalpeanutboard.org.18. Helen Mendes, The African Heritage Cookbook (New york: Macm�llan,

1971).19. Chef John Folse and Company, “exper�ence Great Cajun & Creole Food and

rec�pes w�th Chef John Folse & Company: H�story,” http://www.jfolse.com.20. e. A. oelke, T. M. Teynor, P. r. Carter, J. A. Perc�ch, d. M. Noetzel,

P. r. Bloom, r. A. Porter, C. e. schertz, J. J. Boed�cker, and e. I. Fuller, “w�ld r�ce,” �n Alternative Field Crops Manual, http://www.hort.purdue.edu.

21. U.s. department of Agr�culture, Nat�onal Agr�culture stat�st�cs serv�ce, “da�ry Products 2005 summary,” Apr�l 2006, http://usda.mannl�b.cornell.edu.

22. “Barbeque Kansas C�ty style,” http://www.exper�encekc.com.23. see Cl�ff Lowe, “The L�fe and T�mes of Ch�l�: C�nc�nnat� Ch�l�—Part Two,”

http://www.�nmamask�tchen.com.24. “Upper Great Lakes F�sh Bo�l: A Tasty Trad�t�on,” http://www.seagrant.umn.

edu.


25. wh�te Castle Inc., “T�mel�ne,” http://www.wh�tecastle.com; “About Us,” http://www.wh�tecastle.com.

26. Ma�d-r�te Corporat�on, “Un�que Loose Meat sandw�ch,” http://www. ma�d-r�te.com; “Menu,” http://www.ma�d-r�te.com.

27. see John sedlar, w�th Norman Kolpas, Modern Southwest Cuisine (New york: s�mon and schuster, 1986).

28. “Mex�can and TexMex Food H�story,” http://www.foodt�mel�ne.org.29. “Menus & rec�pes from the Bay Area’s F�nest restaurants & Top Chefs,”

http://www.sanfranc�scocu�s�ne.com.30. wahoo’s F�sh Taco, “wahoo’s story,” http://www.wahoos.com; “Menu,”

http://www.wahoos.com.31. Fatburger, “H�story,” http://www.fatburger.com; In-N-out Burger, “H�story,”

http://www.�n-n-out.com.32. M�chael Luo, “As All-Amer�can as egg Foo young,” New York Times, septem-

ber 22, 2004, http://www.nyt�mes.com.33. “All you want to Know about wash�ngton Cu�s�ne,” http://www.theworld-

w�degourmet.com; Brendan el�ason, “A 6 reg�on explorat�on: Pac�f�c Northwest,” http://www.w�nebrats.org.

34. U.s. Nat�onal Inst�tute of standards and Technology, “short H�story of ready-Made Cloth�ng: standard�zat�on of women’s Cloth�ng,” http://museum.n�st.gov.

35. “Trends: Annual 2004,” http://www.apparelandfootwear.org.36. “How the west was worn,” http://www.autry-museum.org.37. “Fash�on walk of Fame,” http://www.fash�oncenter.com.38. Ib�d. For b�ograph�es of des�gners, see “H�story of Fash�on & Costume: Fash-

�on des�gners,” http://www.des�gnerh�story.com.39. “Fash�on shows,” http://www.nymag.com.40. “Celebr�ty style: Com�ng to a department store Near you,” http://abcnews.

go.com.41. Cotton Incorporated, “Lat�na Fash�on: From Vogue to K-Mart,” news release,

october 5, 2005, http://www.cotton�nc.com.42. Cotton Incorporated, “Lat�na Flavor: Today’s H�span�c woman Feasts on

Fash�on,” http://www.cotton�nc.com.43. Ter� Ag�ns, “Jay-Z’s F�ne L�ne,” Wall Street Journal, August 17, 2006, B1–B2.44. see Fashion Rocks: A Supplement to the New Yorker, september 2005 and sep-

tember 2006 ed�t�ons.

BiBliograPhy

Bradley, susan. Pacific Northwest Palate. read�ng, MA: Add�son-wesley, 1989.Cunn�ngham, Patr�c�a A., and susan Voso Lab, eds. Dress in American Culture. Bowl-

�ng Green, oH: Bowl�ng Green state Un�vers�ty Popular Press, 1993.Glenn, Cam�lle. The Heritage of Southern Cooking. New york: workman, 1986.Hays, w�lma P., and r. Vernon. Foods the Indians Gave Us. New york: Ives wash-

burn, 1973.


Johnson, ronald. The American Table. New york: w�ll�am Morrow, 1984.Jones, evan. American Food: The Gastronomic Story. 2nd ed. New york: random

House, 1981.K�dwell, Claud�a Brush, and Margaret C. Chr�stman. Suiting Everyone: The Democ-

ratization of Clothing in America. wash�ngton, dC: sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on Press, 1974.

Langlo�s, stephen. Prairie: Cuisine from the Heartland. Ch�cago: Contemporary Books, 1990.

Mendes, Valer�e, and Amy de la Haye. 20th Century Fashion. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999.

M�lbank, Carol�ne rennolds. New York Fashion: The Evolution of American Style. New york: Harry N. Abrams, 1989.

root, waverley, and r�chard de rochemont. Eating in America: A History. New york: ecco Press, 1976.

smallzr�ed, Kathleen Ann. The Everlasting Pleasure. New york: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1956.

stern, Jane, and M�chael stern. Real American Food. New york: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986.

stern, Jane, and M�chael stern. A Taste of America. Kansas C�ty: Andrews and Mc-Meel, 1988.

welters, L�nda, and Patr�c�a A. Cunn�ngham, eds. Twentieth-century American Fash-ion. New york: Berg, 2005.

In the year 2006, one of the top best sellers �n bookstores across the Un�ted states (w�th over a half m�ll�on sales) was the Far Side Boxed Calendar. The vast major�ty of the sales �n bookstores, however, were actually for books. The Book Industry study Group has projected 2.5 b�ll�on books to be sold �n 2006, th�s desp�te a trend toward less t�me spent read�ng (101 hours per person �n 1995 compared to 84 hours per person projected for 2006).1

Prognost�cators have also looked �nto the�r crystal balls and seen trends �n the publ�sh�ng world: more fragmentat�on, rather than the current consol�da-t�on of publ�sh�ng houses. Publ�sh�ng �n the Un�ted states �s st�ll dom�nated by s�x publ�sh�ng houses: random House, Pearson, von Holtzbr�nck, T�me-warner, HarperColl�ns, and s�mon & schuster. There are small press, profes-s�onal, academ�c, and numerous other k�nds of publ�shers as well, but even they have been th�nned out. Th�s �s a trend that has been ongo�ng for about the past 30 years, but th�s may be com�ng to an end as h�gh-tech alternat�ves to book publ�sh�ng, such as pr�nt-on-demand (Pod), portable document format (PdF), and other means of self-publ�sh�ng, become more popular. Further-more, thanks to newer means of d�str�but�on, espec�ally the Internet, smaller publ�sh�ng compan�es can now afford to compete �n the market.

Another popul�st trend �s the oprah w�nfrey Book Club. Beg�nn�ng �n september 1996, oprah w�nfrey began to recommend a book a month to her aud�ence of 20 m�ll�on v�ewers. she then featured a d�scuss�on of the book and author �nterv�ews. It has proven to be a powerful book-sell�ng phenom-enon. For �nstance, one of the f�rst books she featured, Jacquelyn M�tchard’s

6

L�terature

William P. Toth

231


The Deep End of the Ocean, went from a pre-oprah run of 68,000 books to a post-oprah run of 4 m�ll�on and a spot on the New York Times bestseller l�st. The success of her book club has made book clubs �n general popular.

whether the publ�sh�ng �s trad�t�onal or part of the new med�a, �t st�ll �ncludes trad�t�onal poetry and drama as well as many types of trad�t�onal prose, both f�ct�on and nonf�ct�on. one of the modern, nontrad�t�onal trends �s to blur the d�st�nct�on between f�ct�on and nonf�ct�on as exem-pl�f�ed by the movement known as creat�ve nonf�ct�on. Amer�can l�tera-ture and even journal�sm are subject to the same creat�ve �mpulse that has dr�ven pa�nters, sculptors, mus�c�ans, f�lm d�rectors and other art�sts to break down the old structures and barr�ers, throw out the old rules, and create new ones. Th�s blurr�ng usually leads to �nterest�ng, l�vely, and ex-cept�onal l�terature, but �t also can lead to controversy when f�ct�on creeps too strongly �nto someth�ng that �s categor�zed as nonf�ct�on. For example, several newspaper journal�sts—us�ng creat�ve nonf�ct�on techn�ques—�n the last few years have been f�red or res�gned when the�r ed�tors found out that art�cles they had wr�tten were part�ally f�ct�on, not just �n techn�que but also �n content.

L�terature �s not always conta�ned �n books—there �s also performance l�terature, some trad�t�onal, l�ke the theater, and some nontrad�t�onal, l�ke slam poetry. Both can ex�st �n book form, but most people exper�ence them through l�ve performances. That �s the�r natural state, and they, too, are �mportant parts of the contemporary Amer�can l�terary scene.

Poetry

the Oral tradition Goes hip-hop

Ch�cago can be a rowdy town. The words poetry and rowdy do not trad�-t�onally m�x, but �n November 1984, poets gather�ng on Monday n�ghts at the Get Me H�gh Jazz Club on the west s�de of Ch�cago changed that per-cept�on and started a nat�onal trend. Break�ng from the trad�t�on of pol�te, ser�ous, and sedate poetry read�ngs, they dec�ded to decla�m poetry wh�le walk�ng on bar counters and bar stools, perform�ng and �nteract�ng w�th the�r aud�ence. remarkably, th�s craz�ness caught on. It became so popular that the poetry gather�ngs moved to larger d�gs, the Green M�ll Cockta�l Lounge, and turned the read�ngs �nto a compet�t�on. The Ch�cago Poetry ensemble, led by poet Marc Kelly sm�th, called �t the Uptown Poetry slam. Thus began one of the popular contemporary trends �n poetry: publ�c, compet�t�ve poetry read�ngs, also known as poetry slams.

To be accurate, the oral trad�t�on �s as old as poetry �tself. The l�kes of Homer and sappho performed for aud�ences, tell�ng tales of valor, fate, and

LITerATUre 233

love. The poets of anc�ent Greece d�d not, of course, compete for Tw�nk�es, boxes of macaron� and cheese, lottery t�ckets, or—the b�ggy—a $10 b�ll. Nevertheless, these were the much coveted pr�zes at the early poetry slams.

sm�th and the ensemble (formed �n 1985) turned the�r Monday n�ght read�ngs �nto a cultural phenomenon and gave slam a m�ss�on. The m�ss�on was, �n part, to turn as large a part of the populat�on of the country as pos-s�ble �nto not only lovers of poetry, but also creators of poetry. No longer was poetry l�m�ted to the academy and to the �nsular world of l�terary magaz�nes and small presses. Now, anyone w�th the guts to get on stage could be part of the poetry scene. True, they m�ght get booed off the stage, but then aga�n, they m�ght end up eat�ng a Tw�nk�e as well.

so how popular and far-reach�ng �s the poetry slam today? e�ghty-four-year-old dor�s Gayzag�an (her f�rst book was publ�shed �n 2006) �s a regular at the Chelmsford Publ�c L�brary’s poetry slam. The Nat�onal engl�sh Asso-c�at�on promotes slam poetry �n h�gh schools. It found a n�che on telev�s�on �n HBo’s Def Poetry Jam, wh�ch then became a Broadway Tony Award–w�nn�ng product�on, Russell Simmons’ Def Poetry Jam on Broadway. There �s even a Complete Idiot’s Guide to Slam Poetry (wr�tten by Marc Kelly sm�th and Joe Kraynak).

The poetry �tself �s often soc�ally or�ented, often pol�t�cal, often angry. some of �t arrogantly mocks w. H. Auden’s l�ne that “poetry makes noth�ng happen.” The worst of �t, l�ke the worst of any art form, �s ephemeral: there

suhe�r Hammad, Beau s�a, and Georg�a Me perform �n the def Poetry Jam �n New york. © AP Photo/robert spencer.


�s noth�ng there that w�ll be of any human �mportance beyond the �mmed�ate moment. yet some of �t captures—w�thout d�ssect�ng—truly human mo-ments that prom�se un�versal�ty and t�melessness. wh�le the poet�cs m�ght somet�mes be th�n, there �s another d�mens�on to be cons�dered: the perfor-mance �tself.

Th�s �s poetry that �s performed on Broadway stages, telev�s�on, aud�to-r�um stages, and small stages �n bars and bookstores. Th�s fact creates an added d�mens�on to the poetry—�t �s more than just the words; �t �s also the del�very. on one extreme, the del�very can be graceful and po�gnant; on the other extreme, �t can be l�ke a tun�ng fork h�t w�th a sledge hammer. The best performance art�sts use the tools of the actor or the comed�an—and all are vo�ce mus�c�ans. The star poets are most often the champ�ons of e�ther the Nat�onal Poetry slam or the Ind�v�dual world Poetry slam.

The Nat�onal Poetry slam began �n 1990 as part of a poetry fest�val held �n san Franc�sco. The next year, �t took on a l�fe of �ts own. It has been held every year s�nce at var�ous c�t�es across the country, �n Ashev�lle, Ann Arbor, seattle, and Ch�cago, among others. It �s now a 16-year trad�t�on as well as a happen�ng. The compet�t�on �s held over four n�ghts and �ncludes team compet�t�on—group poems, somet�mes choral, but also punctuated w�th solos, much l�ke a jazz performance—and an �nd�v�dual compet�t�on. The Ind�v�dual world Poetry slam �s a newer event. It began �n 2004 and �s an offshoot of the Nat�onal Poetry slam.

The sp�r�t of slam poetry �s to s�destep exclus�v�ty and celebrate democracy, wh�le pass�onately scorn�ng the concept of the ano�nted few. Nevertheless, slam poetry has produced some stars and �mportant f�gures. one �s certa�nly Marc Kelly sm�th, the or�g�nator of the poetry slam. Though not a compet�tor �n any of the above poetry compet�t�ons, he �s st�ll a compell�ng performance poet. He was born �n 1950 �n Avalon Park, a ne�ghborhood of Ch�cago. H�s roots are blue collar, and h�s speech—pure Ch�cago d�alect—supports th�s. He f�rst became �nterested �n wr�t�ng poetry �n 1969, at age 19, because (he says) h�s w�fe was a poet. He took some classes �n l�terature and a few �n wr�t-�ng, but cons�ders h�mself self-taught. H�s f�rst poetry read�ng was at the Left Bank Bookstore �n oak Park, Ill�no�s, where he cla�med to have h�dden h�s poems �n a newspaper. From th�s exper�ence and from attend�ng other po-etry read�ngs, he came to the conclus�on that street conversat�ons were more �nterest�ng than poetry read�ngs. wh�le he was learn�ng h�s craft, he worked as a construct�on worker. Then, �n 1984, he qu�t to become a full-t�me poet, and the rest �s slam poetry h�story.

sm�th �s humble about h�s poet�c ab�l�t�es (wh�ch he cons�ders to be a l�ttle above average) but forthr�ght about h�s role �n the creat�on of slam po-etry and �ts democrat�zat�on of poetry. He eschews the connect�on (often

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made) between the beatn�ks and slam poetry—he cons�ders the beatn�ks to have been soc�al dropouts. For h�m, slam poetry �s more ak�n to the soc�al�st movement and folk art�sts l�ke Pete seeger. st�ll, often, when he �s perform�ng at the Green M�ll, he �s accompan�ed by a jazz group called the Pong Un�t, thus, �ron�cally, beat�ng the jazzy, bongo beats at the�r own game.

The subject of many of sm�th’s poems �s Ch�cago �tself: �ts people, �ts s�ghts, �ts sounds. The scene for h�s poem “Peanuts,” for �nstance, �s out-s�de one of Ch�cago’s baseball stad�ums. As the narrator of the poem perches h�mself on a f�re hydrant, and as the bark�ng vo�ce of the peanut vender �n-term�ttently calls out, he notes the characters around h�m: cops, fathers and sons, and even a perox�de blond eat�ng a Pol�sh sausage. some of h�s other top�cs are Ch�cago’s famous el tra�n, street mus�c�ans, b�cycle messengers, and jazz mus�c. The poem he cons�ders h�s best �s t�tled “My Father’s Coat.” Th�s �s a mov�ng, decept�vely complex poem that revolves around the central metaphor of h�s father’s coat and deals w�th relat�onsh�ps and generat�ons. equally good �s h�s poem “small Boy,” wh�ch deals w�th three generat�ons, �nterm�ngled �n memor�es of ch�ldhood captured �n a photo.

L�ke sm�th, Bob Holman does not compete d�rectly �n any of the nat�onal compet�t�ons, but he �s also a slam �mpresar�o of the f�rst magn�tude. Hol-man �s the don K�ng of poetry, promot�ng h�mself as well as slam. Born �n 1948 �n LaFollette, Tennessee, he grew up �n New r�chmond, oh�o, just east of C�nc�nnat� and across the r�ver from Kentucky. He went to college at Columb�a and was h�ghly �nfluenced by Alan G�nsberg and, �n turn, by walt wh�tman. He cla�ms to have moved to New york C�ty w�th a copy of G�nsberg’s Howl �n h�s back pocket.

Holman coproduced the PBs ser�es United States of Poetry and has been extremely act�ve �n the promot�on of slam and of poetry �n general (he d�d the program Poetry Spots for wNyC-TV, was the found�ng ed�tor of NyC Poetry Calendar, was curator for the People’s Poetry Gather�ng, was founder of the st. Mark’s Poetry Project, and much more). For slam poetry, he helped to reopen the Nuyor�can Poets Café and �s the propr�etor of the Bowery Po-etry Club. Both establ�shments host poetry slams and are poetry hot spots �n New york C�ty. Most of Holman’s poet�c style �s heav�ly der�ved from G�ns-berg and wh�tman, and at t�mes, he overuses the repet�t�on of words. He �s famous for h�s poem “d�scCla�mer,” wh�ch he reads before every slam that he hosts. In �t, he descr�bes slam poetry as “space shots �nto consc�ousness” and declares that the best poet always loses.

“M�ghty” M�ke McGee �s the 2003 w�nner of the �nd�v�dual t�tle at the Nat�onal Poetry slam, the 2006 w�nner of the Ind�v�dual world Poetry slam, and a frequent guest on HBo’s Def Jam Poetry. Born �n 1976 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, he dropped out of college �n 1998 and became part of


the slam poetry scene �n san Jose, Cal�forn�a. McGee has an engag�ng style, laced w�th a strong dose of humor, and a def�n�te stage presence. w�th h�s trademark ch�n beard and black framed glasses, he eases up to the m�cro-phone, and w�th a somewhat rotund m�ddle sect�on, tells the aud�ence—w�th a saxophone-l�ke vo�ce and a comed�an’s sense of t�m�ng and rhythm—about h�s eat�ng duel w�th death, as related �n h�s poem “soul Food.”

McGee’s poetry �s also capable of mov�ng beyond dante-l�ke food f�ghts and �nto the area of lyr�cal love poems, l�ke “open Letter to Ne�l Armstrong,” �n wh�ch he plays off the cl�chés of the moon, love, and the stars. He calls h�m-self a travel�ng poet; he cla�ms that s�nce 2003, he has toured over 170,000 m�les throughout the Un�ted states and Canada. Th�s �s one of the marks of slam stars: they go on the road w�th book�ngs �n venues all across the country (and even �nto other countr�es). The venues m�ght be publ�c l�brar�es, coffee-houses, un�vers�t�es, slam events, bars (l�ke the Green M�ll), or even pr�sons. L�ke many of the contemporary slam poets, McGee cuts h�s own Cds, laces the Internet w�th MP3 f�les of h�s spoken word art, and even has a very charm�ng and w�nn�ng pod cast.

Born �n shreveport, Lou�s�ana, �n 1974, Buddy wakef�eld was ra�sed �n Baytown, Texas, and graduated from sam Houston state Un�vers�ty �n 1997. Unt�l 2001, he worked for a b�omed�cal f�rm. Then, l�ke Marc Kelly sm�th, he gave �t all up to become a profess�onal performance poet. He �s the 2004 and 2005 Ind�v�dual world Poetry champ�on. L�ke most of the really good slam poets, h�s on-stage presence �s un�que. Most often, he stands on the stage, feet together, arms extended (or an�mated), puls�ng w�th emot�on. He has what m�ght be called the wakef�eld growl as he roars through �nd�v�dual words and frequently peppers h�s presentat�on w�th Texas y’alls. H�s poems, l�ke “Conven�ence stores,” often tell stor�es of lonely people br�efly connect-�ng. “Gu�tar repa�r woman” �s a humorous paean to h�s mother, where he says that he �s str�v�ng to get comfortable �n the sk�n h�s mother gave h�m. And �n “Flockpr�nter,” h�s champ�onsh�p poem from the 2005 Ind�v�dual world Poetry Champ�onsh�p, he traces a man’s l�fe search�ng for love through a tor-rent of �mages and metaphors.

An�s M�jgan� was born and ra�sed �n New orleans and attended the savan-nah College of Art and des�gn �n savannah, Georg�a. He graduated w�th a bachelor of f�ne arts degree �n sequent�al art, focus�ng �n on com�c book de-s�gn, wh�ch he says taught h�m about engag�ng the aud�ence and about struc-ture. He then worked on h�s master’s of f�ne arts �n med�a and perform�ng arts. He �s the 2005 and 2006 Nat�onal Poetry slam �nd�v�dual champ�on.

on stage, he somet�mes looks l�ke Alan G�nsberg on a bad ha�r day, hands �n pocket, sl�m and w�th a d�rect and s�ncere pass�on. H�s poetry �s �nsp�ra-t�onal and h�s poems explore how to l�ve and how to have fa�th, depth, and

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mean�ng �n your l�fe. M�jgan� �s d�st�ngu�shed from many of h�s fellow slam poets �n that fa�th, the search for someth�ng beyond human pleasure, does play a s�gn�f�cant part �n h�s poetry. He addresses the young, the old, the awkward, the d�senfranch�sed, those who m�ght have doubts or who m�ght have g�ven up hope.

Patr�c�a sm�th �s perhaps the most trad�t�onally l�terary of the popular slam poets. Born �n Ch�cago �n 1950, sm�th �s a four-t�me �nd�v�dual w�nner of the Nat�onal Poetry slam (1990, 1992, 1993, and 1995). she also has four books of poetry publ�shed: Life According to Motown (1991), Big Towns, Big Talk (1992), Close to Death (1993), and Teahouse of the Almighty (2006). Teahouse was chosen for the Nat�onal Poetry ser�es.

Her subject matter often deals w�th the tragedy, the unfulf�lled dreams, and the l�m�tat�ons of everyday l�fe, often focus�ng on the l�fe of Afr�can Amer�cans, but there �s un�versal�ty about her poetry and an appeal that goes beyond race. often, there �s an edgy—verg�ng on b�tter—humor �n her po-etry. she �s a powerful performer and powerful poet, steeped �n trad�t�on. In “Medusa,” for �nstance, she takes the persona of the myth�cal character Medusa, putt�ng a modern sp�n on her; �n th�s case, she �s a cocky, street-w�se Medusa who seduces Pose�don. In “related to the Buttercup, Blooms �n spr�ng,” sm�th wr�tes about how she came to poetry as a ch�ld, g�v�ng the adv�ce that the wr�ter must learn to love language, word by word. Her own language �s one of v�v�d, prec�se words, rhythm�c and melod�ous. sm�th’s own vo�ce m�ght best be descr�bed as one that speaks an honest, true p�cture of the world around her.

Poetry in books is alive and Well

The wr�tten word �n poetry �s not dead, desp�te the popular�ty of slam (or perhaps because of the popular�ty of slam). Conno�sseurs of wr�tten word poetry (as well as academ�cs) cla�m, w�th some just�f�cat�on, that the overall qual�ty of wr�tten poetry �s h�gher than slam. In any case, people cont�nue to purchase books of poetry, though not at the pace of best-sell�ng prose books. For �nstance, best-sell�ng poet B�lly Coll�ns’s comb�ned book sales for four books (tabulated �n Apr�l 2005) was 400,000, whereas John Grogan’s nonf�c-t�on best seller Marley and Me sold 1,307,000 cop�es from November 2005 through december 2006.

Bookseller stat�st�cs show that the two most w�dely purchased poets �n the Un�ted states at th�s t�me are Mary ol�ver and the prev�ously ment�oned B�lly Coll�ns. Both have had mult�ple books �n the poetry top 30 l�st for the ent�re year (2006). There are other act�ve poets who have dom�nated the top seller l�st as well. These �nclude donald Hall, Ted Kooser, Lou�se Glück, and Claud�a emerson.


In add�t�on to these act�ve poets, there are a number of deceased poets who readers st�ll cons�der v�tal enough to purchase, and thus they, too, have been on the best seller l�st for a good port�on of the year 2006. These �nclude the beatn�k poets Jack Kerouac and Alan G�nsberg as well as sylv�a Plath, el�za-beth B�shop, and Charles Bukowsk�. These four poets seem to suggest that there �s a port�on of the poetry read�ng publ�c who are attracted to the mes-sage of rebell�ousness, whether �t be beatn�k, bohem�an, or fem�n�st.

some of these poets see despa�r, some lonel�ness; some are angry at �njus-t�ce, some see transcendent beauty �n nature, some argue for soc�al change, and all know someth�ng about love and personal loss.

Mary ol�ver, born �n 1935 �n Maple He�ghts, oh�o, began to wr�te poetry at age 13. Immed�ately after graduat�ng from h�gh school, she left oh�o and drove to the home of edna st. V�ncent M�llay �n Austerl�tz, New york. she ended up work�ng for M�llay’s s�ster as her secretary for a short wh�le. she then entered oh�o state Un�vers�ty �n 1955. she spent two years there and then transferred to Vassar. she rema�ned there for only one year and qu�t to concentrate on wr�t�ng. ol�ver has won many awards, �nclud�ng the Pul�tzer Pr�ze for Poetry �n 1984 for her th�rd book, American Primitives. In 2006, she had seven books on the poetry best seller l�st, �nclud�ng a new book, Thirst.

ol�ver �s typ�cally descr�bed as a nature poet. In compar�ng her very early works, l�ke The River Styx, Ohio (1972)—wh�ch �s f�lled w�th portra�ts of ancestors—to her newer works, �t seems that people have gradually d�sap-peared from her poetry. Her poetry would not be so popular, however, �f �t were just the “roses are red, v�olets are blue” k�nd of poetry. she �s, as B�lly Coll�ns has noted about poetry �n general, �nterested �n see�ng l�fe through the v�ewpo�nt of mortal�ty. Th�s �s not a negat�ve v�s�on. For her, there �s a power and a mag�c and a beauty �n nature. It �s her ab�l�ty to create th�s sens�b�l�ty �n her poems that no doubt draws readers to them. They are myster�ous, ph�losoph�cal, fa�ry tale–l�ke observat�ons of the natural world, med�tat�ons that contrast nature w�th the world of amb�t�on, greed, and self�shness. These objects �n the natural world, as she has sa�d herself, pra�se the mystery. In Thirst, there �s a grow�ng connect�on between th�s mystery and God. In the t�tle poem “Th�rst,” she wr�tes about wak�ng w�th a th�rst for a goodness she does not possess, juxtapos�ng love for the earth aga�nst love of God. In the open�ng poem of the book (“Messenger”), ol�ver cla�ms her work �s to love the world and to learn to be aston�shed by �t. Her poetry conveys to the reader th�s sense of aston�shment.

B�lly Coll�ns was born �n New york C�ty �n 1941. He went to College of the Holy Cross and, for graduate school, the Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a, r�ver-s�de. He has been the rec�p�ent of many awards, �nclud�ng the Poet Laureate from 2001 unt�l 2003. dur�ng 2006, he had four books on the poetry best

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seller l�st, �nclud�ng h�s newest, The Trouble with Poetry and Other Poems, wh�ch was the number one seller.

People l�ke to say that Coll�ns wr�tes humorous poetry. In truth, humor �s often a veh�cle for ser�ous cons�derat�on. Though there are poems, such as “Another reason why I don’t Keep a Gun �n the House,” wh�ch �s about the ne�ghbor’s bark�ng dog, and wh�ch can only be seen as humorous, other poems, l�ke “The death of Allegory,” are someth�ng more. There �s humor there: the V�rtues are ret�red �n Flor�da, but there �s the real�zat�on (created through a humor that �s sl�ghtly acerb�c) that the world �s worse off w�thout them.

s�nce the t�tle of Coll�ns’s new book of poetry �s The Trouble with Poetry, �nterv�ewers l�ke to ask h�m just exactly what the trouble w�th poetry �s. He w�ll often answer that �t �s pretent�ousness, an attempt to be more d�ff�cult than necessary; that �t �s poetry, as he says �n the poem “Introduct�on to Po-etry,” that needs to be t�ed to a cha�r and tortured unt�l �t confesses �ts truth. He adm�ts that when he f�rst started wr�t�ng poetry, he wrote l�ke that, but �n the t�tle poem of The Trouble with Poetry, the trouble descr�bed �s more pleas-ant. The trouble �s that the wr�t�ng of poetry encourages the wr�t�ng of more poetry, poetry that can br�ng e�ther joy or sorrow. It f�lls h�m w�th the urge to s�t down and awa�t the muse so that another poem can be wr�tten.

donald Hall, the 2006 Poet Laureate, was born �n New Haven, Connect-�cut, �n 1928. He �s the most sen�or of the best-sell�ng authors. Hall �s the rec�p�ent of many awards bes�des Poet Laureate. He had an except�onal educa-t�on, attend�ng the famous prep school exeter Ph�ll�ps, then Harvard, oxford (england), and stanford. Hall �s a prol�f�c wr�ter, excell�ng �n a number of genres. H�s newest book, White Apples and the Taste of Stone: Selected Poems 1946–2006, was a best seller most of the year �n 2006. As the t�tle states, th�s book presents the greater part of h�s ent�re career as a poet. w�th a prol�f�c, long career such as h�s, there are bound to be many styles of poetry �n a book of h�s collected poems. H�s poetry often touches on personal relat�onsh�ps and fam�ly relat�onsh�ps �n a rural New Hampsh�re sett�ng, where h�s grandparents owned a farm and where he came to l�ve after he left h�s teach�ng job at M�ch�gan state �n Ann Arbor. H�s top�cs are var�ed: baseball, poetry �tself, Mount Kearsarge, h�s late w�fe, the poet Jane Kenyon, loss, death, and the sweep of t�me.

Another poet who also sees the sweep of t�me �s Ted Kooser. A nat�ve of Ames, Iowa, Kooser was born �n 1939. Thoroughly a man of the Great Pla�ns, Kooser attended Iowa state and the Un�vers�ty of Nebraska. For 35 years, he worked as an �nsurance execut�ve, ret�r�ng �n 1998 after a bout w�th throat cancer. He was named Poet Laureate �n 2004. He won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze for Delights and Shadows �n 2005. Many of Kooser’s poems are med�tat�ons on relat�ves (most of whom were farmers) and on everyday objects, objects that one m�ght f�nd �n a rural ant�que shop, at a yard sale, or at a county fa�r. He


has sa�d that he �s most �nterested �n wr�t�ng about the so-called ord�nary. He has the ab�l�ty to take a s�mple object l�ke a pegboard or a cast�ng reel and telescope a sense of t�me and human connectedness w�th �t. For example, h�s poem “At the County Museum” not�ces the black, horse-drawn hearse that has seen a hundred years of serv�ce. The poet’s eye sees not just the object, but the generat�ons of people who have dr�ven the hearse and who have been carr�ed by the hearse. And, by extens�on, the metaphor telescopes to �nclude all of mank�nd. It has been sa�d that Kooser wr�tes about the po�nt where the local and the eternal meet.

Less upbeat than any of the prev�ous poets, Lou�se Glück was born �n New york C�ty �n 1943. she attended sarah Lawrence and Columb�a. In 1993, she won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze for Poetry, and �n 2003, she was named Poet Lau-reate. she, l�ke all of these poets, �s the w�nner of many other l�terary awards. Her new book, Averno, �s what put her on the contemporary best seller l�st. some commentators have sa�d that certa�n l�nes from Glück’s poetry could be used as the bas�s of a ph�losophy class. Nevertheless, some readers would f�nd her less access�ble than most of the popular contemporary poets. she �s sparse, cerebral, and—some would say—gloomy. The class�cal story of Persephone �s the myth that loosely t�es the poems of Averno together. L�ke Persephone, the persona of the poems �s �solated and caught, seem�ngly, between worlds. wh�le the tone of the poems �s bleak, the total�ty of them, the art�st�c struc-ture on wh�ch they are bu�lt, �s a th�ng of beauty—and all the more so for be�ng placed �n an ex�stent�al desert.

Claud�a emerson �s more access�ble than Glück. Born �n Chatham, V�rg�n�a, �n 1957, emerson obta�ned her undergraduate degree from the Un�vers�ty of V�rg�n�a. she then spent a number of years not wr�t�ng poetry, but �nstead do�ng odd jobs l�ke rural letter carr�er and manager �n a used book store. she returned to school at the Un�vers�ty of North Carol�na at Greensboro to work on her master’s of f�ne arts and began wr�t�ng poetry. she has s�nce publ�shed three books of poetry. she rece�ved the 2006 Pul�tzer Pr�ze for her best-sell�ng book of poetry Late Wife, adm�ttedly autob�ograph�cal �n nature. In s�mpl�s-t�c terms, �t �s about her d�vorce, her psycholog�cal heal�ng, and her new mar-r�age. The formal t�tles of the sect�ons are “d�vorce ep�stles,” “Break�ng Up the House,” and “Late w�fe: Letters to Kent.” The sett�ng for the poems �s often rural V�rg�n�a, where she spent most of her l�fe. The poetry �n the book �s a study of the tr�umphs and fa�lures of love and of the mean�ng of loss. It �s a book of poetry explor�ng many small, often domest�c exper�ences, all the wh�le coalesc�ng pa�nful exper�ences �nto poetry.

Another personal poet and an �con of the fem�n�st movement, sylv�a Plath was born �n Boston, Massachusetts, �n 1932 and d�ed �n London �n 1963. she attended sm�th College and Cambr�dge Un�vers�ty. one of the th�ngs

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about her 2006 best seller that attracts readers �s the fact that �t �s a so-called restored ed�t�on of her f�nal book of poems, Ariel, and that �t has been re-stored by her daughter, Fr�eda Hughes. Hughes argues that her mother’s poetry should be seen �n the w�dest sense poss�ble—as works of art—and not solely �n a narrow way (�.e., as a battle cry for the women’s movement). At the same t�me, she honors her mother’s �ntegr�ty and aesthet�c sens�b�l�ty by present�ng Ariel exactly as her mother had �nstructed. For some, th�s focus on the aesthet�c, rather than on the pol�t�cs, of her poetry �s a controvers�al stance. Hughes had been attacked by some of the Br�t�sh publ�c and much of the press for not allow�ng a plaque to be placed �n the house where Plath comm�tted su�c�de—wh�ch for some people represents a f�nal def�ant act, an ult�mate pol�t�cal statement. Instead, Hughes wanted �t placed �n the house where her mother was the most product�ve and happ�est.

Plath’s poetry �n Ariel �s strong, even v�scous. It �s certa�nly easy to see why some m�ght connect �t to a rebell�on aga�nst male oppress�on. she de-scr�bes her relat�onsh�p w�th her husband, the Br�t�sh poet Ted Hughes, as equ�valent to be�ng f�lled by the constr�ct�on. Most dramat�cally, there �s the famous poem, “daddy,” that compares her German father to the Naz�s. Hughes h�nts �n her �ntroduct�on that the or�g�n of her mother’s anger �s more complex than male oppress�on alone and certa�nly closely related to Plath’s l�felong battle w�th severe depress�on. In any case, the poetry �s st�ll powerful and arrest�ng.

A Pul�tzer Pr�ze w�nner for poetry, el�zabeth B�shop was the consummate art�st and perfect�on�st. Born �n 1911 �n worcester, Massachusetts, she d�ed �n 1979. often, she would work on a poem for years (even decades) before she would publ�sh �t. The 2006 best-sell�ng book Edgar Allan Poe and the Juke-Box �s a comp�lat�on (often w�th photographs of var�ous drafts of poems) of her unpubl�shed works.

B�shop l�ved �n many parts of the world and traveled extens�vely when she was young, v�s�t�ng europe, North Afr�ca, and Mex�co. Much of her poetry deals w�th th�s travel and often creates strong v�gnettes of place and sens�b�l-�ty. The two places where she l�ved that prov�ded some of her best subject matter were Key west and Braz�l. The t�tle poem of the book �s a good ex-ample of one of her Key west poems.

In “edgar Allan Poe and the Juke-Box,” B�shop pa�nts a p�cture of m�d-century Key west, somet�mes seedy and certa�nly decadent. The sett�ng �s a honky-tonk, and the poem �s a downward mot�on on many levels; Poe-l�ke, �t descends �nto the psyche. Almost all of works �n the book are tone poems of place. In the books publ�shed wh�le she was al�ve, she managed to ref�ne out her own personal angst, leav�ng noth�ng but pure poetry. In many of these poems, the angst shows through. desp�te the fact that she d�d not feel that


the poems were good enough (ref�ned enough) for publ�cat�on, many of the poems �n Edgar Allan Poe and the Juke-Box are of h�gh qual�ty.

Jack Kerouac, along w�th Alan G�nsberg, represents the current culture’s fasc�nat�on w�th the beatn�k and h�pp�e generat�on. Kerouac was born �n Lowell, Massachusetts, �n 1922 and d�ed �n 1969. He began college at Co-lumb�a Un�vers�ty on a football scholarsh�p but dropped out after a d�spute w�th h�s coach. wh�le at Columb�a, he made fr�ends w�th some of the future el�te of the beatn�k and h�pp�e generat�on: Alan G�nsberg, w�ll�am s. Bur-roughs, and Neal Cassady. H�s educat�on then truly began as he started h�s l�fe “on the road.” F�rst, he jo�ned the Merchant Mar�nes and traveled to Greenland. Afterward, he traveled the road cr�sscross�ng Amer�ca, often w�th Neal Cassady.

Kerouac �s famous for h�s novels, espec�ally On the Road, and h�s poetry, as �n Mexico City Blues. Though not qu�te as unf�ltered and spontaneous as legend would have �t, h�s wr�t�ng techn�que was to wr�te h�s f�nal draft—even of some of h�s novels—�n a s�ngle burst. He was just the oppos�te of el�zabeth B�shop. The wr�t�ng was always based on years of notebook entr�es. Th�s �s the case w�th h�s recent best seller, Book of Sketches. Th�s book �s made up of 15 of h�s notebooks that he wrote between 1952 and 1954. In 1957, he typed up the pages but never publ�shed them. Just as the t�tle �mpl�es, they are poet�c word sketches of people and s�ghts from h�s cross-country travels. To paraphrase pa�nter George Condo (who wrote the �ntroduct�on), Kerouac �s the Charl�e Parker of words, great at spur of the moment �mprov�sat�ons. There �s a d�fference �n these poems and h�s later works. Unl�ke the other beatn�ks, Kerouac was pol�t�cally conservat�ve dur�ng the 1960s; �n fact, he supported the V�etnam war. In these poems, on the other hand, there �s more of the typ�cal beatn�k cr�t�c�sm of Amer�can culture.

Alan G�nsberg, whom the New York Times called the “poet laureate of the Beat Generat�on,” was born �n 1926 �n Newark, New Jersey. He d�ed �n 1997. G�nsberg attended Columb�a Un�vers�ty and, l�ke Jack Kerouac, spent t�me �n the Merchant Mar�nes travel�ng to the Atlant�c and Gulf coasts and to Afr�ca. He �s known for h�s book Howl, wh�ch became the object of a major twent�eth-century freedom of speech battle. He became an �con for the h�pp�e generat�on and a major protestor aga�nst the V�etnam war. readers are now drawn to h�s book Collected Poems 1947–1997. It �s chronolog�cally arranged by each of h�s publ�shed books and, of course, �ncludes the famous book (and poem) Howl, wh�ch, �n many ways, became the emot�onal man�-festo for the ent�re beatn�k generat�on.

of the deceased poets, Charles Bukowsk� �s perhaps the most popular w�th contemporary readers. The fact that he had four books �n the top 50 l�st for a s�ngle year (2006), Slouching toward Nirvana: New Poems; Come On In;

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Sifting through the Madness for the World, the Line, the Way; and The Flash of Lightning behind the Mountain, says someth�ng for h�s stay�ng power and for h�s fasc�nat�on for the contemporary read�ng publ�c. He was born �n 1920 �n Andernach, Germany, to an Amer�can serv�ceman and a German mother, and he d�ed �n 1994.

some people l�ke to lump Bukowsk� �n w�th the beatn�k poets—mostly because he was wr�t�ng at about the same t�me they were—but he �s really a th�ng unto h�mself. He attended Los Angeles C�ty College for two years, but never graduated. He suffered psycholog�cally from an acute case of acne that d�sf�gured h�s face and worked a ser�es of often men�al jobs: factory worker, warehouse worker, store clerk, and postal worker. Gradually, Bukowsk� be-came a prol�f�c poet, short story wr�ter, journal�st, novel�st, playwr�ght, and screen wr�ter. H�s poetry �s edgy, raw, and often brutally honest. There �s sex, dr�nk�ng, bell�gerence, f�ght�ng, and escapes from landlords who want the�r money. There �s, at the same t�me, often a sens�t�v�ty and sadness.

There are many other poets of note who are w�dely read and currently popular. These �nclude Br�an Turner, Jane H�rshf�eld, Mary Karr, wen-dell Berry, Galway K�nnell, J�m Harr�son, Jack G�lbert, Jane Kenyon, Franz wr�ght, stanley J. Kun�tz, Naom� sh�hab Nye, Kay ryan, dav�d Tucker, w. s. Merw�n, sharon olds, r�chard w�lbur, r�chard s�ken, Mark strand, and Charles s�m�c.

In add�t�on, there are class�c poets who cont�nue to be antholog�zed and to �nfluence contemporary poets. For example, walt wh�tman (1819–1872) �s a k�nd of grandfather for Amer�can poetry. H�s free verse style �nfused poetry w�th raw power and natural speech. em�ly d�ck�nson (1830–1886) �s also cons�dered one of Amer�ca’s f�rst true poets, but unl�ke wh�tman she was qu�et and nonostentat�ous and used trad�t�onal forms �nstead of free verse. ezra Pound (who was pol�t�cally controvers�al) was not only a great poet but also an �nnovator and mentor to many of Amer�ca’s f�nest poets. He was born �n 1885 and d�ed �n 1972. T. s. el�ot (1885–1965) wrote one of the most famous and d�ff�cult modern�st poems, “The waste Land,” �n 1922. robert Frost (1874–1963) �s st�ll one of the most popular poets �n Amer�ca and �s cons�dered by some to be the f�rst poetry “super star.” And f�nally, Langston Hughes (1902–1967) brought the jazz beat to poetry and was part of the Harlem rena�ssance.

drama

It was not unt�l the twent�eth century that Amer�ca had any s�gn�f�cant playwr�ghts. Th�s past century (as well as the current one) has seen a num-ber of wr�ters who are often read and stud�ed, �nclud�ng eugene o’Ne�ll,


Tennessee w�ll�ams, Arthur M�ller, edward Albee, August w�lson, and wendy wasserste�n. The�r plays are �ncluded �n many drama antholog�es and often appear �n pr�nt as s�ngle plays. The themes reflected �n these dramas are �n large part a h�story of the breakdown of trad�t�onal, �nher�ted values. rece�ved �deas about rel�g�on, the trad�t�onal fam�ly, sexual�ty, gender, cap�-tal�sm, and patr�ot�sm, among others, come under sharp, cr�t�cal attack or analys�s �n many of these plays.

New york C�ty nat�ve eugene o’Ne�ll (1888–1953) was really the f�rst of the Amer�can dramat�sts who contemporary readers f�nd �mportant. He won four Pul�tzer Pr�zes for drama and �s the only Amer�can dramat�st to w�n the Nobel Pr�ze �n drama. wh�le o’Ne�ll often wrote real�st�c plays, he also real�zed that the melodrama and farce (those forms used up to th�s po�nt) were �nsuff�c�ent to create great drama. He frequently turned, �nstead, to Greek tragedy for structure and somet�mes plotl�ne (as �n Mourning Becomes Electra �n 1931). He also �ntroduced exper�mental techn�ques l�ke expres-s�on�sm that helped to art�culate psycholog�cal truths. As w�th many wr�ters, he was �nfluenced by the �deas of s�gmund Freud, Carl Jung, and—�n h�s case—Fr�edr�ch N�etzsche. Desire under the Elms (1924) �s another of h�s plays based on Greek tragedy and tells a story laced w�th oed�pal complex tens�ons. The �mpl�ed sexual taboos landed �t �n trouble w�th the pol�ce �n New york C�ty for �ts so-called �mmoral�ty. H�s most famous play �s A Long Day’s Journey into Night (1956). It was not only a study of a dysfunct�onal fam�ly, but at the same t�me, �t was also cons�dered by many to be the best tragedy ever wr�tten by an Amer�can. It, too, dealt �n part w�th the confl�cts between fathers and sons.

Tennessee w�ll�ams (1911–1983), born �n Columbus, M�ss�ss�pp�, also broke w�th many of the convent�ons of n�neteenth-century theater, both sty-l�st�cally and themat�cally. some of h�s more prom�nent themes �ncluded the destruct�ve tens�ons of fam�ly l�fe and sexual�ty. He also broached many then taboo subjects l�ke homosexual�ty and venereal d�sease. The Glass Menagerie (1945) was about the destruct�ve nature of l�v�ng accord�ng to false �llus�ons. only the play’s narrator, Tom, can break free of the shackles of h�s repress�ve fam�ly s�tuat�on. A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) was a much more sexually charged drama. Its three ma�n characters, stanley, stella, and Blanche, have become part of Amer�can pop culture, and the�r �nteract�on �n the play d�s-plays the dynam�cs of raw sexual power.

Arthur M�ller (1915–2005) was another New york C�ty nat�ve. He gradu-ated from the Un�vers�ty of M�ch�gan. Though he was a l�beral soc�al�st, and though h�s plays generally reflected h�s �deology, they nevertheless d�d not suffer from the d�dact�c�sm of many soc�al�st plays wr�tten �n Commun�st countr�es. They stand as works of art on the�r own. For example, Death of a

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Salesman (1949) can be seen as an �nd�ctment of cap�tal�sm, but �t �s also a tragedy of the average man d�s�llus�oned by the amoral forces of h�s world.

Another �mportant contemporary Amer�can dramat�st, August w�lson (1945–2005), was born �n P�ttsburgh, Pennsylvan�a. He won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze tw�ce, �n 1987 for Fences and �n 1990 for The Piano Lesson. w�lson was most famous for a cycle of 10 loosely �nterrelated plays, one for each decade of the twent�eth century. The sett�ng for most of the plays was P�ttsburgh’s H�ll d�str�ct, where he grew up. The plays dealt w�th the d�ff�cult�es of l�v�ng �n a world where rac�sm ex�sts. The lead characters often had the�r amb�t�ons and talents thwarted by rac�sm. The f�nal play �n h�s ser�es was Radio Golf �n 2005. In th�s play, wh�ch takes place �n 1997, w�lson explored the per�ls of los�ng one’s ethn�c �dent�ty.

Born �n Brooklyn, New york, wendy wasserste�n (1950–2006) was pos-s�bly Amer�ca’s best known woman playwr�ght �n a f�eld often dom�nated, on the commerc�al s�de (mean�ng Broadway), by men. she attended Mount Holyoke College, C�ty College of New york, and yale Un�vers�ty. she �s cons�dered a p�oneer �n the portrayal of contemporary women—those strug-gl�ng w�th �ndependence, amb�t�on, and trad�t�onal values of romance and fam�ly. Th�s �s espec�ally ev�dent �n her most famous play, The Heidi Chron-icles.

Th�s play won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze, the Tony Award for Best Play, and the New york drama Cr�t�cs’ C�rcle Award for Best Play. In th�s work, the l�fe of the lead character, He�d� Holland, was traced from the 1960s to the 1980s. she saw her fr�ends go from the rad�cal�sm of the 1960s, to the fem�n�st movement of the 1970s, and back to the trad�t�ons they cla�med to have rejected. wasserste�n’s f�rst produced play, Uncommon Women and Others, appeared off Broadway at the Phoen�x Theatre �n 1977. That play had one of the character�st�cs of all of her plays—a comed�c underp�nn�ng that featured a pepper�ng of funny, sat�r�cal barbs.

The dean of current Amer�can playwr�ghts, edward Albee was born �n 1928 �n wash�ngton, d.C. He was expelled from two pr�vate schools as a youth and then dropped out of Tr�n�ty College �n Hartford, Connect�cut. He �s the only dramat�st to have won the vote for the Pul�tzer Pr�ze, only to have �t taken away before the award was g�ven out—on the grounds that the 1962 play Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf ?, now a class�c of the Amer�can theater, gave an unwholesome p�cture of Amer�ca. dur�ng h�s long career, Albee has, among other th�ngs, helped to �ntroduce absurd�st theater to the Un�ted states. Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf ?, for example, presents the ex�stent�al d�lemma of l�v�ng a l�fe trapped �n enervat�ng �llus�ons that keep the �nd�v�dual from authent�c l�v�ng. The two ma�n characters, George and Martha, have gone to the absurd extreme of even pretend�ng that they have


a ch�ld. Th�s they do to f�ll the�r l�ves w�th mean�ng, unt�l they real�ze that the �mag�nary ch�ld, now w�th them for 21 years, must be let go.

Prose

It �s prose that sells the most books �n the Un�ted states. It �s h�ghly d�-verse, made up of both f�ct�on and nonf�ct�on, and �ts most popular sellers are not always what most people would call l�terary.

There are two major ways to look at what �s go�ng on �n f�ct�on l�terature �n contemporary Amer�ca. F�rst, there are antholog�es and requ�red read-�ngs: read�ngs that are ass�gned �n colleges and h�gh schools across Amer�ca. These are often not read�ngs of cho�ce, but �nstead read�ngs that are requ�red for a grade. Th�s l�terature comes under what �s known as the canon: the proscr�bed l�st of those works of h�gh qual�ty and an endur�ng value. These books would, �n most people’s m�nds, be cons�dered class�c or academ�cally �mportant or—as they may be �n the most recent canons—pol�t�cally and morally correct. related to th�s, there �s also a group of novels that are fa�rly current and that are cons�dered l�terary by a number of ser�ous cr�t�cs. These novels have won prest�g�ous l�terary awards but are not always popular w�th the general publ�c.

Then there are the books that are made �mportant by the general publ�c: the works that are read by cho�ce. These are gauged by popular�ty, that �s, by book sales. Many of them may be forgotten �n a few years, but they are, never-theless, a measure of what contemporary Amer�ca f�nds �mportant, �n k�nd �f not �n qual�ty. The fact �s, Amer�cans love to read romance novels, sc�ence f�ct�on, fantasy, horror, and mystery novels. often, these subgenres (as w�th sc�ence f�ct�on, fantasy, and mystery novels) are even taught �n colleges and un�vers�t�es.

the Canon

so what �s appear�ng �n the antholog�es? To a large extent, �t �s not what used to appear pr�or (roughly) to the 1990s. Beg�nn�ng �n the 1960s, l�terary scholars (those who make up the canon) began to attack the trad�t�onal canon as overly represented by “dead wh�te men.” The soc�al forces of fem�n�sm and mult�cultural�sm (related to both ethn�c background and sexual preference) began to attack the older canon and gradually to subst�tute and expand the requ�red read�ng l�st. of course, th�s �s not the f�rst t�me that the canon has been altered, nor w�ll �t be the last. L�terary reputat�ons come and go as each generat�on or two searches for what �t needs. even many of the most h�stor�-cally famous of wr�ters have wavered �n �mportance over the years—Herman Melv�lle, for one.

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Today, there are two major antholog�es that represent the canon and that are often the source for requ�red read�ngs �n colleges: the Norton Anthology and the Heath Anthology. Both have a ser�es of books, each represent�ng a part�cular t�me per�od. For Norton (the more conservat�ve of the two), there are st�ll some wr�ters from the older canon. In the contemporary ed�t�on, wr�ters l�ke eudora welty, John Upd�ke, and Bernard Malumud are st�ll represented, but there are also more Afr�can Amer�can wr�ters, Nat�ve Amer�can wr�ters, women wr�ters, As�an Amer�can wr�ters, and H�span�c Amer�can wr�ters.

In Heath’s contemporary ed�t�on, there are perhaps fewer male wr�ters from the older canon than Norton’s, but as �n Norton’s, mult�cultural�sm and women wr�ters are extens�vely represented. In add�t�on, Heath’s has a sect�on on pr�son l�terature, a sect�on called “Cold war Culture and Its d�scontents,” and a sect�on called “A sheaf of V�etnam Confl�ct Poetry and Prose.”

There are also requ�red books, espec�ally �n h�gh schools. These are usually books that have become part the soc�al and cultural �dent�ty of the coun-try. These �nclude such wr�ters as Nathan�el Hawthorne, Mark Twa�n, John ste�nbeck, Harper Lee, J. d. sal�nger, Al�ce walker, and Ton� Morr�son. All of these wr�ters are part of the contemporary Amer�can’s l�terary exper�ence. They can be seen—apart from the�r art—as reflect�ons of a matur�ng nat�onal character, and poss�bly, they may have helped to shape that character.

An often ass�gned novel �s Nathan�el Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter. Haw-thorne, who was born �n 1804 �n salem, Massachusetts, and who d�ed �n 1864, �s cons�dered one of the f�rst truly Amer�can wr�ters, not just a wr�ter �m�tat�ng the engl�sh and european style, though as w�th any great art�st, h�s works have un�versal d�mens�ons. The Scarlet Letter (f�rst publ�shed �n 1850) �s cons�dered a psycholog�cal allegory. Among other th�ngs, �t contrasts the european �nfluence of a str�ct, commun�ty-centered soc�ety—Pur�tan�sm—w�th the develop�ng Amer�can ethos of �nd�v�dual�ty and freedom. Hester Prynne and her daughter Pearl are used by soc�ety as moral objects, warn�ngs to the rest of the c�t�zens to stay w�th�n the bounds d�ctated by the Pur�tan code. Hester’s d�gn�ty and good works defy the Pur�tan soc�ety’s attempts to take her human�ty away, and even when the elders dec�de to allow her to remove the scarlet letter, the symbol of her adultery, she refuses to allow them to d�ctate her act�ons and keeps the scarlet letter. The book also has profound th�ngs to say about s�n and gu�lt and the�r psycholog�cal effects on a per-son. Perhaps most s�gn�f�cantly, however, The Scarlet Letter also funct�oned, a mere 74 years after the declarat�on of Independence, as an aesthet�c declara-t�on to the world that Amer�ca’s wr�ters were �ndependent, free, and capable of creat�ng art that reflected the Amer�can exper�ence.

M�ssour�-born Mark Twa�n (samuel Clemens; 1835–1910) wrote a num-ber of class�cs, but h�s most read book today �s Huckleberry Finn (publ�shed


�n 1884). It was publ�shed after the C�v�l war and dur�ng the corrupt�on of reconstruct�on and the J�m Crow laws. As anyone who has read �t knows, th�s book �s not about the soph�st�cated or Pur�tan culture of the east; �t �s a roll�ck�ng western-set comedy w�th a ser�ous message.

wh�le the soc�ety of Huckleberry Finn �s not as extreme as the Pur�tan�sm of The Scarlet Letter, �t �s st�ll one that tr�es to control and dehuman�ze. one of the major aspects of the novel �s that Huck def�es all “s�v�l�z�ng” attempts, and �n so do�ng def�nes an even better moral order, one that rejects rac�sm and romant�c, unreal�st�c, and deb�l�tat�ng �deals (such as southern ar�stoc-racy). Twa�n’s �deal Amer�ca, seen �n the gu�se of Huck, �s one of �nd�v�dual-�sm, fa�rness, and equal�ty. It �s an Amer�ca where the �nd�v�dual th�nks for h�mself and �s susp�c�ous of the boundar�es of the so-called soc�al norm. Th�s �s not to say that Twa�n saw Amer�ca as actually l�v�ng accord�ng to these standards, but h�s humor chast�ses and shows the way.

Another wr�ter who �s st�ll read by contemporary readers �s John ste�nbeck, espec�ally h�s book Of Mice and Men, f�rst publ�shed �n 1937, dur�ng the hard econom�c t�mes of the Great depress�on. ste�nbeck was born �n 1902. He won the Nobel Pr�ze �n L�terature �n 1962 and the Pul�tzer Pr�ze �n 1940 (for Grapes of Wrath). He d�ed �n 1968. At the end of Huckleberry Finn, Huck sets out for the terr�tor�es, where poss�b�l�ty and hope l�e, but th�s �dea of the Amer�can dream �s cruelly dashed �n Of Mice and Men. The Great depress�on had made a mockery of �t. Cap�tal�sm, human nature, and perhaps the un�-verse �tself have the power to �nev�tably crush anyone’s dream. For the book’s characters, for gentle g�ant Lenny, for George, Candy, and Crooks, l�fe �s not fa�r. den�ed the d�gn�ty they deserve as human be�ngs, they are �nev�tably dragged down a road toward a trag�c, �ron�c fatal�ty, where the best that can be affected �s a rough k�ndness, a brutal, unsent�mental k�ndness. The book’s pathos serves as a powerful, emot�onal argument for human d�gn�ty. The reader �s left to hope that ord�nary people can have a l�fe beyond the tragedy ste�nbeck dep�cts.

Prov�ng that Twa�n’s ant�rac�st message was l�ttle heeded, To Kill a Mock-ingbird by Harper Lee was f�rst publ�shed �n 1960 �n the m�dst of the coun-try’s most ser�ous and effect�ve attempt at �nst�tut�ng c�v�l r�ghts. Lee was born �n 1926 �n Monroev�lle, Alabama. she stud�ed law (her father was a law-yer, a newspaperman, and a member of the state leg�slature) at the Un�vers�ty of Alabama and then stud�ed for a year at oxford. After th�s, she took t�me to wr�te her only novel. Th�s book, wh�ch won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze �n 1961, �s w�dely read by h�gh school students across the country.

Though certa�nly more pos�t�ve than ste�nbeck, Lee’s story clearly del�n-eates the ev�l of rac�al prejud�ce and the destruct�on of �nnocence by ev�l (thus the central �mage of k�ll�ng a mock�ngb�rd, an �nnocent creature of nature

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that s�ngs w�th beauty). yet, l�ke Twa�n, Lee has sketched a moral way out of hatred and �gnorance. It �s Att�cus F�nch (also a song b�rd) and h�s young daughter, scout, who represent th�s way out. The book �s, �n large part, about moral educat�on, as Att�cus, a lawyer l�v�ng �n a small Alabama town, defends the falsely accused Tom rob�nson and teaches h�s own ch�ldren (espec�ally scout) and the town �tself the way to just�ce and human d�gn�ty.

Another book often read by Amer�ca’s youth �s J. d. sal�nger’s Catcher in the Rye (f�rst publ�shed �n 1951). sal�nger was born �n 1919 �n New york C�ty. wh�le h�s book was a best seller when �t was f�rst publ�shed, �t actually ga�ned popular�ty over t�me, becom�ng a cult class�c for the 1960s generat�on and �nfluenc�ng �ts sens�b�l�t�es. There �s both a psycholog�cal, moral attrac-t�on to th�s book as well as an adm�red soc�al cr�t�c�sm. w�th humor and po�gnancy, �t portrays the pa�ns of grow�ng up �n a modern Amer�ca. Holden Caulf�eld, the 17-year-old ma�n character and narrator, longs to be a “catcher �n the rye,” sav�ng ch�ldren before they fall to the�r death. The only ques-t�on �s whether Holden can save h�mself. Holden �s also cr�t�cal of superf�c�al people, adults �n general, the establ�shment, and phony, sell-out art�sts. These are all cr�t�c�sms that the 1960s generat�on made famous.

And then there �s Al�ce walker’s class�c Amer�can novel The Color Purple (1982), wh�ch addresses the tw�n ev�ls of rac�sm and sex�sm. Born �n 1944 �n eatonton, Georg�a, the daughter of sharecroppers, walker attended spelman College and sarah Lawrence College. she worked br�efly as a soc�al worker and then began wr�t�ng, l�v�ng for a wh�le �n M�ss�ss�pp� dur�ng the c�v�l r�ghts movement of the 1960s. There she exper�enced many of the �nd�gn�t�es of rac�sm, �nclud�ng hav�ng her marr�age declared null by M�ss�ss�pp� law (where �t was �llegal to have a m�xed race marr�age). The book �s more d�ff�cult than many read by students; �t �s �n ep�stolary format (wr�tten as a ser�es of let-ters) and touches on d�ff�cult and controvers�al top�cs. It obv�ously argues aga�nst rac�sm and sex�sm, but also aga�nst subm�ss�on of any human be�ng to another, part�cularly women to men, and espec�ally subm�ss�on through v�olence. It also has the �mportant message that love can redeem.

A f�nal wr�ter to be cons�dered �n th�s category �s Ton� Morr�son, who was born �n 1931 �n Lora�n, oh�o. she �s the f�rst Afr�can Amer�can woman to rece�ve the Nobel Pr�ze �n L�terature. she attended Howard Un�vers�ty and Cornell. Beloved (1987), for wh�ch she won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze, �s perhaps Mor-r�son’s most powerful book. w�th great emot�onal force, �t rem�nds the reader of the destruct�ve, dehuman�z�ng effects of slavery on all people and �s based on the true story of a runaway slave who murdered her own ch�ld (named “Beloved” �n the book), rather than allow�ng her to be returned to slavery.

There are other class�c f�ct�on wr�ters, �n add�t�on to those ment�oned above, who st�ll have an �mpact upon the contemporary reader. James Fen�more


Cooper (1789–1851) �s today famous for h�s Leatherstock�ng Tales, espe-c�ally The Last of the Mohicans (1826), wh�ch explores the �mportance of the front�er and new beg�nn�ngs to Amer�cans. Moby Dick (1851), by Herman Melv�lle (1819–1891), �s outwardly an adventure tale, but �n truth �t �s a d�ff�cult and long ph�losoph�cal allegory. F. scott F�tzgerald (1896–1940) explored the Jazz Age and all of �ts moral �mpl�cat�ons, espec�ally �n The Great Gatsby (1925). r�chard wr�ght (1908–1960) provoked controversy w�th h�s now class�c look at rac�sm, Native Son (1940). Joseph Heller (1923–1999) fueled ant�war sent�ments and �ntroduced a phrase �nto the Amer�can voca-bulary w�th h�s class�c novel, Catch 22 (1961).

Literary Fiction

An �mportant quest�on (one that would no doubt make for a good plot-l�ne �n l�terary f�ct�on) �s what makes a book l�terary f�ct�on, as opposed to popular f�ct�on. The gl�b answer (and perhaps one not too far from the truth) �s because the cr�t�cs say so. Certa�nly these books are often d�ff�cult, they often eschew normal plotl�nes, they often put a prem�um on verbal f�reworks, they are somet�mes based on some obscure, d�ff�cult ph�losophy (preferably French), and they are often playful, espec�ally w�th the concepts of real�ty. Unfortunately, they do not always g�ve a very comfortable answer to the quest�on, what does �t mean to be a human be�ng?

one of the better known wr�ters of l�terary f�ct�on (and more access�ble to the average reader) �s Ph�l�p roth. In the publ�c’s m�nd, he �s probably best known for Goodbye Columbus (1959) and, espec�ally, Portnoy’s Complaint (1969). Born �n Newark, New Jersey, �n 1933, roth’s latest book, Everyman (2006), presents a “med�cal b�ography,” trac�ng the �nev�table deter�orat�on of a man’s body, h�s struggles w�th sexual des�re �n old age, and h�s death—all seen from the bleak aspect of an athe�st. Portnoy’s Complaint—cons�dered by many as scandalous �n �ts day—�s the confess�ons from a psych�atr�c couch of a man who �s obsessed w�th the subject of masturbat�on. The Breast (1972) �s a Kafka-l�ke novel about a man who wakes up as a g�ant breast. roth has also placed h�mself �nto one of h�s novels, Operation Shylock (1993). Many of h�s books are about top�cal Amer�can subjects and about the modern Amer�can Jew. roth has won many awards for wr�t�ng, �nclud�ng several Nat�onal Book Awards and the Pul�tzer Pr�ze.

Perhaps the most pr�vate of l�terary authors (more pr�vate even than the reclus�ve J. d. sal�nger) �s Thomas Pynchon. He does not g�ve �nterv�ews, let alone an address, and �s rumored (and no one really knows) to be constantly on the move to avo�d detect�on. Pynchon was born �n 1937 �n Long Island, New york. extremely br�ght and precoc�ous, he graduated w�th top honors from h�s h�gh school at age 16. Pynchon was (and probably st�ll �s) a vorac�ous reader. He has a background �n eng�neer�ng and �n techn�cal wr�t�ng. All of

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these th�ngs play a part �n h�s novels. Most of h�s novels are long and labyr�n-th�ne �n plot structure. The only except�on to th�s �s the h�ghly comed�c, but parano�d, The Crying of Lot 49 (1966). Th�s book �s short and t�ghtly plotted. H�s most famous book to date �s Gravity’s Rainbow (1973). often compared to Melv�lle’s Moby Dick because of �ts complex�ty, length, and demonstrat�on of encycloped�c knowledge, Gravity’s Rainbow tells mult�ple stor�es centered on Naz� Germany and the bu�ld�ng of the V-2 rocket. It sat�r�zes contemporary culture and explores the relat�onsh�p between death and sex. The book won a number of prest�g�ous awards, �nclud�ng the Nat�onal Book Award. The Pul�t-zer Pr�ze adv�sory comm�ttee, on the other hand, turned �t down, descr�b�ng �t w�th a ser�es of adject�ves: turg�d, overwr�tten, obscene, and unreadable.

Also a sat�r�st, don deL�llo was born New york C�ty �n 1936. Many of h�s novels are cr�t�ques of Amer�can med�a and current culture. H�s tour de force—the one for wh�ch he won the Nat�onal Book Award—�s White Noise (1985). White Noise �s based on the ph�losophy of Jean Baudr�llard. deL�llo’s reoccurr�ng thes�s �s that Amer�cans h�de from the real�ty of death by creat�ng s�mulated real�t�es through the med�a, consumer�sm, and other personal eva-s�ons of what really �s. Accord�ng to deL�llo, Amer�cans are awash �n data for a reason. The novel �s h�ghly sat�r�c, yet menac�ng.

runn�ng a close second w�th Thomas Pynchon for pr�vacy �s novel�st Cor-mac McCarthy. H�s f�ct�on could hardly be called playful, unl�ke some of the other wr�ters �n th�s category. McCarthy’s works, on the contrary, are often v�olent and graph�c. Born �n Prov�dence, rhode Island, �n 1933, he attended the Un�vers�ty of Tennessee but left to beg�n h�s wr�t�ng career. wh�le Mc-Carthy has g�ven at least two �nterv�ews (unl�ke Pynchon), and wh�le there are numerous photographs of h�m, he prefers a spartan l�fe, one that best puts h�m �n contact w�th the harsh real�t�es lurk�ng beneath c�v�l�zed l�festyles. He refuses lucrat�ve speak�ng engagements and has l�ved �n motels and �n a da�ry barn. He uses Laundromats and has been known to cut h�s own ha�r—even after some f�nanc�al success. Two of McCarthy’s best known works are Blood Meridian (1985) and All the Pretty Horses (1992). L�ke Greek tragedy, h�s works take the reader to the very edge of c�v�l�zat�on (mostly the Amer�can west, �n h�s case) and �nto an uncomfortable moral zone that suggests the most pr�m�t�ve d�mens�ons of the human psyche. H�s style, when the narrator �s speak�ng, can have a d�ff�cult Faulkner-l�ke complex�ty, wh�le h�s characters often speak �n sparse, s�mple language.

Popular Fiction

There �s no set canon for most popular f�ct�on. People have the�r own favor�te authors �n each subgenre. The follow�ng �s a representat�ve sampl�ng of some of the best �n each of the major f�ct�on categor�es: romance, mystery, sc�ence f�ct�on, fantasy, and horror.


It �s est�mated that over one-half of all of the paperbacks sold �n the Un�ted states are romance novels and that they account for 39.3 percent of all f�ct�on sold �n the country. desp�te the charges by l�terary cr�t�cs that romance novels are formula�c or tr�te, they are �mmensely popular, generat�ng over $1.5 b�l-l�on �n sales yearly. They are, s�mply put, what many readers are read�ng, and �n fact, they are part of a long l�terary trad�t�on. some people trace romance novels back to the rena�ssance, though most scholars would place the beg�n-n�ngs �n the n�neteenth century w�th Jane Aust�n.

Nora roberts, one of the most popular of the contemporary romance wr�t-ers, was born �n 1950 �n s�lver spr�ng, Maryland. she has a h�gh school educat�on and worked br�efly as a legal secretary. As she tells �t, she began her wr�t�ng career �n 1979 wh�le trapped at home dur�ng a bl�zzard w�th two small ch�ldren and runn�ng out of chocolate. s�nce then, she has been �m-mensely successful.

To date, roberts has publ�shed over 140 romance and mystery novels. (she somet�mes publ�shes the myster�es under the name J. d. robb.) she has over 127 m�ll�on cop�es of her books currently �n pr�nt. roberts has won the r�ta Award, g�ven by the romance wr�ters of Amer�ca, �n var�ous categor�es

Nora roberts has wr�tten close to 200 novels, rema�n�ng one of Amer�ca’s favor�te authors. © AP Photo/Chr�s Gardner.

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19 t�mes s�nce 1982. A typ�cal novel of hers, such as the 2004 r�ta Award w�nner Carolina Moon, �s best descr�bed as romant�c suspense. Her hero�ne �s vulnerable, search�ng for answers—answers that put her �n mortal danger. In th�s case (Carolina Moon), she �s try�ng to solve the mystery of who murdered her ch�ldhood fr�end, and then, as bef�tt�ng a romance, she �s befr�ended by a male character w�th wh�ch she develops a romant�c relat�onsh�p. Her novels are generally typ�f�ed by excellent character development and taut plott�ng.

There are scores of other successful romance wr�ters and almost as many subgenres, from the naked p�rate romances to vamp�re romances. Two other standout authors are dan�elle steel and Cather�ne Coulter. steel, born �n 1947 �n New york C�ty, has been known to wr�te two and three books a year (she has sold over 530 m�ll�on cop�es of her books). often made �nto telev�-s�on mov�es, her books feature a female protagon�st whose romance may or may not work out, but who always becomes a stronger, more successful, and better woman by overcom�ng advers�ty.

Cather�ne Coulter was born �n Cameron County, Texas, �n 1949. Her books frequently appear on the New York Times best seller l�st. Generally, she wr�tes two books a year and �s known for hav�ng popular�zed romance tr�log�es. she has a master’s degree �n n�neteenth-century european h�s-tory, wh�ch helps to expla�n why she has successfully wr�tten many h�stor�-cal romances. L�ke Nora roberts, she has also branched �nto contemporary suspense novels.

wh�le romance �s st�ll �mportant �n these books (as the genre t�tle �nd�-cates), these novels have also brought a bel�ef to several generat�ons of women that strong women are to be adm�red and that women do not need to ac-cept the d�ctates of a prud�sh, V�ctor�an sens�b�l�ty. women, as reflected �n these books, have come a long way s�nce Hester Prynne, though she certa�nly po�nted the way.

Mystery f�ct�on (wh�ch �ncludes the spy novel, cr�me novel, var�ous forms of the detect�ve novel, and the thr�ller) �s also very popular. Th�s genre began w�th the Amer�can wr�ter edgar Allan Poe, who, �n 1841, �ntroduced Inspec-tor dup�n �n h�s short story “The Murders �n the rue Morgue.” Th�s short story, along w�th “The Purlo�ned Letter,” also often appears �n contemporary college and h�gh school antholog�es. The pattern Poe created of the gen�us de-tect�ve w�th the less than gen�us s�dek�ck cont�nues to �nfluence many wr�ters, w�th the best and most popular duo be�ng that created by the engl�sh wr�ter Conan doyle: sherlock Holmes and watson. dur�ng the 1930s, however, another major stra�n of detect�ve f�ct�on was created: the hard-bo�led detec-t�ve story (often assoc�ated w�th f�lm no�r). s�nce then, the genre has d�v�ded �nto many subgenres (the procedural novel, the ser�al k�ller novel, etc.).


A class�c Amer�can wr�ter of mystery and detect�ve f�ct�on, one who �s st�ll read and stud�ed, and one who often wrote �n the no�r, hard-bo�led style, �s dash�ell Hammett. Hammett was born �n 1894 �n st. Mary’s County, Mary-land. He d�ed �n 1961. H�s own l�fe was as colorful as one of h�s characters: a dropout from school at age 13, he went to work help�ng out h�s fam�ly, jo�ned the army—tw�ce (once for the F�rst world war then, at age 48, for the sec-ond world war), worked for the P�nkerton detect�ve agency, drank a lot, and smoked a lot. Hammett’s most famous character �s probably sam spade, and h�s most famous novel �s probably The Maltese Falcon (1930). In Hammett’s f�ct�ve world, soc�ety �s corrupt, greedy, and capable of brutal�ty and sense-less, shallow grasp�ng after monetary ga�n. H�s heroes, l�ke spade, expose ev�l and br�ng moral balance �nto the world. He has been much �m�tated. wr�ters w�th s�m�lar hard-bo�led styles who are st�ll read �nclude raymond Chandler, M�ckey sp�llane, and ross Macdonald.

detro�t res�dent elmore Leonard �s one of the most popular and prol�f�c of Amer�ca’s contemporary mystery novel�sts. Born �n 1925 �n New orleans, Lou�s�ana, he attended the Un�vers�ty of detro�t and worked for a wh�le �n advert�s�ng, all the t�me moonl�ght�ng as a novel�st. At f�rst, he wrote westerns; the most popular was Hombre (1961), wh�ch was made �nto a mov�e starr�ng Paul Newman. H�s f�rst mystery was The Big Bounce (1969). Leonard’s s�gna-ture protagon�st �s someone who �s not qu�te stra�ght, someone who often has a streak of larceny �n h�m (or her). For �nstance, Get Shorty, one of h�s better known mystery novels, features Ch�l� Palmer, an almost com�c gangster who dec�des to �nvade Hollywood and make a mov�e. Leonard h�mself l�kes to say that the ma�n attr�bute of h�s novels �s character, rather than plot, and he enjoys explor�ng moral pathology. Leonard �s also the prototyp�cal wr�ter who �mmerses h�mself �n the m�l�eu of h�s novels. To get th�ngs authent�c, he w�ll do such th�ngs as spend days �n a courtroom watch�ng arra�gnments and �nterv�ew�ng cops. He �s espec�ally good at captur�ng the d�alogue of th�eves and cops and at descr�b�ng the m�nut�a of the�r dress. At age 82, he has just publ�shed h�s latest novel, Up in Honey’s Room (2007).

walter Mosley, born �n Los Angeles, Cal�forn�a, �n 1952, wr�tes pr�mar�ly �n the hard-bo�led school of mystery f�ct�on. The sett�ngs of h�s novels are often the tough post–world war II Afr�can Amer�can ne�ghborhoods of Los Angeles, teem�ng w�th b�g-c�ty prejud�ces. In h�s famous easy rawl�ns ser�es of novels, he also has h�s own tw�st on the detect�ve s�dek�ck: raymond Al-exander, n�cknamed “Mouse,” whose job �t �s to meet v�olence w�th v�olence. As w�th Hammett, Mosley’s mystery f�ct�on also deals w�th moral balance, but aga�n, �t �s w�th a tw�st. In Mosley’s case, �t deals w�th rac�al prejud�ce. H�s protagon�sts may have to sk�rt the law at t�mes—they are forced to do so because of the prejud�ces around them—but just�ce, both rac�al and legal, �s

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eventually served, and the protagon�sts are better off. one of Mosley’s stated goals �s to create black male heroes. He does th�s w�th�n the easy rawl�ns ser�es, the socrates Fortlow ser�es, and the Fearless Jones ser�es. The �mpor-tant features of a Mosley hero are that he works hard, wh�le demand�ng and ga�n�ng respect—by force, �f necessary.

Cons�stently on the best seller l�st s�nce 1982, sue Grafton has created a popular woman detect�ve �n K�nsey M�llhone, a character who �s a former po-l�cewoman turned pr�vate detect�ve. Grafton was born �n 1944 �n Lou�sv�lle, Kentucky. she �s best known for her alphabet myster�es, start�ng w�th A Is for Alibi (1982). wh�le not exactly �n the hard-bo�led school of Amer�can mys-tery wr�ters, Grafton does follow Hammett �n br�ng�ng moral order to the world. Her ma�n character, K�nsey M�llhone, �s eccentr�c (and a l�ttle on the seedy s�de), smart, caust�c, and �ndependent: a role model that clearly knocks the ruffled, s�lky edges off the woman on a pedestal archetype.

sc�ence f�ct�on, a th�rd popular subgenre, beg�ns �n the n�neteenth century �n england (H. G. wells) and France (Jules Verne). There was no s�gn�f�cant wr�ter of sc�ence f�ct�on �n the Un�ted states unt�l edgar r�ce Burroughs, who wrote h�s f�rst sc�ence f�ct�on �n 1912. Then began the age of pulp f�c-t�on, w�th such magaz�nes as Amazing Stories, launched by Hugo Gernsback �n 1926. Also known as speculat�ve f�ct�on, �t extrapolates �nto the future (occas�onally �nto the past) some sc�ent�f�c �dea: robots, computers, space travel, and so on. somet�mes (though rarely �n contemporary wr�ters) th�s extrapolat�on w�ll lead to a pos�t�ve f�ct�onal world (utop�a), but more often, �t leads to a dystop�a (a world f�lled w�th problems). It reflects the Amer�can fasc�nat�on w�th, as well as susp�c�ons about, sc�ence and technology. There are poss�bly more personal favor�tes among sc�ence f�ct�on readers than there are among romance readers.

one standout �s Ursula K. Le Gu�n, who �s also known for her earth sea fantasy ser�es. Born �n 1921 �n Berkeley, Cal�forn�a, her mother was a wr�ter, and her father was a d�st�ngu�shed anthropolog�st. Le Gu�n’s most famous sc�ence f�ct�on book �s probably The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), �n wh�ch she extrapolates genet�cs �nto the future and explores �ts consequences. Th�s �s a book that beg�ns to look at the fem�n�st �dea of androgyny by creat�ng a planet, Gethen, where most of the t�me, �ts �nhab�tants are �ndeed now an-drogynous. Le Gu�n wrote two later essays, the t�tles of wh�ch ask, Is gender necessary? wh�le she herself feels that The Left Hand of Darkness d�d not go far enough, �t �s st�ll seen as a f�rst of �ts k�nd: fem�n�st sc�ence f�ct�on.

The extraord�nar�ly prol�f�c Isaac As�mov was born �n Petrov�ch�, russ�a. He d�ed �n 1992. As�mov attended Columb�a Un�vers�ty for h�s undergradu-ate and graduate school�ng and ended w�th a Phd �n b�ochem�stry. L�ke fan-tasy wr�ters, he often created f�ct�onal worlds that were presented �n a ser�es


of books. H�s two most famous are the Foundat�on ser�es and h�s robot ser�es. The robot ser�es �s famous for delv�ng �nto the moral quandar�es as-soc�ated w�th art�f�c�al �ntell�gence. As�mov created the famous three laws of robot�cs to deal w�th the problem.

Th�s �s a good place to d�scuss a wr�ter who was more than just a sc�ence f�ct�on wr�ter and whose work �s often requ�red read�ng �n h�gh schools and colleges. Kurt Vonnegut Jr. was born �n 1922 �n Ind�anapol�s, Ind�ana, and d�ed �n 2007. He stud�ed at Cornell and the Un�vers�ty of Ch�cago, ga�n�ng a background �n chem�stry, b�ology, and anthropology.

one of h�s best known sc�ence f�ct�on works was Cat’s Cradle (1963), wh�ch tells the story of the potent�al destruct�veness of technology �n the form of �ce-n�ne, an �nvent�on that can freeze all water on the planet. even more cr�t�cally accla�med was h�s 1969 book Slaughterhouse-Five; or, The Children’s Crusade. Vonnegut �s often compared to Mark Twa�n, espec�ally the later Twa�n, who became pess�m�st�c about humank�nd, and th�s comes across �n th�s novel. In th�s book, a world war II pr�soner �n dresden (Vonnegut h�mself was a pr�soner there and w�tnessed the effects of the f�re bomb�ng) �s abducted by al�ens, who place h�m �n a zoo on the�r planet and mate h�m w�th a mov�e star. As w�th most of h�s works, there �s humor, but �t �s a d�sturb�ng, cr�t�cal, dark humor.

Fantasy l�terature can be seen as the fl�p s�de of the co�n from sc�ence f�c-t�on. wh�le sc�ence f�ct�on puts a prem�um on sc�ence and rat�onal�ty, fantasy focuses �n on mag�c and the �rrat�onal. It, of course, has connect�ons to fa�ry tales and began to become somewhat popular for adults dur�ng the n�ne-teenth century, but �t really was not unt�l the engl�sh wr�ter J.r.r. Tolk�en �ntroduced the world to The Lord of the Rings �n the m�d-twent�eth century that �t really became popular w�th adult readers. one of the attract�ons of fantasy �s that there �s usually a clear demarcat�on between good and ev�l. It �s consol�ng to see good tr�umph over ev�l, and �t �s equally comfort�ng to enter a world of wonder and mag�c.

The Sword of Shannara (1971) was Terry Brooks’s f�rst book of fantasy, and �t was the f�rst Amer�can fantasy novel to make �t to the New York Times best seller l�st. Brooks was born �n sterl�ng, Ill�no�s, �n 1944. H�s f�rst se-r�es, the shannara ser�es, has somet�mes been cr�t�c�zed for be�ng too close to Tolk�en, but s�nce then, he has gone on to create numerous or�g�nal fantasy worlds. He �s a good example of the trend �n fantasy wr�t�ng to create a ser�es of books based �n a s�ngle secondary world.

robert Jordan (pen name for James ol�ver r�gney Jr.) was born �n 1948. H�s hometown �s Charleston, south Carol�na. A V�etnam war veteran, he attended the C�tadel and graduated w�th a degree �n phys�cs. H�s most fa-mous ser�es �s the wheel of T�me ser�es. There are currently 11 books �n

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the ser�es, a ser�es that has been wr�tten over a 16-year span. L�ke most fan-tasy, �t �s a quest, a journey of d�scovery of ep�c proport�ons. L�ke all good fantasy wr�ters, Jordan has created an ent�re mythology, and even a language (as Tolk�en d�d). The ser�es �s scheduled to be f�n�shed w�th the next book, but Jordan was recently d�agnosed w�th a rare cancer.

The horror genre �s also popular �n the contemporary Un�ted states. Aga�n, just as w�th mystery f�ct�on, the Amer�can stra�n of horror and goth�c f�ct�on can be traced to edgar Allan Poe (“The Fall of the House of Usher,” “The Tell Tale Heart”). In most cases, what horror f�ct�on suggests �s a metaphys�-cal or sp�r�tual s�de to real�ty, even when that metaphys�cal s�de �s of the ev�l type—th�s �n the m�dst of an �ncreas�ngly secular soc�ety—and, accord�ng to stephen K�ng, �t also works as a cathars�s for the darker s�de of human nature lurk�ng �n all of us.

The superstar of contemporary horror �s �ndeed stephen K�ng. Born �n Portland, Ma�ne, �n 1947, h�s f�rst novel, Carrie (1974), began a long l�ne of successes, �nclud�ng two outstand�ng nonhorror novellas, The Body and Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption, both appear�ng �n 1982. K�ng wr�tes w�th real�st�c deta�l, wh�ch helps to �ntens�fy the horrors. Vamp�res, ghosts, and other examples of the supernatural are often part of the story fab-r�c, but so �s the explorat�on of the potent�al horrors �n contemporary soc�ety as well as the potent�al for v�olence and ev�l �n ord�nary people. He �s also known for h�s exper�mentat�on w�th ser�al�zat�on and d�str�but�on of books on the Internet. K�ng’s The Green Mile (1996) �s a perfect example. The book was or�g�nally wr�tten and publ�shed �n s�x volumes, ala Charles d�ckens. The real horror and ev�l �n the book �s the murderous capab�l�t�es of w�ll�am wharton, a v�c�ous ch�ld k�ller, as well as the real�t�es of cap�tal pun�shment.

Anne r�ce, who was born �n New orleans, Lou�s�ana, �n 1941, began her wr�t�ng career blend�ng horror (vamp�res and w�tches) w�th the sensual and erot�c. Her f�rst horror novel was Interview with a Vampire (1976). Her un-usual take on a trad�t�onal tale was to see the story from the vamp�re’s po�nt of v�ew, and, as she herself has po�nted out, the vamp�re becomes a metaphor for her. To read one of her vamp�re books �s to partake of an ex�stent�al explo-rat�on of l�v�ng �n a world where God does not ex�st and where the vamp�re must comm�t ev�l just to be. Her delv�ng �nto the ph�losophy, psychology, and angst of th�s s�tuat�on �s what draws many people to her novels. s�nce 2005, w�th the publ�cat�on of Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt, r�ce has vowed to approach the metaphys�cal from a trad�t�onal perspect�ve. she plans on wr�t-�ng the b�ography of Jesus Chr�st and to never wr�te a vamp�re book aga�n.

A totally d�fferent take from r�ce on the dracula tale �s el�zabeth Kosto-va’s The Historian (2005). Kostova was born �n 1964 �n New London, Con-nect�cut. she attended yale and then rece�ved an master’s of f�ne arts from


the Un�vers�ty of M�ch�gan. Her f�rst and only book, The Historian (2005), took 10 years to wr�te. It has rema�ned on the best seller l�st and has every s�gn of becom�ng a horror class�c. Much more �n the sp�r�t of the trad�t�onal story, �t �s told from the perspect�ve of the v�ct�ms, and Vlad Tepes (dracula) has no redeem�ng values and no ph�losoph�cal angst. The story �s told �n an �nterest�ng and effect�ve way, s�multaneously on three t�mel�nes (somet�mes more when there �s a story w�th�n a story) and pr�mar�ly through narrat�ve letters.

Popular nonfiction

It �s est�mated that nearly 80 percent of the 50,000 or so new books pub-l�shed every year are nonf�ct�on. These are often self-help books, cookbooks, pol�t�cal d�atr�bes, and the l�ke. These are not cons�dered l�terature; they are more related to journal�sm and �ts factual, somet�mes ephemeral and t�me-sens�t�ve nature. yet there are a number of subgenres of nonf�ct�on that have the potent�al to be called l�terature and to endure.

All these �mportant subgenres of nonf�ct�on have been affected by creat�ve nonf�ct�on. wh�le there are st�ll many academ�c, purely factual and thes�s-dr�ven nonf�ct�on works, the works that have the greatest potent�al to be endur�ng class�cs as well as popular w�th the publ�c merge narrat�ve tech-n�ques w�th fact, h�story, �nformat�on, and soc�al commentary. Most affected by the trend of creat�ve nonf�ct�on have been h�story works, b�ograph�es and autob�ograph�es, and travel books.

At t�mes, academ�c h�stor�ans are at odds w�th the f�rst category: popular h�story. The academ�cs argue, accurately, that they have often already wr�tten the same observat�ons, facts, and �ns�ghts as popular h�stor�ans have. They have been there and done that, but w�th l�ttle publ�c accla�m. And they cla�m, often aga�n w�th just�f�cat�on, that popular h�stor�ans can be sloppy w�th the�r documentat�on. Generally, though, they wr�te �n a d�fferent style from popu-lar h�stor�ans: they debunk and theor�ze, often �n excruc�at�ngly ponderous prose and dry, �ntellectual analys�s. Popular h�stor�ans, on the other hand, make h�story come al�ve by �mpos�ng on �t a narrat�ve structure and an arrest-�ng prose style; thus the�r works are somet�mes called narrative history. s�mply put, popular h�stor�ans tell a story, and that �s what makes them well-l�ked and the�r works cand�dates for endur�ng l�terature.

The dean of contemporary popular h�stor�ans, dav�d McCullough, �s from P�ttsburgh, Pennsylvan�a. He was born �n 1933 and �s a graduate of yale Un�-vers�ty. He began h�s career wr�t�ng for magaz�nes—Time, Life, and Ameri-can Heritage—and sw�tched to wr�t�ng popular h�story books �n 1968 w�th The Johnstown Flood. He also wr�tes popular b�ography. The central research techn�que �n all creat�ve nonf�ct�on �s �mmers�on. McCullough �s a pr�me

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example. He �s a met�culous researcher. H�s research focuses not just on the facts, but also on the words, thoughts, and �deas of a t�me per�od, �nclud�ng �ts art and culture. He reads what h�s characters read; he embraces the�r ph�-losoph�es, the�r art, the�r l�terature, and the�r values. He tracks down personal and off�c�al letters, not only of the famous, but also of the m�nor characters �n the narrat�ve. He phys�cally traces the steps of h�s characters mak�ng the�r sett�ngs h�s sett�ngs. He puts h�mself there and, by do�ng so, puts h�s readers there as well. L�ke most of the popular h�stor�ans, McCullough focuses �n on dramat�c, p�votal moments, espec�ally those that �llum�nate the nat�onal char-acter. 1776 (2005), for �nstance, focuses on the cruc�al year �n the Amer�can revolut�on when �t seemed that the Amer�cans had no chance at all. It �llum�-nates the character of George wash�ngton and of the men who served under h�m. McCullough has won the Pul�tzer Pr�ze for two of h�s b�ograph�es, John Adams (2002) and Truman (1993), as well as the Nat�onal Book Award for several of h�s h�stor�es.

one of the top�cs of fasc�nat�on for Amer�can readers of h�story �s the Amer�can C�v�l war. It, too, �s a p�votal moment �n Amer�can �dent�ty, w�th many human d�mens�ons. one of the most popular wr�ters on th�s subject �s Greenv�lle, M�ss�ss�pp�, born shelby Foote (1916–2005). Foote dropped out of college at the Un�vers�ty of North Carol�na, jo�ned the army as a capta�n of art�llery, was court-marshaled and d�sm�ssed for go�ng out of bounds to v�s�t h�s g�rlfr�end (later h�s w�fe), and then promptly enl�sted �n the Mar�ne Corps as an �nfantryman. Foote began as a novel�st (thus ga�n�ng a good �ns�ght �nto narrat�ve structure) and then spent 20 years wr�t�ng a three-volume h�story of the C�v�l war t�tled The Civil War: A Narrative, f�nally completed �n 1974. He �s often remembered as one of the pr�mary narrators of Ken Burns’s docu-mentary The Civil War.

Another war h�stor�an, though certa�nly more controvers�al, �s stephen Ambrose. He was born �n 1936 �n decatur, Ill�no�s, and d�ed �n 2002. He rece�ved a Phd from the Un�vers�ty of w�scons�n and began h�s career as an academ�c h�stor�an; �n fact, he was the off�c�al b�ographer of dw�ght e�sen-hower. In the 1990s, Ambrose began wr�t�ng popular h�story, focus�ng espe-c�ally on world war II, beg�nn�ng w�th Band of Brothers �n 1993. H�s books soon became best sellers. Th�s frequently made h�m unpopular w�th academ�c h�stor�ans for not be�ng r�gorous enough, and h�s 2000 book, The Wild Blue, brought charges of plag�ar�sm for not putt�ng quotat�on marks around bor-rowed mater�al (though he d�d footnote �t).

The autob�ography and b�ography subgenre �s peppered w�th trans�tory works about, and by, record�ng art�sts, actors, sports f�gures, and people gen-erally �n the publ�c eye. Much of �t �s ghost wr�tten and more t�t�llat�ng than s�gn�f�cant. Keep�ng �n m�nd that some of the earl�er d�scussed h�stor�ans


(McCullough, espec�ally) are also s�gn�f�cant b�ographers, the follow�ng are a few of the others who are contemporary and popular.

M�tch Albom and John Grogan are def�n�tely not �n the school of r�gor-ous academ�cs, but the�r books are class�f�ed as b�ography, and they are both often ass�gned for h�gh school students to read, probably because they are upbeat and have sol�d l�fe lessons to teach. M�tch Albom was born �n 1958 �n Passa�c, New Jersey, and �s well known for h�s book Tuesdays with Morrie (1997), about teacher and soc�olog�st Morr�e schwartz, h�s former soc�ology professor at Brande�s Un�vers�ty. Though class�f�ed as b�ography, �t �s not a r�gorous study of schwartz’s ent�re l�fe. It focuses on the last days of h�s l�fe—14 Tuesdays, to be exact. It �s based on the conversat�ons that Albom had w�th h�m and on the w�sdom, �ns�ghts, and lessons that Albom recorded. often cr�t�c�zed by �ntellectual rev�ewers, �t nevertheless rema�ned on the best seller l�st for s�x years. Albom has s�nce wr�tten books that could best be descr�bed as fantasy l�terature, but w�th the same result: �mmense popular�ty and often ass�gned to h�gh school students to read (these �nclude The Five People You Meet in Heaven [2005] and For One More Day [2006]).

John Grogan has wr�tten one of the most unusual—but very popular—of books, Marley and Me (2005). But �s �t an autob�ography? or �s �t a b�ogra-phy, perhaps? Grogan was born �n detro�t, M�ch�gan, �n 1957. He attended Central M�ch�gan Un�vers�ty and oh�o state and has worked as a journal�st and ed�tor. Cur�ously, Marley �s a dog, so wh�le techn�cally, �t �s the b�ogra-phy of a Labrador retr�ever, the book �s really the autob�ography of a fam�ly wr�tten w�th great humor.

Another popular h�stor�an, walter Isaacson, was born �n 1952 �n New or-leans, Lou�s�ana. He �s a graduate of Harvard and a rhodes scholar at oxford and has been a journal�st, an ed�tor, and the Ceo of the Aspen Inst�tute. H�s latest b�ography �s of an �con of the twent�eth century, Albert e�nste�n, who has had a profound effect on the way we conce�ve real�ty. In Einstein: His Life and Universe (2007), Isaacson focuses on both life and universe as h�s narra-t�ve presents the human s�de of e�nste�n as well as an attempt at expla�n�ng h�s theor�es to mere mortals.

dor�s Kearns Goodw�n, the last of the b�ographers to be d�scussed, �s also an example of the strengths and weaknesses of creat�ve nonf�ct�on. she was born �n 1943 �n Brooklyn, New york. she attended Colby College and rece�ved her Phd from Harvard. Her books often make the best seller l�sts—the Pul�tzer Pr�ze–w�nn�ng No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (1995), for example. L�ke Mc-Cullough, she �mmerses herself �n her subject, but l�ke Ambrose, she has been embro�led �n a controversy over plag�ar�sm. The general cr�t�c�sm of creat�ve nonf�ct�on �s that �n a rush to have the next best seller, wr�ters some-

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t�mes get sloppy, or they �nvent. In her case, �t seems to have been a case of slopp�ness. Her latest book looks at one of the most �mportant of Amer�can leaders, Abraham L�ncoln, �n Team of Rival: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (2005).

And f�nally �n the b�ography/autob�ography category �s Maya Angelou, born �n 1928 �n st. Lou�s, M�ssour�. Born �nto poverty and a broken fam-�ly, Angelou �s cons�dered by many to be a modern rena�ssance woman, suc-cessfully dabbl�ng �n poetry, act�ng, s�ng�ng, wr�t�ng plays, and d�rect�ng. In add�t�on, she �s a h�stor�an and an educator. she has l�ved �n many parts of the world and held many jobs. wh�le she never attended college, she has re-ce�ved a number of honorary degrees. But she �s probably best known for her ser�es of autob�ograph�es, espec�ally the f�rst one, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969). The latest �n the ser�es �s A Song Flung Up to Heaven (2002), wh�ch relates her l�fe up to 1968 and the turbulent years of the C�v�l r�ghts Movement.

Travel l�terature �n the Un�ted states goes back to Mark Twa�n and h�s Innocents Abroad (1869), but worldw�de, �t can be traced back much further. In any case, �t �s and always has been a natural for creat�ve nonf�ct�on. Good travel l�terature (unl�ke gu�debooks, wh�ch are a k�nd of journal�sm and eas�ly dated) has the un�versal�ty and agelessness of any good l�terature. The tech-n�que of �mmers�on used �n travel l�terature, as �n autob�ography, �s based on personal exper�ence, but �t �nev�tably also �ncludes trad�t�onal research. It �nv�tes commentary from the wr�ter �n many areas: pol�t�cs, h�story, eco-nom�cs, soc�ology, psychology, art, conservat�on, and so on. Travel l�terature �s also, obv�ously, about place. At �ts best, �t �s a journey through phys�cal, psycholog�cal, �ntellectual, and moral space.

B�ll Bryson �s one of Amer�ca’s prem�er travel wr�ters. Born �n 1951 �n des Mo�nes, Iowa, Bryson dropped out of college (he would later f�n�sh school) to beg�n a l�fe as a traveler. He began by h�k�ng through europe, f�rst on h�s own, then w�th h�s fr�end stephen Katz (a pseudonym for a reoccurr�ng character �n several of Bryson’s books). s�nce then, Bryson’s travels have been source mater�al for books on the Un�ted states, england, Austral�a, and Afr�ca. H�s perenn�al best seller A Walk in the Woods (1998) �s a good example of h�s style. Th�s book takes the reader onto the great Appalach�an Tra�l, wh�ch runs from Georg�a to Ma�ne. It blends an �ron�c, often deadpan humor w�th encycloped�c �nformat�on and a cr�t�cal eye for Amer�can fo�bles. Though he �s obv�ously a conservat�on�st, he st�ll takes a real�st�c v�ew of nature: �t �s b�g, somet�mes scary, and somet�mes just bor�ng.

Tony Horw�tz, a Pul�tzer Pr�ze–w�nn�ng reporter, has �mmersed h�mself �n both travel and h�story, whether �t �s �n the C�v�l war south, the Pac�f�c of Capta�n Cook, or the M�ddle east. Born �n wash�ngton, d.C., �n 1958, he


stud�ed h�story at Brown Un�vers�ty and journal�sm at Columb�a. H�s travel books often blend h�s own journeys w�th those of h�stor�cal f�gures, as �n Blue Latitudes (2002). The book has a dual structure: the tell�ng of the journey of Capta�n James Cook and the tell�ng of Horw�tz’s own journey as he retraces Cook’s explorat�ons, even subject�ng h�mself to sa�l�ng on a repl�ca of Cook’s sh�p, the Endeavor. The reader not only learns the h�story and b�ography, but also ga�ns an understand�ng of the soc�olog�cal �mpact of e�ghteenth-century explorat�on.

Paul Theroux �s a pr�me example of the d�fference between a traveler and a tour�st. Both a novel�st and travel wr�ter, he was born �n 1941 �n Med-ford, Massachusetts. He graduated from the Un�vers�ty of Massachusetts and jo�ned the Peace Corps and thus began a l�fe of travel that has led to 12 h�ghly respected travel books. Theroux does not seek out the planned and the well organ�zed. In h�s op�n�on, one cannot really know a country or a place by v�s-�t�ng �t �n the cocoon of the travel agent’s agenda; str�k�ng out on one’s own, per�lously �f necessary, �s a requ�rement. A traveler must see the place as �t re-ally �s, not as others want h�m or her to see �t. For example, �n h�s f�rst travel book, The Great Railway Bazaar (1975), Theroux travels alone, w�thout out-s�de help, go�ng mostly by tra�n from London to V�etnam and back. Less encycloped�c than some other travel wr�ters, he �s �nstead more novel�st�c, and he has an eye for the absurd and eccentr�c. Characters are f�nely developed, and h�s descr�pt�ons of place have the astute economy of a poet.

F�nally, John Berendt takes the techn�que of �mmers�on to an even more extreme degree than any of the prev�ously ment�oned travel wr�ters, w�th the except�on perhaps of Paul Theroux. He has l�ved for years �n the two places he has wr�tten about: savannah, Georg�a, and Ven�ce, Italy. Berendt was born �n 1939 �n syracuse, New york. He graduated from Harvard and has wr�tten for New York magaz�ne and Esquire. H�s focus �s often on character—espe-c�ally the upper classes—on art�sans, and on the eccentr�c. He also has a way of mak�ng the c�t�es he wr�tes about become characters �n themselves. In both of h�s travel books, Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil (1994) and City of Falling Angels (2005), Berendt f�nds a dramat�c moment to wrap h�s narrat�ve around. In Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, �t �s a murder tr�al, and �n City of Fallen Angels, �t �s the trag�c and myster�ous burn�ng of the h�stor�c La Fen�ce opera house. In th�s regard, he �s l�ke the popular h�stor�an who f�nds a dramat�c, p�votal moment on wh�ch to reveal the essence of the c�ty.

ConClusion

Paraphras�ng B�lly Coll�ns aga�n, to look at the world of contemporary Amer�can l�terature �s to look at the h�story of the nat�on’s heart—and

LITerATUre 263

consc�ence and m�nd. L�terary works are somet�mes cr�t�cal of the culture (espec�ally when �deals are not met). Amer�cans are even w�ll�ng to be chas-t�sed, espec�ally �f �t �s done w�th humor, as by Mark Twa�n, or w�th powerful emot�onal resonance, as by Ton� Morr�son or Harper Lee. Amer�can drama and l�terary f�ct�on are purveyors of the currents of world �ntellectual thought, though even horror novels can somet�mes be ph�losoph�cal, and romances can somet�mes teach about fem�n�st �deals. Amer�cans f�nd solace and beauty �n the�r poets as well as w�sdom. Amer�cans celebrate v�rtues and successes (and somet�mes mourn fa�lures) �n b�ograph�es and h�stor�es. Amer�cans dream and learn w�th the fantasy wr�ters, the travel wr�ters, and the romance wr�ters.

Cr�t�cs somet�mes accuse Amer�can popular prose of hav�ng a Pollyanna m�nd-set, but that �s only true �f be�ng pos�t�ve �s unreal�st�c. In truth, Amer�-cans both embrace and worry about the effects of sc�ence, b�g bus�ness, and �ndustr�al�zat�on, espec�ally �n sc�ence f�ct�on, and Amer�cans love to br�ng moral order �n mystery f�ct�on because the world can be ev�l and greedy. The sum total equals a love for the r�chness of language and the emot�onal power of a story, even the scary stor�es of good horror novels.

note

1. The �ndustry stat�st�cs for th�s chapter come from several sources. The Book study Industry Group prov�ded many of the raw numbers, espec�ally as they are d�s-t�lled �n Albert N. Greco, “The econom�cs of Books and Magaz�nes,” �n Media Eco-nomics: Theory and Practice, ed. Al�son Alexander et al. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence erl-baum Assoc�ates, 2004), 127–48. some of the �nformat�on also comes from the U.s. Census Bureau (http://www.census.gov). The stat�st�cs for poetry sales were prov�ded by the Poetry Foundat�on (http://www.poetryfoundat�on.org). General prose book sales were calculated by the N�elsen Bookscan serv�ce. romance book sales were prov�ded by the romance wr�ters of Amer�ca (https://www.rwanat�onal.org). sta-t�st�cs on nonf�ct�on book sales were prov�ded by Lee Gutk�nd, Creative Nonfiction (Ch�cago: Ch�cago rev�ew Press, 1996), 7.

wh�le some of the texts for the slam poets can be found on the�r web s�tes and �n books, many of the�r works have to be exper�enced through Google’s v�deo search eng�ne, e�ther under the poet’s name or s�mply under “slam poetry.”

B�ograph�cal �nformat�on comes from author and publ�sher web s�tes and from onl�ne �nterv�ews.

BiBliograPhy

Algar�n, M�guel, and Bob Holman, eds. Aloud: Voices from the Nuyorican Poets Cafe. New york: Holt, 1994.

Bloom, Harold. Novelists and Novels. Ph�ladelph�a: Chelsea House, 2005.


ell�ot, emory, ed. Columbia Literary History of the United States. New york: Colum-b�a Un�vers�ty Press, 1988.

Fussell, Paul, ed. The Norton Book of Travel. New york: w. w. Norton, 1987.Go�a, dana. Disappearing Ink: Poetry at the End of Print Culture. sa�nt Paul, MN:

Graywolf Press, 2004.Gunn, James, ed. The Road to Science Fiction. Vol. 3, From Heinlein to Here. Lanham,

Md: scarecrow Press, 2002.Gutk�nd, Lee. Creative Nonfiction. Ch�cago: Ch�cago rev�ew Press, 1996.Hart, James dav�d. The Oxford Companion to American Literature. New york: ox-

ford Un�vers�ty Press, 1995.Kl�nkow�tz, Jerome. Literary Subversions: New American Fiction and the Practice of

Criticism. Carbondale: southern Ill�no�s Un�vers�ty Press, 1985.Mass, wendy, and stuart P. Lev�ne, eds. Fantasy. san d�ego, CA: Greenhaven Press,

2002.Newbery, V�ctor e. The Popular Press Companion to Popular Literature. Bowl�ng

Green, oH: Bowl�ng Green state Un�vers�ty Popular Press, 1983.reg�s, Pamela. A Natural History of the Romance Novel. Ph�ladelph�a: Un�vers�ty of

Pennsylvan�a Press, 2003.sm�th, Marc Kelly. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Slam Poetry. Ind�anapol�s, IN:

Alpha Books, 2004.sternl�cht, sanford. A Reader’s Guide to Modern American Drama. syracuse, Ny:

syracuse Un�vers�ty Press, 2002.Tanner, Tony. City of Words: American Fiction, 1950–1970. London: Cape, 1971.Tanner, Tony. The American Mystery: American Literature from Emerson to De

Lillo. New york: Cambr�dge Un�vers�ty Press, 2000.

Today we are beg�nn�ng to not�ce that the new med�a are not just mechan�cal g�m-m�cks for creat�ng worlds of �llus�on, but new languages w�th new and un�que powers of express�on.

—Marshall McLuhan

ameriCa and its media

Assessing the status of the med�a �n the Un�ted states �n the early twenty-f�rst century �s a l�ttle l�ke pred�ct�ng the outcome of a b�rd flu pandem�c: anyth�ng could happen. Med�a convergence has become a popular top�c at academ�c conferences, but just how the med�a w�ll converge and what w�ll capture the �nterest of the Amer�can people �s an educated guess. For years, pund�ts pred�cted the l�kes of v�deo telephones and electron�c supermarkets, but no one could have �mag�ned the prol�ferat�on of the Internet and �ts cor-respond�ng transformat�on of the ways Amer�cans l�ve, work, and relax.

Personal computers started off �n the 1980s as l�ttle more than fancy type-wr�ters; the evolut�on was slow. By the t�me the century ended, however, the Internet and the world w�de web had reshaped da�ly act�v�t�es, created a new branch of med�a and consumer�sm, and profoundly changed Amer�can culture. It prov�ded new avenues of enterta�nment, wh�le at the same t�me forc�ng news-papers, magaz�nes, telev�s�on, rad�o, and c�nema to reth�nk the�r markets and aud�ences. How well the �nd�v�dual med�a adapt to the new k�d on the block w�ll determ�ne just who surv�ves dur�ng th�s second commun�cat�on revolut�on (the f�rst be�ng �n the f�fteenth century, w�th the �nvent�on of moveable type).

7

Med�a and C�nema

Agnes Hooper Gottlieb

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ABC News, for example, has created an �nteract�ve web s�te that encourages v�ewers to “engage w�th the news” and to “be seen and be heard” by prov�d�ng news stor�es, photos, and v�deos. Cell phone cameras that can capture news as �t occurs allows the everyperson to be �nvolved �n news gather�ng and report�ng. V�deo footage of brush f�res, floods, and other natural d�sasters f�nd the�r way onto the web s�te. In 2005, youTube, a v�deo-shar�ng technology, prem�ered and gave asp�r�ng f�lmmakers an �nstant mass�ve aud�ence.

wh�le med�a changes l�ke these occur rap�dly and constantly �n today’s soc�ety, the med�a evolved slowly up unt�l 1900. From that moment on, how-ever, the med�a have been evolv�ng, morph�ng, and recreat�ng �nto new and ever-chang�ng formats. where newspapers once stood alone, rad�o, c�nema, telev�s�on, and the Internet have crowded �n to demand consumers’ t�me and attent�on. wh�le the twent�eth century was transformat�onal for med�a, the evolut�on d�d not end w�th the dawn of the year 2000.

Perhaps the hardest th�ng to get one’s arms around w�th a broad top�c l�ke the Amer�can med�a �s just what const�tutes the med�a �n th�s new m�llenn�um. wh�le �t �s easy to categor�ze newspapers, magaz�nes, and old-fash�oned telev�s�on, med�a convergence means that ma�nstream med�a outlets morph �nto new and d�fferent med�a. The New York Times newspaper

Apple’s new �Phone h�t U.s. shelves �n late June 2007. Th�s gadget does �t all: w�th the touch of a button users can access the�r mus�c, text messages, phone calls, photos, e-ma�l, and Internet. © AP Photo/Jason deCrow, f�le.

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st�ll w�elds �ncred�ble author�ty as a preem�nent and el�te newspaper, but no one wa�ts to read about break�ng news stor�es l�ke the 9/11 terror�st attacks �n a newspaper. A newspaper l�ke the Times m�ght help readers put cataclys-m�c events �n context, but �t no longer bears the burden of �nform�ng readers that an event has taken place. The Amer�can people turn on the�r telev�s�ons and, to a lesser extent, go onl�ne to learn about break�ng news events. In the space of 100 years, the roles and respons�b�l�t�es of newspapers—�n�t�ally the only game �n town—were transformed by compet�t�on that came from many venues.

newsPaPers

The last century �n the story of newspapers �n the Un�ted states could be b�lled as the med�a vers�on of the Hundred years’ war. Newspapers hunkered down w�th the advent of rad�o and fought off compet�t�ve threats (both per-ce�ved and real), outl�v�ng the pred�ct�ons of doomsayers who regularly forecast the dem�se of da�ly newspapers when the�r dom�nance was challenged, f�rst by rad�o, then by telev�s�on, and f�nally by the Internet. Newspaper publ�shers grew fond of quot�ng Mark Twa�n’s clever qu�p, “reports of my death have been greatly exaggerated.” By the end of the century, most newspapers were st�ll thr�v�ng, though prof�t marg�ns and readersh�p had shrunk and changed.

Newspapers, slow to take hold �n the Amer�cas, had long been the dom�-nant med�um �n Amer�ca once they establ�shed the�r presence. There were two pr�nt�ng presses on the Mayflower when �t docked at Plymouth rock �n december 1620, but 70 years went by before the f�rst newspaper was attempted. That product, Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick, appeared only once, on september 25, 1690. Publ�sher Benjam�n Harr�s stated h�s �ntent�on to publ�sh once a month, or more frequently �f news events occurred, but the newspaper was banned four days after �t appeared by the Massachusetts governor, r�led because �t had been publ�shed w�thout perm�ss�on.

Publick Occurrences proves an �nterest�ng art�fact, however, because �t dem-onstrates that what we would def�ne as news today can trace �ts roots back all the way to the beg�nn�ng of the Amer�can press. The four-page newspaper conta�ned 20 paragraphs of news, mostly domest�c, although there were two fore�gn �tems. The publ�cat�on had three pages of news, w�th the back page left blank so that readers could add the�r own �tems as the newspaper was c�rculated. The stor�es �ncluded �nformat�on about the k�dnapp�ng of two ch�ldren by Ind�ans, a su�c�de, a f�re �n Boston, an ep�dem�c of small pox, and sk�rm�shes between the engl�sh and the French and Ind�ans. wh�le l�ttle �s wr�tten �n U.s. newspapers today about small pox ep�dem�cs, the scourge that


�s AIds cont�nues to take headl�ne space, and wh�le the wars have changed w�th the decades, the U.s. �nvolvement �n Iraq was the lead�ng story �n Amer-�can newspapers �n 2007.

After Publick Occurrences’ short-l�ved appearance, 14 years passed before another newspaper was undertaken. on Apr�l 24, 1704, John Campbell, the postmaster of Boston, ed�ted and publ�shed (w�th perm�ss�on) the Boston News-Letter. Campbell had been send�ng handwr�tten letters to the governors of all the New england colon�es for at least a year before he had h�s m�ss�ves typeset. The journal had no advert�sements at f�rst, and Campbell charged two pence a copy (or 12 sh�ll�ngs a year). Campbell gathered together fore�gn news from four-month-old London newspapers that passed through h�s post off�ce and added local news. Campbell, a postmaster, not a pr�nter, worked w�th pr�nter Bartholomew Green, establ�sh�ng early �n Amer�can pr�nt�ng h�story the dual roles of ed�tor and pr�nter. The Boston News-Letter cont�nued under var�ous ed�tors for 72 years before fold�ng dur�ng the Amer�can revolut�on.

Found�ng father Benjam�n Frankl�n looms large �n the story of Amer�-can newspapers. Frankl�n began as a pr�nter’s apprent�ce to h�s older brother James, who was pr�nt�ng the Boston Gazette. In August 1721, James Frank-l�n began publ�sh�ng the New-England Courant w�th the back�ng of a group of �nvestors opposed to the Massachusetts governor. Frankl�n flaunted h�s pos�t�on that he was publ�sh�ng w�thout perm�ss�on. The New-England Cou-rant, the th�rd newspaper �n Boston and the fourth �n all the colon�es, pro-v�ded the platform for the s�lence dogood essays that young Ben Frankl�n penned when he was 16. The Courant’s contr�but�on to journal�sm h�story �s twofold: �ts publ�cat�on of essays, letters, and verse expanded the purv�ew of newspapers �n the e�ghteenth century and prov�ded readers w�th what they l�ked, not just what they needed to know; and �ts publ�cat�on w�thout perm�s-s�on sounded the death knell for that form of pr�or restra�nt �n the colon�es.

Ben Frankl�n ran away from h�s dom�neer�ng brother’s �nfluence to Ph�la-delph�a, where he became ed�tor and publ�sher of the Pennsylvania Gazette. Frankl�n’s compet�t�on �n Ph�ladelph�a was Andrew Bradford, whose father, w�ll�am, was one of the p�oneer pr�nters �n the colon�es.

Most memorable from the pre–revolut�onary war per�od of Amer�can h�story was the ongo�ng struggle between press and government, the out-come of wh�ch establ�shed the parameters that helped create a trad�t�on of press freedom that was formal�zed �n the F�rst Amendment to the U.s. Con-st�tut�on. In 1733, John Peter Zenger, a sem�l�terate German �mm�grant who pr�nted the New York Weekly Journal for a group of backers, clashed w�th off�c�als �n power �n New york colony. Zenger, who barely spoke engl�sh, was merely the condu�t for the�r ant�adm�n�strat�on v�ews, but �t was he who bore the brunt of Governor w�ll�am Cosby’s wrath. Cosby hand-p�cked


a just�ce and ordered h�m to obta�n an �nd�ctment. when the grand jury decl�ned to �nd�ct, a group of the governor’s counc�l came forward w�th an act�on aga�nst Zenger, who was arrested �n November 1734 and charged w�th sed�t�on. Zenger was ja�led for n�ne months before h�s tr�al (h�s weekly newspaper cont�nued to be pr�nted by Zenger’s w�fe, Anna). Lawyer James Alexander, one of the newspaper’s wr�ters and backers, was d�sbarred when he challenged the val�d�ty of the charges. Zenger’s cause was champ�oned by revered Ph�ladelph�a attorney Andrew Ham�lton, 80 years old at the t�me. An adm�ss�on that the pr�nter had actually been respons�ble for pr�nt�ng such mater�al was �n essence an adm�ss�on of gu�lt, but Ham�lton argued that although Zenger was �ndeed the pr�nter, he had done noth�ng wrong be-cause what he had pr�nted was true. Ham�lton argued that for a statement to be l�belous, �t had to be false, mal�c�ous, and sed�t�ous. Ham�lton’s eloquent argument carr�ed the day, and Zenger was found not gu�lty. Although the verd�ct had no effect on l�bel law of the day, �t was the f�rst case to establ�sh the concept that truth was the best defense of l�bel, a pr�nc�ple that was f�-nally recogn�zed �n the 1790 state const�tut�on of Pennsylvan�a.

Newspapers played a major role �n the Amer�can revolut�on, f�rst as a pro-paganda tool that fueled colon�sts’ fervor for war. Fool�shly, the Br�t�sh gov-ernment al�enated the press as early as 1765, when �t passed the stamp Act, wh�ch requ�red all legal documents, off�c�al papers, books, and newspapers to be pr�nted on stamped (or taxed) paper. For newspapers, th�s would have amounted to about a penny for a standard four-page tome. The act passed �n March but was not to be effect�ve unt�l November, wh�ch gave angry colo-n�sts t�me to work up oppos�t�on to the law. The oppos�t�on �ncluded the very people who had the wherew�thal to f�ght �t: the pr�nters. Newspapers rall�ed around the charge of taxat�on w�thout representat�on leveled aga�nst the Br�t-�sh Parl�ament, wh�ch was mak�ng laws govern�ng the colon�es, although the colon�es had no vo�ce there.

The summer of 1765 was a hot one �n the colon�es. Newspapers pr�nted the names of tax collectors, wh�le colon�sts burned them �n eff�gy dur�ng organ�zed protests. some newspapers flaunted the law by pr�nt�ng w�thout the�r mastheads so that they were techn�cally no longer newspapers. some br�efly suspended publ�cat�on. None of the approx�mately 35 newspapers �n the colon�es publ�shed w�th the stamp. react�ng to the furor, the Parl�ament resc�nded the stamp Act �n March 1766, but commun�cat�on was such that the colon�es d�d not learn of the repeal unt�l m�d-May.

Patr�ot samuel Adams, cons�dered one of the dr�v�ng forces beh�nd the colon�al �ndependence, wrote for the pre-revolut�onary newspapers us�ng about 25 d�fferent pen names. And although newspapers had no formal ed�to-r�al pages, they were �mportant �n fuel�ng publ�c op�n�on aga�nst the Br�t�sh.


The success of the stamp Act protest taught colon�sts the effect�veness of or-gan�zed protest. Adams real�zed that to lure the masses to h�s cause, he needed to present the colon�sts w�th reasoned arguments aga�nst the Br�t�sh. And s�nce the men who would be the foot sold�ers for the cause were not h�ghly l�terate, the campa�gn had to be waged �n s�mple terms. Thus began what some h�stor�ans have called Amer�ca’s f�rst organ�zed publ�c relat�ons cam-pa�gn, masterm�nded by Adams and h�s compatr�ots. when Br�t�sh troops f�red �nto a mob of protestors �n Boston �n 1770, Adams labeled �t a massacre �n pr�nt. when the Br�t�sh government taxed tea, Adams led a group of colo-n�sts �n a staged med�a event to dump tea �n Boston Harbor.

If Adams can be cons�dered the publ�c relat�ons man of the revolut�on, Thomas Pa�ne �s �ts poet. Pa�ne’s 1776 essay Common Sense �s cred�ted w�th speak�ng pla�n language that could be understood by the common (and often uneducated) patr�ot. It la�d out a clear argument for a break w�th Br�ta�n and argued �n favor of �ndependence.

After the revolut�on, newspapers served as the sound�ng boards for the two major pol�t�cal platforms, the Federal�sts and the republ�cans. The press of the per�od was a part�san one, w�th major newspapers argu�ng about the rat�f�cat�on of the U.s. Const�tut�on and the legal�ty of the Al�en and sed�t�on Act and report�ng the sord�d and sensat�onal r�valry between two of Amer�ca’s Found�ng Fathers. The Federalist Papers, a ser�es of essays publ�shed �n news-papers and pamphlet form, set out a method�cal argument �n favor of passage of the U.s. Const�tut�on. wr�tten �n part by James Mad�son, Alexander Ham-�lton, and others, the essays argued po�nt by po�nt �n favor of the Const�tut�on. They also set out an argument for press freedom, a pr�nc�ple that was sol�d�f�ed �n a few words as part of the F�rst Amendment �n the B�ll of r�ghts.

Ham�lton, f�rst publ�sher of the New York Post (1801), was cons�dered the leader of the Federal�sts, wh�le Thomas Jefferson, champ�on of the common man, was h�s counterpart among the republ�cans. Ham�lton, who served as George wash�ngton’s secretary of the treasury, met h�s fate �n a now legend-ary duel w�th Aaron Burr �n 1804.

By 1800, journal�sm was thr�v�ng �n the young Un�ted states. Ph�ladel-ph�a had s�x da�ly newspapers, New york had f�ve, and Boston, wh�ch had been the b�rthplace of Amer�can journal�sm and the hotbed of the Amer�can revolut�on, had none. Journal�sm cont�nued to grow �n the early decades of the 1800s and expanded �nto new reg�ons as the Un�ted states outgrew �ts borders. The cost of a da�ly newspaper, however, was out of reach for most of Amer�ca, f�lled as �t was w�th rural farmers and modest merchants. News-papers cost about s�x cents (about the same pr�ce as a p�nt of wh�sky).

slow and ted�ous handpresses that phys�cally l�m�ted the c�rculat�on of newspapers gave way �n 1830 to the f�rst steam press, wh�ch overn�ght tr�pled


the speed of pr�nt�ng. Product�on capab�l�t�es grew at the same t�me as the read�ng publ�c swelled. Thus began one of the golden ages of Amer�can jour-nal�sm, the penny press, beg�nn�ng �n 1833 w�th the four-page New York Sun. The Sun, founded by Benjam�n day, �ntroduced a breezy report�ng style that appealed to a new class of readers. w�th l�ttle emphas�s on pol�t�cs, the penny press moved away from part�san report�ng and focused �nstead on local news, enterta�n�ng �nformat�on. sensat�onal�sm, st�ll w�th us today, reared �ts ugly head.

The sh�ft to cheap newspapers made them access�ble to Amer�ca’s unedu-cated or poorly educated workers, but a newspaper that appealed to workers was fundamentally d�fferent from one that appealed to Amer�ca’s upper crust. Human �nterest news and local stor�es became more �mportant; news sh�fted away from part�san pol�t�cs and changed the def�n�t�on of what news was. At the same t�me, penny papers were accused of overemphas�z�ng cr�me and sex and pander�ng to bad taste, a recurr�ng theme �n Amer�can culture.

wh�le the papers actually sold for a penny for only a short t�me, the drast�c reduct�on �n pr�ce and the sh�ft �n readersh�p s�gnaled a soc�etal change that never turned back. w�th the help of the fru�ts of the Industr�al revolut�on, wh�ch enabled and enhanced the pr�nt�ng of many newspapers, journal�sm became mass commun�cat�on for the f�rst t�me.

Leaders �n the penny press era of journal�sm �ncluded James Gordon Ben-nett sr., who founded the New York Herald, and Horace Greeley, publ�sher of the r�val New York Tribune. New york became the center of publ�sh�ng �n the Un�ted states, and �ts newspapers flour�shed throughout the n�neteenth century.

Technology and techn�que were two majors themes for newspapers dur-�ng the n�neteenth century. Technology furthered the way newspapers were pr�nted, open�ng the poss�b�l�ty of mass c�rculat�on. The telegraph, �nvented by samuel Morse �n 1840, transformed how �nformat�on was gathered, al-low�ng t�mel�ness to creep �nto the equat�on of what made a newspaper stand out. Modern modes of transportat�on extended c�rculat�on areas and fueled the des�re to get the news to the publ�c f�rst.

wh�le news of the battle of Lex�ngton and Concord that started the revo-lut�onary war took s�x weeks to make �ts way from Boston to a savannah newspaper �n 1775, the telegraph allowed da�ly reports of the C�v�l war to appear �n modern New york newspapers. The telegraph �s also cred�ted w�th tr�gger�ng the use of reporters’ byl�nes, wh�ch began to appear �n the 1860s under the tagl�ne “by telegraph.”

The telegraph also has been cred�ted w�th chang�ng how journal�sts re-ported the�r stor�es. Amer�can journal�sm �n�t�ally adhered more closely to the rules of f�ct�on, featur�ng a beg�nn�ng, a m�ddle, and an end. when Aaron


Burr and Alexander Ham�lton faced off �n a duel, for example, the New York Morning Chronicle descr�bed how the two men arr�ved at the scene, how they counted out 10 paces and loaded the�r p�stols. In the story’s last para-graph, the author wrote, “The f�re of Colonel Burr took effect, and General Ham�lton almost �nstantly fell.”1 The development of the telegraph, however, coupled w�th the unrel�ab�l�ty and h�gh cost of the new technology spurred the development of what �s known today as the �nverted pyram�d style of wr�t�ng. The reporter’s f�rst paragraph, called a lead, focuses, �nstead of set-t�ng the scene, on expla�n�ng the most �mportant th�ng that happened. The reporter �s charged w�th answer�ng the f�ve Ws and H: who, what, when, where, why, and how.

Correspondents dur�ng the C�v�l war were uncerta�n that the�r transm�s-s�on would go through �n �ts ent�rety, so �t became �mperat�ve to put the most �mportant �nformat�on f�rst. In add�t�on, these correspondents �n the f�eld had to f�nd a telegraph off�ce and pay for the transm�ss�on themselves. A poorly pa�d group �n the f�rst place, that f�nanc�al burden �n �tself was enough reason to keep the transm�ss�ons terse.

Photography also came of age dur�ng the C�v�l war, although the news-paper technology lagged. wh�le �t was st�ll too d�ff�cult to reproduce photo-graphs �n a da�ly newspaper, the C�v�l war was notably the f�rst Amer�can war to be recorded �n photographs. Mathew Brady and about 20 of h�s photographers trekked the war’s battlef�elds and created a record of about 3,500 p�ctures that surv�ve �n the Nat�onal Arch�ves. s�nce photography was unava�lable to newspapers and per�od�cals, war art�sts prol�ferated. In the-ory, the art�sts’ render�ngs of battles could prov�de �ns�ght �nto the m�l�tary techn�ques of the day, but �n pract�ce, not all art�sts thought �t necessary to w�tness the battles. some of the draw�ngs that were publ�shed were based on what the art�st, safely ensconced �n a newsroom far from the act�on, thought the battle m�ght have looked l�ke.

other common journal�st�c techn�ques emerged at m�d-century. Horace Greeley’s �nterv�ew of Br�gham young, publ�shed �n the New York Tribune �n 1859, was h�ghly cr�t�c�zed at the t�me because, the cr�t�cs cla�med, �t was contr�ved to make news. It s�gnaled the beg�nn�ng of journal�st�c �nterv�ews des�gned to �llum�nate the pr�vate deta�ls of a celebr�ty’s l�fe. Greeley, a mor-al�st�c and op�n�onated publ�sher, �nterv�ewed young, leader of the Mormon church and husband to 15 w�ves, �n Utah and pr�nted the verbat�m �nterv�ew �n h�s Tribune. The descr�pt�on of polygamy prompted a nat�onal debate that ended �n �ts proh�b�t�on by Congress three years later.

The explos�on �n technology also transformed the speed �n wh�ch readers rece�ved �nformat�on. James Gordon Bennett, of the New York Herald, then the largest paper �n the Un�ted states, kept a fleet of small boats cru�s�ng off


the coast of New Jersey to �ntercept �ncom�ng steamers from europe to get the news from that cont�nent to �ts readers f�rst. Carr�er p�geons also were used by enterpr�s�ng ed�tors to send stor�es back to the newsroom sw�ftly. The expans�on of the ra�lroad westward, the ever-�ncreas�ng m�les of ra�ls and telegraph w�res, played the�r part �n the explos�on of mass commun�ca-t�on �n the Un�ted states.

Later �n the century, the glow of gas lamps and, later, electr�c l�ght �n-creased the usefulness of the newspaper by expand�ng the read�ng day. Th�s �nnovat�on, coupled w�th technology that allowed for sw�ft gather�ng and pr�nt�ng of news, ushered �n the heyday of the afternoon newspaper. sell�ng �tself as the most up-to-date �nformat�on ava�lable, the afternoon newspaper appealed to commuters return�ng from the�r jobs �n the c�ty and to women who were able to f�nd the t�me to read after they had completed the�r da�ly chores. The even�ng papers �ncluded clos�ng stock pr�ces, the day’s sports scores, news of the day, and the department store advert�s�ng a�med at women readers. By the 1870s, journal�sm �n Amer�ca’s c�t�es featured morn�ng papers and, �n many cases, �ndependent afternoon newspapers, owned by the same company, but w�th d�fferent staffs and content. There were 16 da�ly engl�sh-language newspapers publ�shed �n New york �n 1892; 7 of those appeared �n the even�ng. sunday newspapers also rose �n popular�ty at th�s t�me, fueled by the read�ng publ�c’s des�re for the news seven days a week and by a U.s. populat�on that was �ncreas�ngly educated and l�terate.

The 1890s �n New york journal�sm was punctuated by the legendary r�-valry between two of the major personal�t�es of Amer�can newspaper h�s-tory: Joseph Pul�tzer and w�ll�am randolph Hearst. Pul�tzer, generally cast �n the role of hero of th�s story, was an unl�kely lead�ng man—a Hungar�an �mm�grant whose eyes�ght was so bad that he was rejected by the Austr�an Army and the French Fore�gn Leg�on before he was deemed f�t enough for the Un�on Army dur�ng the C�v�l war. He began h�s journal�st�c career after the C�v�l war as a reporter for a German-language da�ly �n st. Lou�s. Pu-l�tzer bought the St. Louis Dispatch for a song at a sher�ff ’s sale �n 1878, merged �t w�th the St. Louis Post, and establ�shed h�s St. Louis Post-Dispatch as a prof�table and most �mportant even�ng paper �n that c�ty. Pul�tzer stormed �nto New york four years later w�th h�s purchase of the New York World and used that newspaper as the flagsh�p for h�s new journal�sm style. readers flocked to h�s newspaper, and later to h�s New York Evening World. H�s new style affected newspapers around the country. Pul�tzer was an �ncorr�g�ble self-promoter. He backed crusades aga�nst crooked pol�t�c�ans, champ�oned the l�ttle guy, and exposed compan�es and contractors who stole and l�ed to the poor. H�s so-called stunt journal�sm tr�ggered a nat�onal phenomenon. The most notor�ous of the stunt g�rls, journal�sm’s Nell�e Bly, was h�s employee


when she made the news as well as reported �t by go�ng around the world �n fewer than 80 days.

wh�le Pul�tzer had a natural nose for news and loved the k�nd of stor�es that caught readers’ attent�on, he also loved respons�ble journal�sm. He tem-pered h�s sensat�onal�st�c approach to news w�th an ed�tor�al page that was thoughtful and �ns�ghtful. He saw the ed�tor�al page as the heart of h�s news-paper and the ma�n reason for the paper to publ�sh.2

If Pul�tzer �s the hero of th�s epoch, Hearst �s the v�lla�n. Generally con-s�dered to be the founder of so-called yellow journal�sm, Hearst went head-to-head w�th Pul�tzer �n a c�rculat�on war that p�tted the New York Journal aga�nst Pul�tzer’s newspapers. Hearst, who was tossed out of Harvard for play�ng a pract�cal joke, learned the newspaper bus�ness �n san Franc�sco after h�s father bought the San Francisco Examiner and handed over �ts manage-ment to h�s young son. Hearst arr�ved �n New york and bought the Morning Journal �n 1895 and almost �mmed�ately declared war on Pul�tzer’s papers, wh�ch were topp�ng New york’s c�rculat�on. He stole away Pul�tzer’s best and seasoned wr�ters and ed�tors and bu�lt a follow�ng on sex and cr�me stor�es that appealed to readers’ prur�ent �nterests. He also played fast and loose w�th the facts. He rel�ed on scream�ng headl�nes set �n extra-large type. The term yellow journalism came to descr�be th�s popular style of wr�t�ng after Hearst stole away Pul�tzer’s art�st, who drew the “yellow K�d” for h�s com�c sect�on. The com�c featured a street urch�n dressed �n a long, flow�ng, yellow coat. when the art�st, r�chard outcault, moved to the Journal and began penn�ng the com�c for that newspaper, Pul�tzer h�red another art�st and cont�nued the com�c. Pund�ts began referr�ng to the “yellow Press,” and the mon�ker stuck. Today, the term yellow journalism �s st�ll used to represent the most base of newspaper and telev�s�on report�ng.

Muckrak�ng, mostly a phenomenon �n U.s. magaz�nes, rose to prom�nence �n the new century, perhaps �n d�rect response to the grow�ng percept�on of an �rrespons�ble press that flour�shed because of yellow journal�sm. The term muckraking was meant as an �nsult to news reporters when �t was co�ned by Pres�dent Theodore roosevelt, who compared the �nvest�gat�ve reporters of the day to the man who rakes the muck �n the then popular allegory Pilgrim’s Progress. Journal�sts, however, embraced the term and cont�nued the�r cam-pa�gns aga�nst pol�t�cal, soc�al, and bus�ness corrupt�on �n earnest.

the twentieth Century: multimedia emerge

Newspapers �n the twent�eth century fended off challenges to the�r suprem-acy from rad�o and newsreels before succumb�ng, at least �n part, to the power of telev�s�on �n the 1960s. After the Great war, Amer�can l�fe sh�fted rad�cally.


People were anx�ous to forget the troubles of war. It was the day of the flappers, women who were embrac�ng the�r newfound r�ght to vote, wh�le at the same t�me shedd�ng the bondage of the�r cloth�ng for knee-length dresses and push-�ng the boundar�es of soc�etal restr�ct�ons. Today, we call the era the roar�ng Twent�es, wh�le the newspapers of the t�me represent jazz journal�sm. News-papers responded to the looser t�mes by a preoccupat�on w�th sex, cr�me, and enterta�nment and the r�se of tablo�d newspapers. Tablo�ds �n�t�ally referred to the small s�ze of the newspaper, mak�ng �t cheaper to publ�sh and eas�er to read for commuters on tra�ns and subways, but tablo�d journal�sm came to mean the k�nd of sensat�onal journal�sm that �ncludes scream�ng headl�nes, lots of photos, and appeals to the work�ng class. sports report�ng �ncreased; Hollywood stars became celebr�t�es �n the press. In New york, the b�rthplace of Amer�can tablo�d journal�sm, the New York Daily News and the New York Post typ�f�ed the tablo�d brand of journal�sm even �nto the twenty-f�rst century.

Newspapers were fr�ghtened by the power of the nascent rad�o �ndustry. Although rad�o d�d not �n�t�ally compete w�th newspapers to report the news, �t was clear from the beg�nn�ng that �t could threaten newspapers’ monopoly on �nformat�on. In January 1922, there were 30 rad�o stat�ons broadcast-�ng �n the Un�ted states; 14 months later, there were 556. Newspapers were report�ng on the phenomenon of rad�o �n the�r columns. The l�sten�ng aud�-ence grew qu�ckly—there were about 50,000 rad�o sets �n 1921 and more than 600,000 �n 1922. By 1930, that number had r�sen to 14 m�ll�on.3

Newspapers were not challenged by rad�o broadcasts per se. In fact, many newspaper publ�shers dabbled �n rad�o by purchas�ng stat�ons or sponsor-�ng programs. yet the newspaper �ndustry was, �ndeed, fr�ghtened by the poss�b�l�ty that �t would lose advert�s�ng dollars to the new �ndustry and by the fear that rad�o stat�ons would beg�n report�ng news. even though the Amer�can Newspaper Publ�shers Assoc�at�on’s rad�o comm�ttee sagely took the off�c�al pos�t�on that news on the rad�o st�mulated newspaper sales, own-ers were not conv�nced.

one way to curta�l the growth of rad�o as a veh�cle for news was to attempt to ban �t. The Assoc�ated Press (AP), founded �n 1848 as an organ�zat�on that shared news and the expenses �ncurred cover�ng world events, �n�t�ally tr�ed to prevent rad�o stat�ons from us�ng the�r news copy to broadcast rad�o news-casts. It f�ned the Portland Oregonian $100 for broadcast�ng the results of the 1924 pres�dent�al vot�ng. Four years later, the AP, Un�ted Press Internat�onal (UPI), and the Internat�onal News serv�ce had caved �n and suppl�ed the results to the rad�o stat�ons. The cand�dates themselves had purchased rad�o a�r t�me to get the�r messages across.

At f�rst, rad�o broadcasts complemented newspaper coverage: the 1924 po-l�t�cal convent�ons, the 1925 scopes Monkey tr�al �n Tennessee, the arr�val


of Charles L�ndbergh �n wash�ngton after h�s fl�ght to Par�s �n 1927. sports events found a natural venue �n rad�o. The 1927 Jack dempsey–Gene Tun-ney pr�zef�ght was carr�ed on 69 stat�ons. one of the major concerns for newspaper publ�shers, however, was that the press assoc�at�ons were actually g�v�ng �nformat�on to the rad�o stat�ons before the newspapers had actually publ�shed the �nformat�on. They were f�ght�ng a los�ng battle. Bow�ng to pressure from the�r newspaper cl�ents, the w�re serv�ces agreed to stop sell�ng the�r news �tems to rad�o stat�ons. rad�o responded by gather�ng the �nfor-mat�on �tself. F�nally, the newspaper-rad�o war of the 1930s ended w�th UPI creat�ng a news report spec�f�cally for rad�o broadcast. The AP fell �nto l�ne shortly thereafter.

wh�le news moguls were debat�ng what role rad�o would play �n the gath-er�ng and d�ssem�nat�on of news, there was no d�spute over the new med�um as a veh�cle for enterta�nment. Amer�ca’s love of popular mus�c became ap-parent. dance mus�c and band leaders found a home on the rad�o. Just as sports f�gures l�ke Babe ruth and Jack dempsey became celebr�t�es �n part be-cause of the�r nat�onal exposure through rad�o, s�ng�ng stars l�ke B�ng Crosby and Al Jolsen made a name for themselves over the a�rwaves. rad�o also ap-peared to be a natural venue for dramas, s�tuat�onal comed�es, and var�ety shows. The most endur�ng drama genre, the soap opera, traced �ts beg�nn�ng to rad�o. The genre was so named because the syrupy romant�c dramas w�th ongo�ng plotl�nes that brought fans back to l�sten day after day were spon-sored by soap compan�es, most notably Proctor & Gamble. The f�rst soap opera was Guiding Light, wh�ch came on the a�r �n 1937, made the trans�t�on to telev�s�on �n 1952, and was st�ll broadcast�ng 70 years later.

It �s hard to separate the h�story of rad�o from the stor�es of the other med�a w�th wh�ch �t competed. It has bas�cally weathered four d�st�nct per�ods: 1890 to the 1920s, �n wh�ch rad�o was develop�ng �nto a d�st�nct med�um; the 1930s to the 1940s, the golden age of rad�o programm�ng; the 1950s to the 1960s, the telev�s�on age, �n wh�ch rad�o needed to adapt �ts programm�ng to accommodate the new med�um; and the posttelev�s�on age, wh�ch cont�nues today.4 rad�o �ncludes a w�de range of programm�ng cho�ces, �nclud�ng call-�n shows, sports rad�o, shock rad�o, adv�ce, �nterv�ew, all-news, and commen-tary, �n add�t�on to the trad�t�onal mus�c stat�ons.

rad�o, however, enjoyed a short-l�ved per�od as the enterta�nment me-d�um of cho�ce. wh�le �t has cont�nued �nto the twenty-f�rst century as a med�um of news, enterta�nment, sports, and talk, �ts �nfluence �s m�n�mal. Amer�cans gathered around the�r rad�o sets �n the 1940s to l�sten to broad-casts from world war II, calm�ng words from Pres�dent roosevelt, and the mus�c, comedy, and dramas that had come �nto fash�on. That cozy tableau w�th a rad�o �n the center d�d not last.


wh�le the destruct�on of newspapers by the new med�um of rad�o never ma-ter�al�zed, the second battle focused on how people chose to spend the�r t�me. The mov�e �ndustry, wh�ch began �n earnest �n the 1920s, captured people’s attent�on, and the�r expendable �ncomes. when telev�s�on arr�ved on the scene �n the late 1940s, rad�o was pushed as�de qu�ckly. People moved the�r cha�rs from �n front of the rad�o and settled down to watch an even�ng of telev�s�on. rad�o has cont�nued as a secondary med�um. People tend to l�sten to rad�o wh�le they are do�ng someth�ng else—most notably, dr�v�ng.

Telev�s�on had the potent�al to snuff out rad�o and newspapers on all fronts: �t could consume Amer�cans’ t�me �n the even�ng, t�me prev�ously spent read�ng newspapers or l�sten�ng to rad�o; �t could take a ser�ous chunk out of l�m�ted advert�s�ng revenues; and �t could be the med�um of cho�ce for v�ewers hungry for the day’s news. The sh�ft d�d not happen overn�ght. It soon became abundantly clear that newspapers could not compete on t�me-l�ness or �mmed�acy w�th telev�s�on news. Amer�cans—�ndeed, the world’s c�t�zens—turned to the�r telev�s�ons on November 22, 1963, when Pres�dent John F. Kennedy was gunned down �n a motorcade �n dallas, Texas. wh�le some afternoon newspapers publ�shed spec�al ed�t�ons to update the�r readers on the nat�on’s tragedy, the publ�shed �nformat�on was outdated before the �nk was dry. Three days later, the man suspected of be�ng the tr�gger man, Lee Harvey oswald, was shot on l�ve nat�onal telev�s�on.

For newspapers, telev�s�on’s ascendancy should have ra�sed a red flag and forced publ�shers and journal�sts to reth�nk what they d�d and how they d�d �t, but newspapers cont�nued to carry on bus�ness as usual, desp�te other warn�ng s�gnals. Newspapers had spent too many centur�es as the only game �n town and were slow to react to change. They st�ll are.

As the decade of the 1960s unfolded, telev�s�on demonstrated �ts power as a news med�um dur�ng the V�etnam war, when Amer�ca’s conf�dence �n �ts gov-ernment was shaken. Anger at U.s. pol�c�es �n V�etnam was fueled by press cov-erage, espec�ally the telev�s�on v�deo from southeast As�a. It was the f�rst t�me Amer�cans’ w�tnessed the horror of war on f�lm. They d�d not l�ke what they saw. Amer�cans began quest�on�ng the�r government and the�r leaders �n ear-nest. when U.s. pres�dent r�chard N�xon ordered the �nvas�on of Cambod�a �n 1970, college campuses erupted �n v�olence. one-th�rd of the un�vers�t�es �n the Un�ted sates were shut down that spr�ng �n the wake of student walkouts, protests, and s�t-�ns. Four students at Kent state were k�lled when the Nat�onal Guard �n oh�o f�red the�r r�fles �nto the protest�ng crowd.

Amer�ca was �n cr�s�s. Then, dur�ng the pres�dent�al campa�gn of 1972, the democrat�c Nat�onal Comm�ttee headquarters at the watergate Hotel were burglar�zed. Two local reporters for the Washington Post, Carl Bernste�n and Bob woodward, began �nvest�gat�ng and report�ng about the burglary


and �ts aftermath. Ult�mately, the�r report�ng revealed a consp�racy to cover up the �nvolvement of h�ghly placed republ�cans and a campa�gn of “d�rty tr�cks” des�gned to make the democrats look bad. The tra�l of respons�b�l�ty led d�rectly to the wh�te House, and on August 8, 1974, N�xon res�gned the pres�dency. As a result of �ts coverage of the watergate affa�r, as �t came to be known, the Washington Post newspaper won journal�sm’s top award, the Pul�tzer Pr�ze.

soc�etal developments also had an effect on newspapers and the�r reader-sh�p. The last half of the twent�eth century saw a sh�ft �n the types of wr�t�ng by journal�sts. A second wave of new journal�sm was ev�denced beg�nn�ng �n the 1960s w�th wr�ters who took a f�ct�on approach to nonf�ct�on, book-length top-�cs. Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood, ser�al�zed �n The New Yorker �n 1965 and publ�shed �n book form later that year, told the story of the senseless murder of a fam�ly �n Kansas. wr�ters l�ke Norman Ma�ler, Tom wolfe, J�mmy Bresl�n, dav�d Halberstam, and Gay Talese were known for th�s novel approach to news. A genre of book publ�sh�ng, true cr�me, emerged from th�s new journal-�sm. These edgy books complemented well the tastes of the Amer�can publ�c, who were becom�ng enamored w�th be�ng enterta�ned by telev�s�on.

Another book genre, the k�ss-and-tell phenomenon, also emerged. Most notably, the 1977 publ�cat�on of Mommy, Dearest, by Chr�st�na Crawford, la�d out �n gruesome deta�l the maternal mess that was her mother, the fa-mous and glamorous mov�e star Joan Crawford. It opened the floodgates. Tell-all books became popular. Magaz�nes that made publ�c the pr�vate l�ves of mov�e stars and celebr�t�es prol�ferated. People Weekly, one of the prof�t-able nat�onal magaz�nes owned by T�me Inc., and �ts �m�tators gave r�se to telev�s�on programs l�ke Entertainment Tonight, Extra!, and The Insider. The l�nes between news and enterta�nment blurred. Is extens�ve report�ng of sto-r�es l�ke the death of celebr�ty Anna N�cole sm�th and the ensu�ng patern�ty battle over her baby daughter journal�sm? when Fox News �nterv�ews the contestants as they are voted off the ultrapopular American Idol song contest, �s �t news or blatant self-promot�on?

dur�ng the twent�eth century, the Un�ted states also saw the profess�on-al�zat�on of the news reporter. early �n the century, uneducated news hacks often rose from pos�t�ons as copy boys �nto full-fledged reporters. Ult�mately, however, the route �nto journal�sm came from college, w�th hundreds of jour-nal�sm programs spr�ng�ng up at un�vers�t�es around the country. Journal�sts also became spec�al�sts �n the�r beats, beg�nn�ng about 1960. Urban reporters, consumer wr�ters, and sc�ence wr�ters jo�ned the ranks of other establ�shed beats: war correspondents, pol�t�cal wr�ters, fore�gn correspondents, and fea-ture wr�ters. dur�ng the 1970s, the env�ronment also became an establ�shed area for journal�sts.


Not only d�d the type of journal�sm change, but the profess�on was pro-foundly affected by technolog�cal advances throughout the century. wh�le reporters �n�t�ally pounded out the�r stor�es on manual typewr�ters, they ult�-mately ended the century by carry�ng portable laptop computers w�th them on ass�gnments. Conversat�ons could be recorded, f�rst on large, unw�eldy mach�nes, but �n the 1980s, portable m�n�recorders made that job s�mpler. In the 1990s, cell phones prov�ded added flex�b�l�ty, wh�le e-ma�l became a tool for �nterv�ew�ng. The subjects of �nterv�ews found comfort �n the�r ab�l�ty to wr�te down the words that could be used as quotes, wh�le reporters were able to cast a w�der net �n research�ng a story. The Internet also made journal�st�c research qu�ck and eff�c�ent. what could have taken hours just 10 years earl�er could be had �n an �nstant. Track�ng down a court op�n�on, for example, could have requ�red a journal�st to travel m�les to a courthouse and cost hundreds of dollars �n photocopy�ng. w�th the Internet, �t could be located and pr�nted �n m�nutes.

The w�re serv�ces also changed. The �ncessant no�se of newsrooms at m�d-century was caused by the clang-clang of the w�re serv�ce teletypes, wh�ch be-came obsolete w�th the sh�ft to computer technology. That was not the only d�fference. The f�erce r�valry exh�b�ted between the nonprof�t cooperat�ve, the AP, and �ts for-prof�t counterpart, UPI, slowly faded. once cons�dered v�tal for a large newspaper to subscr�be to both of the b�g w�re serv�ces, that expense became a luxury as costs accelerated w�th the years. The AP more often became the w�re serv�ce of cho�ce, wh�le newspapers supplemented the�r output w�th one of the spec�al�zed w�res, l�ke the dow Jones, the Gannett w�re, or the New york T�mes News serv�ce. UPI changed hands repeatedly but clung to l�fe by tr�mm�ng �ts employees and l�m�t�ng �ts offer�ngs. As UPI faded, the Br�t�sh w�re serv�ce, reuters, rose �n prom�nence �n the Un�ted states, w�th �ts focus on bus�ness and �nternat�onal news.

The decl�ne of the c�t�es and the r�se of suburb�a took the�r toll on newspapers. In 1940, there were 181 c�t�es that had compet�ng da�ly news-papers. That number shrank to 30 by 1981. New york C�ty, once a mecca for newspapers, wh�ttled down to three regular da�l�es: the New York Times, the New York Post, and the New York Daily News. The Wall Street Journal also publ�shed f�ve days a week. Those four papers numbered among the top 11 papers �n the country �n 2006.

Meanwh�le, suburban newspapers grew �n number and �nfluence. News-day, wh�ch covers the mostly suburban Long Island, New york, was founded �n 1940 and tapped �nto the grow�ng number of bedroom commun�t�es that sprang up �n commut�ng d�stance to New york C�ty. Newsday �s the 19th largest newspaper �n the Un�ted states, w�th a c�rculat�on �n 2006 of 488,825, accord�ng to the Aud�t Bureau of C�rculat�on.5


USA Today, founded by the Gannett newspaper cha�n �n 1982, prov�ded the nat�on w�th �ts f�rst truly nat�onal newspaper. w�th 2.5 m�ll�on c�rcula-t�on, USA Today publ�shes f�ve days a week and looks the same no matter where �t �s purchased (by contrast, the nat�onal ed�t�on of the New York Times �s a truncated vers�on of the ed�t�on that c�rculates �n the New york metro-pol�tan area). Although the U.s. journal�sm commun�ty �n�t�ally reacted to USA Today as �f �t were a bad joke, the newspaper ult�mately made an �ndel-�ble mark on all U.s. newspapers. Its use of color, �ts rel�ance on graph�cs, �ts streaml�ned layout, and �ts abr�dged approach to news led journal�sts to dub USA Today “McPaper,” fl�ppantly call�ng �t the fast food of newspapers. yet all Amer�can newspapers, even the “Gray old Lady” (the n�ckname for the New York Times), have been affected by �ts �nnovat�ons.

Journalism outside the mainstream

Journal�sm has long been a tool �n the Un�ted states for people who lack a vo�ce. wh�le the costs of a ma�nstream newspaper �n�t�ally stood �n the hun-dreds of thousands, da�ly newspapers today trade hands for hundreds of m�l-l�ons of dollars. That proh�b�t�ve cost has always stood �n the way of mak�ng newspapers the vo�ce of the l�ttle guy, but grassroots movements have long recogn�zed the power of modest methods �n mass commun�cat�on.

In the n�neteenth century, the abol�t�on�st cause and the suffrage battle were waged �n the press. Although ma�nstream newspapers �gnored—or worse st�ll, mocked—these soc�al just�ce crusades, the proponents found an outlet for the�r arguments by creat�ng the�r own newspapers. Abol�t�on�st newspapers appeared early �n the century. The Philanthropist was publ�shed �n oh�o beg�nn�ng �n 1817; the Manumission Intelligencer had �ts home �n 1819 �n Jonesboro, Tennessee. The Genius of Universal Emancipation, the most �nfluent�al of these early journals, was publ�shed by Benjam�n Lundy beg�nn�ng �n 1821. Lundy h�red w�ll�am Lloyd Garr�son to work on the Ge-nius. Lundy traveled the country drumm�ng up readers and supporters to the cause, wh�le Garr�son publ�shed the paper. Garr�son and Lundy had ph�lo-soph�cal d�fferences that ult�mately led to a spl�t and the publ�cat�on of a new journal, Garr�son’s the Liberator. Garr�son spewed f�re. H�s strong language aga�nst slavery and the people who traded �n �t had tremendous shock value. He publ�shed for 30 years. H�s last �ssue, on January 1, 1866, celebrated the rat�f�cat�on of the const�tut�onal amendment to abol�sh slavery.

The black press was also born dur�ng the n�neteenth century. It marked �ts found�ng w�th the publ�cat�on of Freedom’s Journal �n 1827. By the t�me the C�v�l war began, about 40 black newspapers had been founded. Black news-papers, however, were poorly funded and slow to take hold, most certa�nly


because of the lack of educat�on ava�lable to the nat�on’s black Amer�cans and the h�gh �ll�teracy rates among slaves and free blacks. wh�le abol�t�on clearly was an �mportant top�c �n the black newspapers, they also were con-cerned w�th the l�ves of black Amer�cans and prov�ded news and �nformat�on about th�s completely marg�nal�zed and d�senfranch�sed group. Black ed�tors and publ�shers numbered �n the dozens, but most famous of all was former slave Freder�ck douglass. douglass escaped from slavery �n 1838 and traveled w�dely throughout europe, speak�ng on the horrors of the pract�ce. when he returned to the Un�ted states, douglass began h�s own publ�cat�on, The North Star, �n 1847.

Many of Amer�ca’s suffrag�sts began the�r act�v�sm �n the abol�t�on�st move-ment, where they often were treated l�ke second-class c�t�zens. Publ�cat�ons l�ke Amel�a Bloomers’s the Lily and Paul�na wr�ght dav�s’s the Una gave women’s r�ghts the soft sell. el�zabeth Cady stanton and susan B. Anthony would have none of that when they publ�shed the Revolution beg�nn�ng �n 1868. A few years later, the Woman’s Journal began a 47-year tenure as the vo�ce of the woman’s movement �n Amer�ca. It was merged w�th several other l�ke publ�cat�ons �n 1917, just three years before the 19th Amendment to the Const�tut�on gave women the r�ght to vote �n 1920.

one major character�st�c of the abol�t�on and suffrage publ�cat�ons was that they suffered from a perpetual lack of funds. They were not alone. Any grassroots publ�cat�on that rel�ed mostly on the benef�cence of �ts readers, rather than the �ncome of advert�sers, could ant�c�pate d�ff�culty �n meet�ng a payroll and f�nanc�ng the costs of pr�nt�ng.

In the 1930s, for example, dorothy day founded the Catholic Worker to spread the word of the roman Cathol�c soc�al just�ce movement. day began her journal�sm career on the New York Call, a soc�al�st newspaper, and the Masses. she began publ�sh�ng the Catholic Worker �n 1933 w�th Peter Mau-r�n. Publ�shed �n the k�tchen of a New york tenement, the Catholic Worker appealed to many of the Great depress�on’s unemployed w�th �ts message of a benevolent, car�ng Church. day had to sell her typewr�ter to get a second ed�t�on of the monthly paper publ�shed. wh�le the c�rculat�on of day’s news-paper has always been modest, �ts success has always been �n publ�c�z�ng the goals of the movement.

day was not alone. I. F. stone, one of the earl�est of the twent�eth centu-ry’s alternat�ve journal�sts, was a staunch opponent of senator Joseph McCar-thy’s Commun�sm w�tch hunt �n the 1950s, when he began h�s newsletter ded�cated to l�beral �deals, I. F. Stone’s Weekly, �n 1953. stone’s newsletter lasted unt�l 1971.

stone and day are among a handful of wr�ters who are cred�ted w�th pav-�ng the way for the underground press that began �n the 1960s. These cheaply


pr�nted newspapers were the forerunners to the now-popular newsletters that were made poss�ble by personal computers �n the 1990s. Underground news-papers were not conf�ned by the d�ctates of fa�r play and object�v�ty that often constra�ned ma�nstream newspapers. The publ�shers of these rad�cal newspapers d�d not worry about pol�te language and d�d not care �f they made enem�es of the r�ch and powerful. At a t�me when the nat�on was �n turmo�l, when college campuses were hotbeds of unrest, when the c�v�l r�ghts movement was s�mmer�ng and the V�etnam war was tr�gger�ng ugly protests, the underground press fueled the f�res. The Village Voice seems a ma�nstream paper to many today, but �t was cons�dered the most powerful vo�ce of the underground when �t began publ�sh�ng �n 1955. Rolling Stone, wh�ch f�rst ap-peared �n 1967, became a hugely successful commentator on popular mus�c and soc�ety. other papers came and went. some publ�shed on college cam-puses, others at h�gh schools.

Today, the Internet has supplanted trad�t�onal newspapers or cheap news-letters �n g�v�ng a vo�ce to the s�lent. The z�ne, a web magaz�ne, was popular for a per�od before blogs, short for weblogs, took over. L�terally m�ll�ons of blogs are publ�shed on the Internet, g�v�ng vo�ce to people who want to share the�r thoughts, the�r act�ons, the�r pr�vate l�ves, and the�r publ�c op�n�ons w�th an anonymous world. L�ke the underground newspapers of the 1960s, wh�ch abandoned the rules and customs of newspapers, the verac�ty and rel�-ab�l�ty of a blog �s not guaranteed. often the rav�ngs of the pass�onate and �rate, blogs have evolved from onl�ne d�ar�es �nto a no-rules free-for-all.

teleVision

Telev�s�on was �ntroduced to the Amer�can publ�c �n 1939 at the New york world’s Fa�r. There were a few hundred telev�s�on sets �n the Un�ted states by then, and about 40 m�ll�on rad�o sets, when Frankl�n d. roosevelt was telev�sed at the open�ng ceremon�es for the fa�r. world war II slowed down the steamroller that telev�s�on ult�mately became, and Fdr conf�ned h�s cozy f�res�de chats to rad�o, but the enterta�nment value of telev�s�on slowly emerged dur�ng the 1940s. By october 1950, there were 8 m�ll�on sets �n Amer�ca’s homes. There was no turn�ng back.

wh�le Johannes Gutenberg gets cred�t for the s�xteenth-century �nvent�on of the pr�nt�ng press, and rad�o po�nts to Gugl�elmo Marcon� as �ts �nventor, telev�s�on can s�ngle out no one person. The technology necessary to translate both sound and p�cture through the a�r waves and �nto people’s homes took many m�nds. A few of the �nnovators, however, stand out. In 1929, russ�an Vlad�m�r Zworyk�n was work�ng for west�nghouse �n P�ttsburgh when he �nvented the cathode-ray tube, wh�ch made the telev�s�on p�cture poss�ble.


Meanwh�le, Amer�can eng�neer Ph�lo Farnsworth lays cla�m to produc�ng the f�rst rud�mentary telev�s�on broadcast �n 1927. wh�le the eng�neers spent decades perfect�ng the sc�ence beh�nd the technology, a true v�s�onary �n creat�ng telev�s�on as the ult�mate mass med�um �n the twent�eth century was dav�d sarnoff.

sarnoff honed h�s commun�cat�on sk�lls �n rad�o. He understood that �f rad�o was to be a mass med�um, �t had to be s�mple to use. H�s streaml�ned v�s�on of a l�ttle box appealed to Amer�can consumers. It worked. Then, sar-noff d�vers�f�ed h�s company, rCA, �nto telev�s�on. determ�ned to do for telev�s�on what he d�d for rad�o, sarnoff had the f�rst telev�s�on stud�o bu�lt �n the emp�re state Bu�ld�ng �n 1932. The 1930s proved to be a decade of mere preparat�on for the med�um that was to come. Broadcasts occurred but were l�m�ted, of poor qual�ty, and unava�lable to all except the select few who had TV sets.

It was not unt�l 1941 that the Federal Commun�cat�ons Comm�ss�on (FCC), wh�ch had been establ�shed to sort out the rad�o a�r waves, approved commerc�al broadcast�ng for 18 telev�s�on stat�ons. They were approved to offer 15 hours of programm�ng each week. The federal government froze de-velopment of more stat�ons dur�ng world war II, and at war’s end �n 1945, only s�x stat�ons were st�ll on the a�r.

Telev�s�on as a powerful mass med�um truly was born �n the 1950s. It was then that the three networks, the Nat�onal Broadcast�ng Company (NBC), the Columb�a Broadcast�ng system (CBs), and the Amer�can Broadcast�ng Company (CBs), sol�d�f�ed the�r pos�t�ons. The networks traced the�r roots to rad�o—NBC was f�rst �n 1928, when �t establ�shed a coast-to-coast network of 58 stat�ons. CBs appeared on the scene �n 1929. ABC was the latecomer; �t was formed �n 1945, when NBC was forced to sell part of �ts network by the FCC. The b�g three ruled telev�s�on programm�ng for decades and were jo�ned �n 1987 by Fox Broadcast�ng. Later, UPN and the wB (warner Brothers) debuted �n 1995 by focus�ng on programm�ng to lure young aud�-ences and Afr�can Amer�can v�ewers to the�r offer�ngs. UPN and the wB, wh�ch often competed for the same aud�ence, transformed �nto one un�t, the Cw network, �n september 2006.

Cable telev�s�on, wh�ch actually had been operat�ng s�nce 1948, made �t poss�ble for remote areas to rece�ve telev�s�on programm�ng. However, the b�ggest boon to cable came w�th the advent of pay telev�s�on, for wh�ch v�ewers pay a prem�um for extra telev�s�on stat�ons. Home Box off�ce (HBo) debuted �n 1972 and featured newly released mov�es that had never been seen on telev�s�on. It ult�mately expanded �ts programm�ng to �nclude ex-clus�ve concerts, performances, sport�ng events, and �ts own comed�es and dramas, most espec�ally the long-runn�ng Maf�a drama The Sopranos. The


1980s was a golden age for cable. The enterta�nment and sports Program-m�ng Network (esPN) debuted �n september 1979, wh�le the Cable News Network (CNN) was founded �n 1980. desp�te skept�cs who pred�cted that an all-news or all-sports channel could never surv�ve, those two channels thr�ved. As programm�ng on cable accelerated, more and more households made the convers�on. The Cabletelev�s�on Advert�s�ng Bureau asserted that nearly 93 m�ll�on households (85%) �n the Un�ted states used cable telev�-s�on �n 2005.

The rules for cable telev�s�on were d�fferent. wh�le standard telev�s�on programm�ng adhered to spec�f�c rules and l�m�ts that were mon�tored by the FCC, cable telev�s�on flour�shed w�thout them. Comed�ans on network telev�s�on had to watch the�r language and punch l�nes, but cable telev�s�on prov�ded a venue for adult s�tuat�ons, nud�ty, and r�squé top�cs. Parents who objected to racy content had two cho�ces: not buy�ng cable at all or program-m�ng the�r telev�s�ons to black out object�onable shows.

Cable also served as the great med�a equal�zer. Telev�s�on was an expen-s�ve technology far beyond the means of the common person. Its �n�t�al ca-pab�l�ty was l�m�ted to a small number of channels. Cable’s w�de breadth of channels prov�ded the poss�b�l�ty of access to a w�der spectrum. Local access channels opened broadcast�ng to groups and commun�t�es w�thout extens�ve resources and allowed telev�s�on to prov�de news coverage that normally was reserved for small weekly newspapers.

In add�t�on to cable v�ew�ng, how Amer�cans watched telev�s�on was pro-foundly affected by the mass market�ng of the v�deo cassette recorder (VCr) beg�nn�ng �n the late 1970s. Two d�fferent systems, the VHs and the Betamax, competed �n the Un�ted states �n�t�ally, but VHs ult�mately dom�nated. The advent of the VCr affected telev�s�on v�ew�ng �n three major ways: f�rst, �t opened up a rental market that allowed v�ewers to borrow mov�es and watch them at home; second, �t allowed v�ewers to record the�r favor�te shows and watch them at the�r le�sure—gone were the days when v�ewers had to stay home and watch the�r favor�te shows at an appo�nted t�me; th�rd, �t allowed v�ewers to fast-forward past unwanted commerc�al advert�sements. The VCr technology was slowly replaced by d�g�tal v�deo d�sks (dVds), wh�ch resem-ble mus�c Cds and computer d�sks but allow telev�s�on programs and mov�es to be replayed on telev�s�ons. dVds were f�rst marketed �n the m�d-1990s but slowly replaced VCrs as the state-of-the-art record�ng method.

The latest telev�s�on technolog�es to capture the pocketbooks of the Amer�can people were flat screen TVs and h�gh-def�n�t�on TVs (HdTVs). Flat screen telev�s�ons allowed consumers to hang the�r sets l�ke a p�cture on the wall, wh�le HdTV prov�ded an �ncred�bly sharp, seem�ngly three-d�mens�onal p�cture. often, the two technolog�es were marketed together.


Telev�s�on programm�ng �n the Un�ted states �n�t�ally borrowed from rad�o. Comed�es and dramas that had captured Amer�ca’s attent�on on rad�o segued �nto l�ve telev�s�on. The popular rad�o personal�t�es l�ke George Burns and Grac�e Allen broadcast �n�t�ally �n both telev�s�on and rad�o, but telev�-s�on clearly was more su�table to the s�tuat�on comed�es and soap operas that had been popular�zed on rad�o �n the 1930s and 1940s. Ult�mately, rad�o abandoned �ts pursu�t of these broadcasts and concentrated �nstead on the news, talk, mus�c, and sports to wh�ch �t was more su�ted.

Telev�s�on made b�g celebr�t�es qu�ckly. Comed�an M�lton Berle became known as Mr. Telev�s�on because of h�s understand�ng of and ab�l�ty to play comedy to a telev�s�on aud�ence. He began h�s sht�ck on telev�s�on �n 1948 on the Texaco Star Theater var�ety show. People stayed home on Tuesday n�ghts to watch the program, wh�ch was cred�ted w�th contr�but�ng to the sale of m�ll�ons of TV sets.

Most programm�ng �n the 1950s was broadcast l�ve. several genres emerged dur�ng that t�me and have rema�ned closely �dent�f�ed w�th the me-d�um. News broadcasts, both local and nat�onal, became a staple at d�nner-t�me. Newscasters l�ke edward r. Murrow, walter Cronk�te, and Howard K. sm�th made the trans�t�on to telev�s�on news. Murrow, whose vo�ce calmed an anx�ous nat�on dur�ng world war II, brought h�s popular Hear It Now rad�o program to telev�s�on on CBs. See It Now began on telev�s�on �n 1951 and was supplemented �n 1953 w�th h�s Person to Person. Murrow tackled d�ff�cult subjects �n both of h�s shows, most notably h�s refusal to report ob-ject�vely on the h�str�on�cs of senator Joseph McCarthy and h�s campa�gn to root out h�dden Commun�sts �n Amer�ca. By the t�me Murrow d�ed �n 1965, walter Cronk�te was seen as the face of news. on NBC, the news came to the Amer�can people v�a the Huntley-Brinkley Report, featur�ng Chet Huntley and dav�d Br�nkley as anchors, from 1956 to 1970. NBC’s Meet the Press, wh�ch prem�ered on telev�s�on �n 1947 (mak�ng the trans�t�on from rad�o), �s the longest-runn�ng program �n U.s. telev�s�on h�story. NBC also popu-lar�zed morn�ng telev�s�on when The Today Show began �n 1952. It made celebr�t�es of a ser�es of news �nterv�ewers, �nclud�ng Barbara walters, Kat�e Cour�c, Jane Pauley, Tom Brokaw, and Bryant Gumbel. The other networks �m�tated, but even �nto the new m�llenn�um, The Today Show was k�ng.

The �mmed�acy of telev�s�on was �ts strength. Amer�cans watched John F. Kennedy take the oath of off�ce as pres�dent �n January 1961; they were glued to the telev�s�on when John Glenn made the f�rst manned orb�t of the moon; they were transf�xed when the much-loved Kennedy was felled by sn�per f�re the follow�ng year. when Ne�l Armstrong walked on the moon �n July 1969, �t was an event w�tnessed by an est�mated 600 m�ll�on people back on earth, thanks to telev�s�on.


The love affa�r w�th telev�s�on news cont�nued and accelerated, much to the chagr�n of the pres�dents and the�r adm�n�strat�ons. The journal�st�c cov-erage of the V�etnam war �n the 1960s and 1970s often �s cred�ted w�th affect�ng �ts outcome. Amer�ca had never seen a war up front and personal before because technology had stood �n the way. But by the t�me the U.s. �nvolvement �n V�etnam accelerated �n the 1960s, telev�s�on was ready. For the f�rst t�me, Amer�cans watched the war unfold �n the�r l�v�ng rooms. The carnage was l�ve and �n color. reported �n newspapers and re�nforced on tele-v�s�on, the news from As�a was not pretty. Amer�ca revolted. The protests that erupted on college campuses and �n wash�ngton, d.C., were also played out on the even�ng news. In March 1968, several hundred unarmed V�etnamese c�v�l�ans were slaughtered by Amer�can troops �n the v�llage of My La�. The devastat�on was covered up by the army but made publ�c by a news reporter �n November 1969. Two years later, the tr�al of L�eutenant w�ll�am Calley for mass murder led the nat�onal newscasts n�ght after n�ght.

As the number of telev�s�on stat�ons �ncreased, broadcasters took advan-tage of the ab�l�ty to target both a local and a nat�onal aud�ence. Local news shows usually focused on prov�d�ng v�ewers w�th �nformat�on they needed to know: weather and traff�c, cr�me and pun�shment, and government. Nat�onal news programs bas�cally synthes�zed the nat�onal headl�nes of the day.

NBC’s Today Show draws large crowds to rockefeller Center every weekday morn-�ng. © AP Photo/Jason deCrow.


s�tuat�on comed�es, dubbed sitcoms, roared to popular�ty �n the 1950s w�th early shows l�ke Our Miss Brooks (wh�ch had been a rad�o favor�te) and Lu-c�lle Ball’s I Love Lucy. That comedy, wh�ch lasted �n var�ous forms �nto the 1970s, garnered the largest telev�s�on aud�ence of the 1950s, when 21 m�ll�on fam�l�es turned on the�r sets to watch the ep�sode when a pregnant Luc�lle Ball gave b�rth to her telev�s�on son, L�ttle r�cky, �n January 1953. I Love Lucy also p�oneered the now-standard pract�ce of tap�ng ep�sodes, thus creat-�ng the concept of a rerun, wh�ch allows the show to be shown over and over. In fact, TV programs somet�mes earn more money after they off�c�ally go off the a�r by be�ng sold �n synd�cat�on to telev�s�on stat�ons that can re-a�r them �n a new t�me slot. Seinfeld, a popular 1990s comedy “about noth�ng,” �s the h�ghest-earn�ng s�tcom ever �n synd�cat�on.

As early as 1950, s�tcom producers �ntroduced a laugh track �nto the�r shows. Th�s canned laughter prov�ded v�ewers w�th cues on when to laugh and what was supposed to be funny. s�tcoms are the most endur�ng genre �n telev�s�on enterta�nment. The Simpsons, an an�mated show that actually parod�es the genre, �s the longest-runn�ng s�tcom �n U.s. h�story. It pre-m�ered �n 1989 and was st�ll runn�ng �n 2007. other popular s�tcoms over the years �ncluded All in the Family, wh�ch p�oneered the concept of b�t�ng

Will and Grace �s one of the f�rst Amer�can s�tcoms to address �ssues w�th homosexu-al�ty. Courtesy of Photofest.


soc�al commentary �n the 1970s w�th �ts b�goted lead�ng character, Arch�e Bunker; Friends, wh�ch chron�cled the l�ves of s�x s�ngle New york fr�ends; Cheers, wh�ch centered on the l�ves of people who worked and hung out �n a bar �n Boston; and The Cosby Show, about the fam�ly l�fe of a lovable obstetr�-c�an, played by B�ll Cosby.

Game shows also were popular �n early telev�s�on, before they were rocked by a cheat�ng scandal that made producers shy away from the genre for a t�me. The $64,000 Question was the CBs telev�s�on network program that brought the hammer down on game shows. A�r�ng from 1955 to 1958, �t was w�ldly popular and spawned �m�tat�ons at other networks, �nclud�ng the show Twenty-one. The bubble burst when a contestant who lost on Twenty-one began talk�ng publ�cly about how the show was r�gged. Congress got �nvolved and ult�mately passed a federal law barr�ng game tamper�ng. Game shows slowly rega�ned popular�ty �n the 1960s and cont�nue to appeal to v�ewers today. Jeopardy!, wh�ch f�rst a�red �n 1964, had several l�ves under several tele-v�s�on hosts, before �t was broadcast �n the early even�ng beg�nn�ng �n 1984 w�th Alex Trebek as �ts host. That game, wh�ch prov�des the answers and re-qu�res contestants to ask the quest�ons, was st�ll on the a�r �n 2007. Produced by Merv Gr�ff�n, �t usually a�red just before or after Wheel of Fortune, a game that requ�red players to guess common word phrases by f�ll�ng �n the blanks w�th letters. The game show genre produced several other notable programs, �nclud�ng the more recent Who Wants to be a Millionaire?, wh�ch had d�ffer-ent vers�ons �n more than 60 countr�es around the word, and the granddaddy of them all, The Price is Right, wh�ch began �n 1956.

Telev�s�on dramas take two forms: soap operas, a carryover from rad�o and st�ll a strong dayt�me staple on networks, and n�ghtt�me dramas, wh�ch feature recurr�ng characters and often feature lawyers, pol�ce off�cers, detect�ves, cow-boys, and doctors as the protagon�sts. shows l�ke Perry Mason, Medical Center, Law & Order, Gunsmoke, Kojak, Matlock, and Marcus Welby, M.D., typ�cally last one hour and are self-conta�ned dramas. soap operas feature ongo�ng story l�nes, and they need to be watched da�ly to understand the story l�ne. Guiding Light, wh�ch prem�ered on telev�s�on �n 1952, �s the longest runn�ng of th�s genre. N�ghtt�me soap operas also have the�r n�che. Dallas, wh�ch ran �n the 1980s, was the most popular of th�s type. The show created an �nternat�onal buzz when the lead�ng character was felled on the last ep�sode of the 1980 season and v�ewers had to wa�t unt�l the fall to learn the answer.

sport�ng events were a natural draw for telev�s�on. L�ve act�on sports generate great exc�tement. In fact, �t was the prom�se of one of the longest-runn�ng sports var�ety programs �n telev�s�on h�story. “spann�ng the globe to br�ng you the constant var�ety of sport . . . the thr�ll of v�ctory . . . and the


agony of defeat . . . the human drama of athlet�c compet�t�on . . . th�s �s ABC’s Wide World of Sports! ” was the vo�ce-over �ntroduct�on that opened the show, wh�ch debuted �n 1961, beg�nn�ng �n the 1970s. The super Bowl has become a nat�onal telev�s�on event s�nce 1967, generat�ng a day of super Bowl part�es and prompt�ng advert�sers to create custom-made commerc�als for the broad-cast. In fact, the commerc�als, the half-t�me show, the s�ng�ng of the Nat�onal Anthem, and the pregame events are often as much a part of the day as the game �tself. N�nety-three m�ll�on people �n the Un�ted states watched super Bowl xLI �n 2007, accord�ng to the N�elsen Med�a research.

In the early days of telev�s�on, the ant�c�pated broadcast of a sport�ng event could generate sales of telev�s�on sets. The technology today has come a long way from the s�ngle, black-and-wh�te camera pos�t�oned along the th�rd base l�ne for the Pr�nceton-Columb�a baseball game �n 1939.6 some of the earl�est broadcasts �ncluded the baseball world ser�es and box�ng bouts. Telev�s�on was, �n some �nstances, able to del�ver a better game than would be had at the ball park. The �nstant replay, wh�ch was put to l�m�ted use �n 1955, allows v�ewers to dec�de whether off�c�als got the call r�ght. Powerful and sens�t�ve cameras pos�t�oned �n the outf�eld allowed fans to call balls and str�kes. The 1st and 10 l�ne prov�des telev�s�on v�ewers w�th a v�rtual yellow l�ne that marks the next f�rst down.

F�nally, no d�scuss�on of telev�s�on genres would be complete w�thout report�ng on the most recent development, the real�ty show. Candid Cam-era featured people caught look�ng fool�sh on h�dden camera, and the Ted Mack Amateur Hour, a talent show, both debuted on telev�s�on �n 1948, but the genre never ga�ned the k�nd of w�ld devot�on �t exper�enced �n the new m�llenn�um. In the Un�ted states, the most recent forerunner of the genre was probably The Real World on MTV. A group of young people who l�ved together were f�lmed �n the�r da�ly l�ves. Then, compet�t�on was added to the genre �n 2000 w�th the show Survivor, wh�ch brought a group of contestants to a remote �sland, challenged them w�th phys�cal hurdles, and then had them voted off the show one by one. American Idol, a s�ng�ng com-pet�t�on that allowed v�ewers to vote for the�r favor�te contestants, began �n 2002 and enjoyed the d�st�nct�on as the most popular show on telev�s�on �n 2007. real�ty telev�s�on was k�ng �n the f�rst decade of the new m�llenn�um and �ncluded off-beat and somet�mes b�zarre shows l�ke Wife Swap, where two mothers changed places for a week; Nanny 911, �n wh�ch a Br�t�sh nanny taught parents how to control the�r w�ld ch�ldren; The Bachelor, �n wh�ch a man got to woo a cadre of beaut�ful women and get r�d of someone each week; and Extreme Makeover, �n wh�ch a person was completely redone us�ng plast�c surgery.


Cinema

The story of Amer�can mov�es traces �ts beg�nn�ngs to the n�neteenth cen-tury, but the �ndustry really was a ch�ld of the twent�eth century. In the Un�ted states, �nventor extraord�na�re Thomas A. ed�son’s preoccupat�on w�th captur�ng mov�ng objects on f�lm fueled a $44 b�ll�on �ndustry �n 2006. From the f�ve-second black-and-wh�te f�lm Fred Ott’s Sneeze, wh�ch featured ed�son’s ass�stant �n 1894, the mov�e �ndustry burst on the enterta�nment scene.

wh�le the newspaper �ndustry fought off compet�t�on from other med�a, the f�lm �ndustry’s story �s one of adaptat�on. Telev�s�on, VCrs, dVds, pay-per-v�ew, and other �nnovat�ons could have dec�mated the f�lm �ndustry, but �nstead, �t has thr�ved. The mov�e �ndustry �s a v�tal and v�brant �ndustry that �n the Un�ted states generates about 600 f�lms each year.7 It �s the Un�ted states’ b�ggest export.

F�lmmak�ng �n the Un�ted states began modestly enough. ed�son’s Black Mar�a stud�o �n west orange, New Jersey, began produc�ng f�lm shorts, �n-clud�ng a 20-second popular �tem, The Kiss, wh�ch created a furor and was

Survivor started a new trend �n Amer�can telev�s�on. A comb�nat�on of real�ty TV and game show, contestants are placed on teams and are g�ven phys�cal and mental challenges. At the end of each ep�sode, one person �s voted off of the show. Courtesy of Photofest.


notable for start�ng the d�scuss�on of censorsh�p �n regard to f�lm as early as 1896.8 early short f�lms found an aud�ence �n c�t�es at K�netescope Parlors, wh�ch allowed v�ewers to see sn�ppets of f�lm by pay�ng 25 cents, an exorb�-tant pr�ce at the t�me.

The Great Train Robbery, produced �n 1903 by one of ed�son’s employees, edw�n s. Porter, was notable for �ts creat�on of the modern f�lm techn�que of us�ng several camera pos�t�ons for the same scene and then ed�t�ng the f�lm to enhance suspense, create tens�on, and �mprove the narrat�ve. That 12-m�nute s�lent f�lm also gave r�se to the western f�lm genre.

F�lms found a home at the n�ckelodeon, mov�e houses where v�ewers could see a ser�es of short f�lms beg�nn�ng about 1905. They spread qu�ckly around the Un�ted states, creat�ng a huge demand for new f�lms. Thus an �ndustry was born. By 1909, there were 9,000 mov�e theaters �n the Un�ted states. Amer�ca was not alone �n �ts �nterest �n the budd�ng f�lm �ndustry. Fore�gn f�lms l�ke The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari �n 1919 (from Germany) and others found aud�ences �n the Un�ted states and contr�buted to the develop�ng art�s-t�c techn�ques that �ncluded both d�rect�on and camera work.

wh�le the narrat�ve story emerged qu�ckly as the veh�cle for popular f�lms, the f�lms themselves were short, last�ng only about 12 m�nutes (one reel), unt�l dav�d wark Gr�ff�th developed an �nterest �n d�rect�ng. Gr�ff�th had been h�red as an actor �n ed�son’s stud�o but l�ked be�ng beh�nd the camera �nstead. He conv�nced f�nanc�ers to back h�s �dea for a longer, melodramat�c approach to the c�nema. Gr�ff�th not only �nfluenced the development of the f�lm �ndustry w�th h�s �nnovat�ve �deas, but he also was at least partly respon-s�ble for the concentrat�on of the bus�ness �n the Los Angeles ne�ghborhood we know as Hollywood.

Gr�ff�th was work�ng for B�ograph as a f�lmmaker, when he was sent to Cal�forn�a w�th a troupe of actors �n 1910 to f�lm In Old California. The res�dents of the Hollywood ne�ghborhood welcomed the actors. The rest �s h�story. Hollywood, the locat�on, has become synonymous w�th Hollywood, the f�lm �ndustry, and wh�le not all mov�es are f�lmed �n Hollywood today, �t �s w�thout a doubt the cap�tal of the mov�emak�ng �ndustry, not just �n the Un�ted states, but �n the world.

Gr�ff�th’s c�nemat�c contr�but�ons �ncluded the development of a full-length feature f�lm. He also began the long-held trad�t�on of translat�ng a novel �nto a f�lm. Gr�ff�th purchased the r�ght to the Thomas d�xon novel The Clansman, and began f�lm�ng. when The Birth of a Nation was released �n 1915, �t ran a whopp�ng 3 hours and 10 m�nutes and changed the d�rect�on of f�lm product�on. The Birth of a Nation, wh�ch presents the story of the C�v�l war and reconstruct�on from a southern perspect�ve, has been d�sm�ssed as a rac�st �nterpretat�on of h�story, but �n terms of c�nemat�c development, �ts


�mportance cannot be overstated. It f�rmly establ�shed the concept of story-tell�ng and proved that v�ewers were w�ll�ng to s�t st�ll and watch raptly �f the mov�e was presented �n a gr�pp�ng fash�on. It also establ�shed Gr�ff�th as a powerful force �n the �ndustry. Gr�ff�th cont�nued h�s f�lmmak�ng career, and other d�rectors �m�tated h�s methods.

Another early �nnovator was Mack sennett, who worked w�th Gr�ff�th but left �n 1912 and started h�s own stud�o, Keystone. sennett had a knack for comedy and was adept at preserv�ng the humor wh�le f�lm�ng. He was re-spons�ble for the development of the b�ggest star of the s�lent f�lm era, Charl�e Chapl�n. Most famous for h�s persona of The Little Tramp, Chapl�n donned a bowler hat, sported a t�ny mustache, and tw�rled a cane �n f�lms, wh�le he became embro�led �n r�d�culous, and funny, pred�caments. Chapl�n re�gned supreme throughout the s�lent f�lm era of the 1920s but faded as a lead�ng man after sound was �ntroduced w�th the mov�e The Jazz Singer �n 1927.

The s�lent f�lm era �ncluded the development of ser�al stor�es that were updated per�od�cally, a precursor to the soap operas of rad�o and telev�s�on. Notable �n th�s group was The Perils of Pauline, wh�ch began �n 1914 and featured a damsel �n d�stress who was regularly saved from burn�ng bu�ld�ngs, ra�lroad tracks, and the s�de of a cl�ff. The ser�es played on the concept of a cl�ff-hanger end�ng that brought the v�ewers back to see the next ep�sode.

The �mpact of sound �n f�lm h�story �s enormous. Aud�ences flocked to The Jazz Singer and clamored for more. Actors whose vo�ces d�d not lend them to f�lm were swept as�de �n favor of those who were photogen�c and whose vo�ces were pleasant.

Mov�emak�ng grew �nto an �ndustry that was centered around a few power-ful stud�os. The stud�o system, as �t came to be known, revolved around f�ve compan�es: rKo, Paramount, 20th Century Fox, MGM, and warner Brothers. Most of the f�nanc�ally successful f�lms of the 1930s and 1940s were produced and d�str�buted through these stud�os.

desp�te the desperate f�nanc�al s�tuat�on of many Amer�cans dur�ng the Great depress�on of the 1930s, people went to the mov�es. whether �t was to escape the�r dreary ex�stence, or l�ve v�car�ously through the exot�c l�ves of f�lm stars, or merely to pass the t�me for a few hours, Amer�cans loved the mov�es. As mov�e product�on and techn�ques became more soph�st�cated, the f�lm �ndustry became the lev�athan of the enterta�nment �ndustry—about 80 m�ll�on people (more than half the U.s. populat�on) went to the mov�es every week. F�lms l�ke Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz �n 1939 showcased the �ndustry’s storytell�ng and techn�ques �n l�v�ng color.

The 1930s also saw the �ntroduct�on of feature-length an�mat�on, most notably the work of master an�mator walt d�sney. d�sney stud�o’s foray �nto f�lmmak�ng began w�th Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs �n 1937 and


cont�nued w�th such �nstant class�cs as Pinocchio (1940) and Sleeping Beauty (1959), to name a few. even after d�sney’s death �n 1966, and �nto the new m�llenn�um, d�sney stud�os cont�nued �ts preem�nent pos�t�on among an�-mators w�th f�lms l�ke The Lion King (1994), Beauty and the Beast (1991), and Tarzan (1999).

world war II saw the f�lm �ndustry become an arm of U.s. propaganda. some lead�ng d�rectors, �nclud�ng Frank Capra and John Ford, actually made f�lms for the government. stars l�ke Clark Gable, who actually jo�ned the army, and h�s w�fe, Carol Lombard, who d�ed �n a plane crash dur�ng a cam-pa�gn to sell war bonds, typ�f�ed Hollywood patr�ot�sm dur�ng the war.

Newspapers were not the only med�um threatened by the �nvent�on of and consumer love affa�r w�th telev�s�on. The 1950s and 1960s saw the r�se of telev�s�on as a prom�nent and popular med�um. Hollywood quaked. The stud�o system faded, wh�le Amer�can f�lms tr�ed to demonstrate that watch�ng a f�lm �n a theater was a b�gger and better exper�ence.

As the �nfluence of Hollywood spread around the world, f�lmmak�ng branched �nto many genres. Mus�cals were made poss�ble when sound was �ntroduced �n 1927; f�lms l�ke Singin’ in the Rain �n 1952 and The Sound of Music �n 1965 are st�ll cons�dered class�cs. Mus�cals are st�ll a v�able genre. Chicago won the Academy Award �n 2002, wh�le Dreamgirls was cr�t�cally accla�med �n 2006.

The romant�c comedy genre made stars of Cary Grant, dor�s day, rock Hudson, and J�mmy stewart beg�nn�ng �n the 1930s. Mov�egoers came to expect na�l-b�t�ng suspense f�lms whenever Alfred H�tchcock d�rected, and h�s f�lms, �nclud�ng Rear Window, The Thirty-nine Steps, Vertigo, and North by Northwest, del�vered sp�ne-t�ngl�ng fear �n v�ewers. d�rector John Ford and star John wayne typ�f�ed the western genre, wh�le Frank Capra focused on upl�ft�ng, happy end�ngs typ�f�ed by the st�ll popular Chr�stmas class�c It’s a Wonderful Life or the patr�ot�c and �nsp�rat�onal Mr. Smith Goes to Washington.

It would be rem�ss not to note the contr�but�ons of current-day d�rec-tors and actors. d�rector George Lucas’s s�x-part star wars ep�c rev�ved the sc�ence f�ct�on genre w�th the release of the f�rst f�lm, Star Wars, �n 1977. steven sp�elberg �s one of the foremost contemporary d�rectors and produc-ers, whose oeuvre �ncludes 1975s Jaws; 1981s Raiders of the Lost Ark, wh�ch launched Harr�son Ford to superstardom; and 1993s best p�cture, Schindler’s List, wh�ch also won h�m h�s f�rst Academy Award for Best d�rector.

other lead�ng d�rectors of contemporary Hollywood �ncluded woody Allen, Mart�n scorsese, ol�ver stone, sp�ke Lee, Penny Marshall, and Quent�n Tarant�no. Among mov�e actors �n 2007, Keanu reeves raked �n about $206 m�ll�on for h�s work �n the Matrix sequels; Tom Cru�se, Tom Hanks, and


Jack N�cholson were also good dealmakers by �ns�st�ng on a percent of the box off�ce.

wh�le other med�a compete for Amer�cans’ t�me and can lure them away from theaters, the mov�es are st�ll k�ng. In 2006, the Mot�on P�cture Assoc�a-t�on reported that the total U.s. box off�ce take came to $9.49 b�ll�on, w�th Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest pull�ng �n $423 m�ll�on. yet wh�le go�ng to the mov�es �s st�ll a v�able act�v�ty, Amer�cans are �ncreas�ngly stay-�ng home to watch the�r fl�cks. In the Un�ted states, 37 percent preferred to watch mov�es �n the comfort of the�r own home, accord�ng to the Mot�on P�cture Assoc�at�on.9 That trend began �n the 1980s, when the VCr f�rst was made ava�lable �n the Un�ted states. V�deo stores allowed consumers to rent relat�vely newly released mov�es to watch at home. The technology sh�fted �n the late 1990s to dVds, but the home market rema�ned strong. Cable telev�s�on also entered the fray w�th pay-per-v�ew technology that allowed consumers to watch feature f�lms and on demand offer�ngs.

The story of f�lm censorsh�p �n the Un�ted states �s almost as old as the �ndustry �tself. As early as 1907, n�ckelodeons were shut down for allow-�ng ch�ldren to v�ew �nappropr�ate short f�lms. The f�lm �ndustry wasted no t�me pol�c�ng �tself. By 1916, the Nat�onal Assoc�at�on of the Mot�on P�cture

The mov�es �n the Pirates of the Caribbean ser�es have been some of the world’s h�ghest-gross�ng f�lms. Courtesy of Photofest.


Industry was formed to oversee f�lm content, and when that fa�led, to sat�sfy cr�t�cs, f�lmmakers created the Mot�on P�cture Producers and d�str�butors of Amer�ca, led by former postmaster w�ll�am H. Hays. The assoc�at�on ac-cepted a Product�on Code, wh�ch came to be known as the Hays Code, �n 1930. Th�s self-censorsh�p �n�t�at�ve was respons�ble for shap�ng the treat-ment of sex and v�olence �n Hollywood �n the 1930s. some d�d not th�nk �t went far enough. The Cathol�c Leg�on of decency was formed �n 1934 to combat what �t bel�eved was a corrupt�on of morals by the f�lm �ndustry. The l�st created by the Leg�on condemned certa�n mov�es �t deemed �nappropr�-ate for anyone. others �t l�sted as appropr�ate for ch�ldren or for adults. The l�st lasted unt�l 1978 and condemned such mov�es as From Russia with Love, Rosemary’s Baby, and Grease.

In 1968, the Mot�on P�cture Assoc�at�on of Amer�ca created �ts own vol-untary f�lm rat�ng system, wh�ch �s st�ll �n use today. The �n�t�al system �n-cluded the rat�ngs G for general aud�ences, M for mature aud�ences, r for restr�cted (under 16 not adm�tted w�thout a parent or guard�an), and x for no one under 17 adm�tted. The system has been f�ne-tuned over the years to �nclude the PG (parental gu�dance suggested) and PG-13 (parental gu�dance suggested for age 13).

wh�le the earl�est f�lm actors were anonymous, the star system emerged dur�ng the 1920s. The Marx Brothers ep�tom�zed comedy; Jean Harlow was a vamp; edward G. rob�nson was a gangster; Bela Legos� was typecast �n horror f�lms; Cary Grant and Clark Gable were two of the earl�est lead�ng men. As Hollywood actors and actresses became celebr�t�es, they were able to command large sums of money for the�r work. Hollywood became known as T�nseltown.

The success of the 1939 f�lm Gone with the Wind ushered �n a golden age for Hollywood. The mov�e, based on the runaway best seller by Margaret M�tchell, won 10 Academy Awards �n 1939 and held the record for mak�ng money for many years, before contemporary t�cket pr�ces knocked �t out. It st�ll holds the record for the most t�ckets sold.

The Academy Awards to recogn�ze ach�evement �n f�lm were begun �n 1929 �n Los Angeles. The w�nners were g�ven a d�st�nct�ve gold statuette of a man to honor the�r ach�evements. Legend has �t that f�lm star Bette dav�s, who won two and was nom�nated 10 t�mes, dubbed the statue “oscar” be-cause �t rem�nded her of her f�rst husband. Held annually �n the spr�ng, the oscars attract an �nternat�onal aud�ence and generate hoopla for celebr�t�es, who prance along a red carpet �nto the aud�tor�um.

wh�le other countr�es have establ�shed notable f�lm �ndustr�es, most espe-c�ally Japan, Ind�a, and Italy, Amer�can f�lms are the und�sputed world leader. In fact, as mov�ego�ng hab�ts sh�fted w�th telev�s�on v�ew�ng and then the VCr technology that brought the theaters �nto homes, Amer�can f�lmmakers


turned �ncreas�ngly to the export market to make up the f�nanc�al d�fference. By 2007, more than half of Amer�can f�lm revenues came from the fore�gn market, forc�ng f�lmmakers to pay attent�on to how a mov�e w�ll play w�th fore�gn aud�ences. It was by no means a one-way street. Increas�ngly, Amer�-cans were open to v�ew�ng fore�gn f�lms. The Ch�nese f�lm Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon grossed $128 m�ll�on �n the Un�ted states �n 2000.

magazines

everyone reads magaz�nes �n the Un�ted states. Amer�cans can be found thumb�ng through pages �n doctors’ and dent�sts’ wa�t�ng rooms, at the barber-shop, and even �n l�ne �n the supermarket. Magaz�nes, wh�ch are often h�ghly spec�al�zed, are b�g bus�ness. In 2005, the average c�rculat�on for all magaz�nes was a whopp�ng 369,620,102—that �s more than one magaz�ne for every man, woman, and ch�ld. The Magaz�ne Publ�shers of Amer�ca est�mates that 84 per-cent of the populat�on over age 18 reads magaz�nes, wh�le �t counts 18,267 separate t�tles, w�th 6,325 consumer t�tles.10 In fact, �n 2005, 350 new t�tles were �ntroduced, most focus�ng on the n�che market�ng that has been so suc-cessful for magaz�ne publ�shers. wh�le broad-based magaz�nes l�ke Newsweek and Time cont�nue to attract readers, publ�shers are more l�kely to f�nd success �ntroduc�ng publ�cat�ons that f�ll small markets, such as Arthur Frommer’s Bud-get Travel, Acoustic Guitar, and Bow & Arrow Hunting, to name a few.

Magaz�nes began �n the Un�ted states �n 1741 �n the Amer�can colon�es. Ben Frankl�n’s General Magazine debuted three days after h�s r�val, Andrew Bradford, c�rculated h�s American Magazine �n January 1741. The colon�es m�ght have been ready for one magaz�ne, but two was just too much. Ne�ther succeeded. w�th�n s�x months, they had both folded. over the next three decades, magaz�nes tr�ed to ga�n a foothold �n the colon�es, but none thr�ved. wh�le newspapers became �mportant propaganda tools dur�ng the revolu-t�on, they were unable to garner a stable c�rculat�on base.

From the onset, magaz�nes were a potpourr� of many top�cs. Poetry, essays, pol�t�cs, and the arts came together under one cover. The paper was cheap newspr�nt, and the covers were pla�n. Artwork and �llustrat�on were uncom-mon, although Paul revere prov�ded a ser�es of cartoon engrav�ngs on cop-per for the Royal American Magazine that was publ�shed just before the war began. In all, 98 magaz�nes were publ�shed dur�ng the e�ghteenth century, but one by one, they succumbed to econom�c real�t�es. Magaz�nes dur�ng that century were anyth�ng but veh�cles for mass c�rculat�on and hovered at a c�rculat�on of about 500.11

It was not unt�l the n�neteenth century that magaz�nes grew to be a staple of news and �nformat�on. The Saturday Evening Post began publ�sh�ng �n


Ph�ladelph�a �n 1821. Around th�s t�me, there also was a growth �n l�ter-ary magaz�nes and rel�g�ous publ�cat�ons. In�t�ally, magaz�nes appealed to the upper classes, w�th the�r l�terary content and the h�gh subscr�pt�on costs. yet that character�st�c faded as the century, w�th �ts swell�ng l�teracy and educa-t�on rates, progressed. Harper’s Monthly and Atlantic Monthly appeared at m�d-century and catered to l�terary m�nds, but publ�cat�ons l�ke Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper and Harper’s Weekly drew a more popular aud�ence. The �llustrat�ons �n these magaz�nes, espec�ally dur�ng the C�v�l war, ap-pealed to the masses and paved the way for the p�cture magaz�nes l�ke Look and Life that captured Amer�can �mag�nat�ons beg�nn�ng �n the 1930s.

The age of muckrak�ng was most v�s�ble �n magaz�nes beg�nn�ng about 1900. McClure’s magaz�ne had been founded �n 1893 by samuel McClure, who charged only 15 cents for each ed�t�on. By 1900, �t had a sol�d c�rcula-t�on of 350,000, when �t began pok�ng �ts nose �n the publ�c’s bus�ness. w�th sol�d staff wr�ters l�ke Ida Tarbell and L�ncoln steffens, McClure’s was po�sed to make some no�se. It became known as the most r�gorous of the muckrak-ers after the publ�cat�on of Tarbell’s exposé of the abuses of standard o�l and steffens’s ser�es of art�cles on publ�c and pol�t�cal corrupt�on. The fervor of muckrak�ng magaz�nes faded w�th the onset of world war I. A new type of magaz�ne emerged �n the decade follow�ng the war. The weekly news maga-z�nes that we st�ll know today trace the�r roots to th�s per�od. Time magaz�ne was founded by Henry Luce and Br�ton Hadden. Hadden’s �nvolvement was short-l�ved, and the magaz�ne �n many respects reflected the tastes and pol�-t�cs of Luce. The f�rst �ssue appeared on March 3, 1923. The news was mostly �nformat�on rewr�tten from the week’s New York Times. ed�tor�al analys�s was a part of the news coverage. The success of Time gave way to other ven-tures, �nclud�ng Fortune, Life, and Sports Illustrated, all of wh�ch surv�ve to date. Time rema�ned the most robust of the newsweekl�es, rank�ng 11th �n c�rculat�on, w�th a weekly c�rculat�on of 4 m�ll�on. Newsweek, founded �n 1933, ranked 16th, wh�le the th�rd popular news magaz�ne, U.S. News and World Report, ranked 32nd.

The �mportance of women’s magaz�nes and the�r growth throughout the n�neteenth century cannot be overstated. women’s place was the home and �ts domest�c respons�b�l�t�es, and women’s magaz�nes celebrated th�s sphere of �nfluence. Godey’s Lady’s Book, wh�ch set the standard for women’s pub-l�cat�ons for about 70 years, was begun �n 1830 as the Lady’s Book by Lou�s Godey. He then purchased the Ladies’ Magazine and merged the two publ�-cat�ons �nto Godey’s Lady’s Book and h�red as �ts ed�tor sarah Josepha Hale. Godey’s publ�shed or�g�nal mater�al at a t�me when many magaz�nes were merely repos�tor�es for prev�ously publ�shed art�cles. Hale sought out the nat�on’s popular authors and poets for her monthly magaz�ne and was re-


warded w�th the l�kes of Harr�et Beecher stowe, edgar Allan Poe, Nathan�el Hawthorne, and others. The magaz�ne also prov�ded women hungry for the fash�ons of europe w�th �llustrat�ons of the latest dress styles. The magaz�ne decl�ned �n popular�ty after the C�v�l war and eventually ceased publ�cat�on �n 1898, but �ts �nfluence on generat�ons of women’s magaz�nes �s �nd�sput-able. Its m�x of fash�on, l�terature, and domest�c, health, and ch�ld-rear�ng adv�ce �s ev�denced �n magaz�nes even today. As Godey’s c�rculat�on waned, Ladies’ Home Journal ga�ned ground. It topped the 1 m�ll�on c�rculat�on mark �n 1889, prov�d�ng short stor�es, ser�al�zed novels, good artwork, and the prom�se, �n an age of d�sreputable advert�s�ng, that �t mon�tored the cla�ms of �ts advert�sers. In an era when newspaper and magaz�ne ed�tors were cele-br�t�es �n the way that mov�e stars are today, Ladies’ Home Journal ’s ed�tor edward w. Bok, who took the re�ns �n 1890, was the v�s�ble head of th�s women’s publ�cat�on for 39 years.

The Seven Sisters, a term that referred to the most powerful women’s mag-az�nes of the twent�eth century, �ncluded Good Housekeeping, Ladies’ Home Journal, McCall’s, Redbook, Better Homes & Gardens, Family Circle, and Wom-an’s Day. These were the b�ggest guns �n the women’s magaz�ne category, w�th astound�ng c�rculat�ons throughout most of the twent�eth century. McCall’s, �n�t�ally a veh�cle to sell McCall’s dress patterns to consumers, had a c�rcula-t�on of 6 m�ll�on at �ts peak �n the 1960s. In response to the grow�ng popular-�ty of O, the Oprah Magazine, the Hearst Corporat�on monthly that debuted �n 2000, McCall’s changed �ts name to Rosie �n 2001 �n an attempt to serve as a platform for talk show celebr�ty ros�e o’donnell. That relat�onsh�p flopped, and the magaz�ne folded �n 2002. All of the other seven s�sters st�ll publ�sh. Better Homes & Gardens, w�th a c�rculat�on of 7.6 m�ll�on, was the f�fth larg-est magaz�ne �n the country at the end of 2005. Good Housekeeping was sev-enth, w�th 4.6 m�ll�on; Family Circle, Ladies’ Home Journal, and Woman’s Day rounded out the top 10, accord�ng to the Aud�t Bureau of C�rculat�ons. O enjoys a 2.5 m�ll�on c�rculat�on and a nat�onal rank�ng at number 23.12

wh�le trad�t�onal women’s magaz�nes enjoy healthy c�rculat�ons, n�che mag-az�nes are the preva�l�ng trend today. Magaz�nes l�ke Southern Living, Brides, Parents, Endless Vacation, and Cooking Light rel�ed on smaller c�rculat�on populat�ons but featured readers hungry for �nformat�on about the�r top�cs. By play�ng to small pockets of readers, magaz�nes have managed to thr�ve dur�ng a t�me that newspapers saw the�r �nfluence wan�ng.

The largest-c�rculat�on magaz�ne �n the Un�ted states �n 2005 was the AARP magaz�ne, w�th a 22.6 m�ll�on pa�d c�rculat�on (membersh�p �n AArP was cons�dered a subscr�pt�on to the magaz�ne); the AARP Bulletin ranked second, followed by Reader’s Digest. That monthly magaz�ne, wh�ch began �n 1922, was the bra�nch�ld of dew�tt wallace and featured art�cles condensed


from other publ�cat�ons. That formula �s st�ll successful today. A staple for years �n doctors’ and dent�sts’ off�ces, the Digest also rel�ed on monthly regu-lar features, �nclud�ng humor columns that featured p�thy anecdotes sent �n from readers. The oldest cont�nually publ�shed magaz�ne, the New England Journal of Medicine, began �n 1812.

media in the twenty-first Century

In 2005, the Ka�ser Foundat�on asked 8- to 18-year-olds to descr�be what med�a they had used the day before. The results are enough to send fear �nto the hearts of some of the med�a. e�ghty-one percent of the group had watched telev�s�on for an average da�ly t�me of a numb�ng three hours and four m�n-utes. Twenty-one percent of the group had watched for more than f�ve hours. F�fty-four percent had used the computer for recreat�onal purposes total�ng an hour. Th�rty-four percent had read a newspaper (that f�gure contrasted w�th the 42% who had glanced at a newspaper f�ve years before). The term glanced �s correct, �ndeed, because the average t�me the group had looked at the newspaper was s�x m�nutes. Magaz�nes fared sl�ghtly better: 47 percent had read a magaz�ne �n 2004 (compared to 55% �n 1999). The average �nter-act�on lasted 14 m�nutes.13 If th�s, then, �s the future of the med�a, trad�t�onal newspapers and magaz�nes have reason to be concerned. Newspaper readers are a loyal group, but �t �s a learned hab�t, and clearly the younger generat�on �s not tak�ng to �t. By contrast, 67 percent of adults over age 65 read a news-paper �n 2006. The bad th�ng about that group �s that they have a tendency to d�e; just two years earl�er, that f�gure had been at 74 percent.

Another nat�onal survey �n 2005 showed that 59 percent of people get the�r news from local telev�s�on, wh�le 38 percent read a local paper, and only 12 percent read a nat�onal newspaper.14 The demands for le�sure t�me are great. electron�c explos�ons cont�nue w�th new and better gadgets �ntroduced each year before the hol�day buy�ng t�me: telev�s�on, T�vo, �Pods, Play sta-t�on, satell�te rad�o, cell phones, Blackberr�es, s�dek�cks, and always new and better computers.

Newspapers have been forced to change. Internet s�tes l�ke Cra�g’s L�st, eBay, Monster.com, and Autotrader have taken a b�te out of the once lucra-t�ve class�f�ed advert�s�ng. Comb�ned class�f�ed ads peaked �n 2000 w�th earn-�ngs of more than $19.6 b�ll�on. Those dollars are sl�pp�ng—by 2003, the total had sl�pped to $15.8 b�ll�on, accord�ng to the Newspaper Assoc�at�on of Amer�ca. Class�f�ed ads had prov�ded a cash cow for years; they were cheap to produce, w�th l�ttle overhead but a typ�st. Now, newspapers are f�ght�ng to rega�n the�r pos�t�on as the purveyor of class�f�ed ads by mak�ng all�ances w�th onl�ne prov�ders.


overall, the future �s gr�m for newspapers. Prof�t marg�ns have sl�d from 26 percent �n 2000 to about 17 percent �n 2007.15 C�rculat�on was also sl�p-p�ng, even though 51 m�ll�on people st�ll buy newspapers.

The smartest news organ�zat�ons have accommodated the change and em-braced Internet avenues. Newspapers, for example, have banded together to create a nat�onal employment serv�ce, CareerBu�lder, to challenge the dom�-nat�on of Monster. In other advert�s�ng areas, the well-be�ng of the news-paper revenues reflects the health of bus�ness and �ndustry �n general. Fewer large department stores translate �nto fewer sunday ad sect�ons. A downtrend �n home sales means a d�p �n real estate advert�s�ng.

Not all the news for newspapers �s d�smal. some newspaper compan�es have taken a lesson from magaz�ne publ�sh�ng and turned to n�che publ�ca-t�ons. The Miami Herald, for example, has a separate da�ly ed�t�on �n span�sh for �ts large H�span�c populat�on. Gannett, the country’s largest med�a con-glomerate, has 90 newspaper markets but more than 1,000 n�che publ�ca-t�ons �n those areas, focus�ng on travel, health, and other top�cs of �nterest to �ts readers. some newspaper compan�es have d�vers�f�ed onto the Internet, buy�ng onl�ne compan�es or establ�sh�ng jo�nt ventures w�th some of the on-l�ne g�ants. The message to newspapers �s clear: change or d�e.

Newspapers are the oldest form of mass commun�cat�on, but �n the twenty-f�rst century, they const�tute just one aspect of an �ncreas�ngly complex med�a system that �s constantly evolv�ng. The Un�ted states—�ndeed, the world—�s �n the m�dst of a commun�cat�on revolut�on whose ult�mate outcome can-not eas�ly be pred�cted. How Amer�cans w�ll �nteract w�th the�r med�a �n the future �s fodder for sc�ence f�ct�on wr�ters.

Much �s at stake. The future of journal�sm as a profess�on �s unclear. News organ�zat�ons have turned to the�r v�ewers and readers to prov�de �nforma-t�on. Aud�ences respond to �nstant poll�ng because �t g�ves them a chance to have the�r vo�ces heard. Popular telev�s�on programs l�ke American Idol can generate m�ll�ons of v�ewers’ votes: 74 m�ll�on votes were cast �n the Ameri-can Idol f�nale �n 2007. News outlets get hundreds of thousands of votes when they ask v�ewers the�r op�n�ons on top�cal survey quest�ons, and when a news outlet l�ke CNN asks �ts v�ewers to subm�t news t�ps and stor�es, they respond. The news outlet then shares v�deo cl�ps of dramat�c f�res, eyew�t-ness accounts of natural d�sasters, and f�rst-person stor�es of human �nter-est. The Internet, w�th �ts unl�m�ted capac�ty for news, has opened the news hole. when news rad�o wINs tells l�steners, “you g�ve us 22 m�nutes, we’ll g�ve you the world,” �t underscores the fact that the rad�o stat�on only has 22 m�nutes’ worth of news and �nformat�on. Network news shows last 30 m�nutes, �nclud�ng commerc�als. A typ�cal newspaper �s 60 percent advert�s-


�ng, 40 percent news stor�es. Thus the role of ed�tor �ncludes the burden of gatekeep�ng: dec�d�ng what news �s and what �s not. The Internet, w�th �ts l�m�tless capac�ty, negates that role. News med�a can post any number of sto-r�es on the�r s�tes and let the reader or v�ewer dec�de what he �s �nterested �n.

The commun�cat�on revolut�on cont�nues. L�ke w�nston Church�ll’s qu�p dur�ng world war II, th�s revolut�on �s nowhere near �ts end. It �s not even the beg�nn�ng of the end, but �t �s, perhaps, the end of the beg�nn�ng. where �t �s headed �s unclear. The only th�ng that �s certa�n �s that �t w�ll cont�nue to be one heck of a r�de.

notes

1. “Jo�nt statement by w�ll�am P. Van Ness and Nathan�el Pendleton on the duel between Alexander Ham�lton and Aaron Burr,” New York Morning Chronicle, July 17, 1804, repr�nted �n Lou�s L. snyder and r�chard B. Morr�s, eds., A Treasury of Great Reporting (New york: s�mon and schuster, 1962), 38–39.

2. Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism (New york: Macm�llan, 1962), 438.

3. Mott, American Journalism, 679. 4. M. Thomas Inge and denn�s Hall, eds., The Greenwood Guide to American

Popular Culture (westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002), 4:1466. 5. Aud�t Bureau of C�rculat�ons, “Top 100 Newspapers �n the Un�ted states,”

March 31, 2006, Informat�on Please database, http://www/�nfoplease.com/�pea/A0004420.html.

6. see “sports and Telev�s�on” from the Museum of Broadcast Commun�ca-t�ons, http://www.museum.tv/arch�ves/etv/s/htmls/sportsandte/sportsandte.html.

7. see the Mot�on P�cture Assoc�at�on of Amer�ca stat�st�cs, http://www.mpaa.org. 8. A t�me l�ne of f�lm �ndustry development can be seen at http://www.f�lms�te.

org. 9. For current f�lm �ndustry stat�st�cs, see the Mot�on P�cture Assoc�at�on stat�s-

t�cs at http://www.mpaa.org.10. see The Magazine Handbook, Magaz�ne Publ�shers of Amer�ca, http://www.

magaz�ne.org.11. sammye Johnson and Patr�c�a Pr�jatel, Magazine Publishing (L�ncolnwood,

IL: NTC/Contemporary, 2000), 49.12. Aud�t Bureau of C�rculat�ons, “Top 100.”13. “Use of Ind�v�dual Med�a by All 8 to 18 year olds,” �n Generation M: Media

in the Lives of 8–18 Year-Olds (Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Ka�ser Fam�ly Foundat�on, March 2005), 23–33.

14. “News source: where People Get News,” Pew Internet Project decem-ber 2005 survey, http://www.�nfoplease.com.

15. Anya Kamenetz, “Publ�c Interest,” Fast Company 114 (2007): 38.


BiBliograPhy

Cous�ns, Mark. The Story of Film. New york: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2004.dav�es, dav�d r. The Postwar Decline of American Newspapers, 1945–1965. west-

port, CT: Praeger, 2006.emery, M�chael, edw�n emery, and Nancy L. roberts. The Press and America: An In-

terpretive History of the Mass Media. 9th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.endres, Kathleen L., et al., eds. Women’s Periodicals in the United States: Consumer

Magazines. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995.endres, Kathleen L., et al., eds. Women’s Periodicals in the United States: Social and

Political Issues. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996.Inge, M. Thomas, et al., eds. The Greenwood Guide to American Popular Culture.

Vols. 1–4. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002.Johnson, sammye, et al. Magazine Publishing. L�ncolnwood, IL: NTC/Contempo-

rary, 2000.Mart�n, shannon e., et al., eds. The Function of Newspapers in Society: A Global Per-

spective. westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.M�rald�, robert, ed. The Muckrakers: Evangelical Crusaders. westport, CT: Praeger,

2000.Mott, Frank Luther. American Journalism: A History, 1690–1960. 3rd ed. New york:

Macm�llan, 1962.Project for excellence �n Journal�sm, et al. The State of the News Media, 2007: An An-

nual Report on American Journalism. http://www.stateofthenewsmed�a.com.sloan, w�ll�am dav�d. The Media in America: A History. 6th ed. Northport, AL: V�-

s�on Press, 2005.snyder, Lou�s L., et al. A Treasury of Great Reporting. New york: s�mon and schus-

ter, 1962.washburn, Patr�ck s. The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom. evanston,

IL: Northwestern Un�vers�ty Press, 2006.

The th�ng about performance, even �f �t’s only an �llus�on, �s that �t �s a celebrat�on of the fact that we do conta�n w�th�n ourselves �nf�n�te poss�b�l�t�es.

—s�dney sm�th (1771–1845)

Americans love to be enterta�ned. American Idol, Ted Mack’s Amateur Hour, and a host of other s�m�lar telev�s�on and rad�o programs broadcast over the decades �llustrate the Amer�can fasc�nat�on w�th l�ve performance, profess�onal or amateur. A century ago, soc�al commentators argued whether the country should consc�ously develop a shared performance culture. In-stead, the geography of the Amer�can cont�nent �nfluenced development of a reg�onal character, and �nstead of sculpt�ng a shared �dent�f�able trad�t�on, these reg�onal styles, along w�th some borrowed elements from the country’s �mm�grants, created a un�que culture �n theater, mus�c, and dance.

theater

early Amer�can theater m�m�cked european performances and act�ng tech-n�ques. Although records are �ncomplete for th�s per�od, most theater schol-ars name Anthony Aston as the f�rst profess�onal actor �n Amer�ca �n 1703. (Aston was, however, preceded by Nat�ve Amer�can sp�r�tual�sts who regu-larly played roles �n r�tuals.) w�ll�amsburg, V�rg�n�a, boasted a dance school and theater as early as 1716. Ph�ladelph�a constructed a playhouse where P�ckleherr�ng p�eces, a genre of act�ng that followed european clown�ng techn�ques, were performed. The C�ty of Brotherly Love was the center of

8

Perform�ng Arts

Pamela Lee Gray

303


colon�al theater act�v�ty unt�l 1825. walter Murray and Thomas Kean took s�mple shows on tour through many of the colon�es. Charleston surged ahead of the other colon�al c�t�es w�th a new theater constructed �n 1736; at that t�me, the New york C�ty theater scene paled �n compar�son.1

The London Company of Comed�ans (later changed to the Amer�can Company), led by Lew�s Hallan sr., and then by dav�d douglas, held a monopoly on profess�onal theater product�ons from 1752 unt�l 1755, when Hallan’s son took over h�s father’s part of the team. The pa�r constructed and rev�tal�zed theaters throughout the colon�es, much to the d�sapproval of rel�g�ous groups, who held that plays advocated �mmoral behav�or (de-sp�te the subt�tle A Moral Dialogue attached to most plays’ t�tles). doug-las bu�lt two of the most �mportant theaters �n the colon�es �n New york �n the 1760s and put on the f�rst play wr�tten by a nat�ve playwr�ght. The Cont�nental Congress banned all stage performances �n october 1774, but Amer�can playwr�ghts cont�nued work�ng even as Br�t�sh troops captured c�t-�es and put on the�r own m�l�tary performances �n the colon�al theaters. The per�od after the revolut�onary war was a t�me of rap�d theater construct�on, as act�ng compan�es returned and new troupes were formed. French-speak�ng theaters were constructed �n New orleans and Charleston. New york chal-lenged Ph�ladelph�a for the t�tle of theater cap�tal of the colon�es but was not recogn�zed as a ser�ous contender unt�l 1800.2

There �s a percept�on �n Amer�ca of a clear d�v�s�on between art and the bus�ness of art. Vaudev�lle and mus�cals were cons�dered a separate venue from Chautauqua and operat�c performances. e�ghteenth- and n�neteenth-century promoters of stage mus�cal and dance performances found that product�on funds were easy to obta�n �f the act was perce�ved as hav�ng a reasonable mo-ral�ty, but more �mportantly, a chance for w�despread popular�ty. stephen Pr�ce, the f�rst profess�onal manager �n Amer�ca, began promot�ng european actors �n the Un�ted states �n 1809. Amer�can actors, however, were not cast �n �mportant plays �n europe unt�l much later. edw�n Forrest was the f�rst Amer�can actor to make a name abroad. Playwr�t�ng contests, beg�nn�ng �n 1828, encouraged homegrown Amer�can wr�t�ng.

As the Un�ted states acqu�red land w�th each act passed by Congress be-g�nn�ng �n 1815, theaters and act�ng compan�es moved �nto the new terr�to-r�es. Float�ng theaters were located on showboats that traveled the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver. The Boston Museum began �ts stock tour�ng company �n 1841, and the troupe prospered for nearly 50 years. san Franc�sco rece�ved profess�onal act�ng troupes from the east �n 1850; actors were well compensated for the�r long journey and for fac�ng dangers �n the western terr�tor�es.

The 1850s establ�shed a clear Amer�can trad�t�on on the stage, w�th the h�gh per�od for theater prof�ts runn�ng from the C�v�l war era unt�l 1915.

PerForMING ArTs 305

Mat�lda Heron, an actress w�th an overtly dramat�c techn�que, rose to fame �n 1857 �n h�stor�cal costume dramas that were all the rage. Most of the plays, �f v�ewed today, would be cons�dered campy w�th the�r st�lted, unnatural d�alogue, but the theater moved toward a more real�st�c approach �n the fol-low�ng decades. The melodrama, a style that rose to popular�ty �n the 1860s, always had a dramat�c turn�ng po�nt such as the rescue of someone (usually a damsel t�ed to ra�lroad tracks). one of the most famous of the moral plays was Uncle Tom’s Cabin, wh�ch opened �n 1852 w�th a mostly wh�te cast �n blackface. Blacks played other roles, but not the major parts �n the produc-t�on. Translat�ons of French plays were also popular dur�ng th�s decade.

By the 1870s, plays about soc�al �ssues were �n vogue; comed�es and dra-mas covered t�mely �ssues. Terr�tor�al expans�on and the r�se of the Amer�can west was a popular top�c that al�gned w�th the phenomenal sales of the d�me novels, purportedly chron�cl�ng the l�ves and t�mes of gunsl�ngers, outlaws, and myster�ous nat�ves of the new terr�tor�es. A star system developed beg�n-n�ng �n the 1880s, w�th edw�n Booth, edw�n Forrest, and Charlotte Cush-man command�ng top salar�es. John drew and Georg�na drew Barrymore (an ancestor of the contemporary drew Barrymore) followed. Popular actors, pr�or to the turn of the century, regularly bu�lt the�r own theaters to showcase the�r talents.3

C�rcuses attracted crowds �n europe, and th�s performance trad�t�on was brought to the colon�es. The f�rst tented show was used �n 1825 for the ( Joshua Purdy) Brown and (Lew�s) Ba�ley C�rcus. Th�s allowed flex�b�l�ty �n fold�ng up the tent and transferr�ng the performers, an�mals, and temporary structures to a new c�ty along the route. Pr�or to that t�me, c�rcuses requ�red large structures or construct�on of a sem�permanent bu�ld�ng for even the smallest shows. w�th names such as the Great overland, dog and Pony, and the w�ld west show, troupes of acrobats—performers sk�lled �n shoot�ng, kn�fe throw�ng, and horseback r�d�ng—brought to eastern c�t�es a styl�zed vers�on of the west.4

Buffalo B�ll and Pawnee B�ll had travel�ng shows that recreated f�ct�onal-�zed battles between Nat�ve Amer�cans and cavalry troops. Buffaloes were transported from town to town �n an attempt to recreate the west for eastern aud�ences. The largest modern c�rcuses were the r�ngl�ng Brothers, founded �n 1886, and C. F. Ba�ley & Company’s Famous Menager�e, collected or�g�-nally �n 1870 by P. T. Barnum to tour under the name Grand Travel�ng Mu-seum, Menager�e, Caravan and C�rcus. when the two comb�ned, they came close to l�v�ng up to the b�ll�ng Barnum used for the company, “The Greatest show on earth.” The c�rcuses of Ba�ley and Barnum, when comb�ned w�th the huge tour�ng company of the r�ngl�ng Brothers—Gus, Alf, Al, Charles, John, and otto of Baraboo, w�scons�n—were w�thout compet�t�on �n 1907


for the t�tle of greatest on earth. r�ngl�ng Bros. and Barnum & Ba�ley shows cont�nue to perform today, w�th two tour�ng troupes throughout the Un�ted states and Canada. each year, a performer �s selected to be the featured head-l�ner for market�ng the tour.5

Part of the early spectacle of the c�rcus featured a person on horseback serenad�ng the aud�ence �n the sawdust r�ng. sp�r�tuals were frequently sung, and th�s trad�t�on was adopted �n the later m�nstrel format. The organ�za-t�onal structure of the m�nstrel show was establ�shed between 1843 and 1850. edw�n P. Chr�sty made h�s name synonymous w�th th�s type of theater as the wh�te-faced master of ceremon�es, known as Mr. Interlocutor, who d�-rected the three d�st�nct parts of the product�on: the formal open�ng, w�th an �ntroduct�on; the second sect�on (the ol�o), wh�ch featured a collect�on of var�ety acts, �nclud�ng at least one long speech and a man dressed �n women’s cloth�ng act�ng �n a so-called wench segment; and the f�nale, later known as the walk around, that showed the actors promenad�ng around the stage, rem�nd�ng the aud�ence of the�r part �n the var�ety port�on of the show. The f�nale of the longer product�ons �ncorporated a short play, usually dep�ct�ng plantat�on l�fe, or a watered-down vers�on of a well-known shakespearean tragedy.

The mus�c was an �mportant feature of m�nstrel shows. To the aud�ence’s r�ght was a banjo or tambour�ne player, whom the master of ceremon�es re-ferred to as Mr. Tambo (and later as Mr. Lean). The left s�de of the stage featured a man, Mr. Bones or Mr. Fat, who played rhythm w�th wooden spoons or bone clappers. In the center rear stage was a group of s�ngers and dancers, g�ven names such as Congo Melod�sts or New orleans serenaders, who added var�ety to the performance �n between acts. Add�t�onal �nstru-mentat�on was also located to the rear of the stage and �ncluded bass, drums, and f�ddles. The early m�nstrel bands were the precursors to the modern jazz band �n format�on and the types of �nstruments used. The stage became an oval of talent, w�th the guests perform�ng �n the m�ddle fac�ng the aud�ence. The repartee and �nteract�on was fast, and the humor was under the d�rect�on of a competent Mr. Interlocutor. People from all soc�al classes and rel�g�ons attended m�nstrel shows; unl�ke burlesque and later vaudev�lle performances, most m�n�sters d�d not speak from the pulp�t aga�nst attendance at m�nstrelsy. M�nstrels’ popular�ty lasted unt�l the 1870s, when Afr�can Amer�can actors and performers began to be used w�th wh�te actors �n performances and the-ater construct�on became more w�despread.6

Burlesque used the m�nstrel show format but expanded the type of per-formances to �nclude more leg. In an age when the uncovered ankle or wr�st would br�ng more than a ra�sed eyebrow, the appearance of legs (even seen through th�ck t�ghts) was shock�ng to moral�sts. The most popular burlesque

PerForMING ArTs 307

f�rst arr�ved from europe, and the best-known actress was Lyd�a Thomp-son, who led a troupe of Br�t�sh Blondes that f�lled theaters �n the late 1870s and the early 1880s. Burlesque, too, developed �ts own un�que format. The f�rst sect�on of the show featured only s�ng�ng and danc�ng women (a rar-�ty �n early theater) and male comed�ans. The second sect�on followed the format of the m�nstrel shows w�th var�ety acts, and the th�rd part offered the walk around, or grand f�nale, w�th f�nely dressed but scant�ly clad women parad�ng on the stage. Th�s walk was later taken on a long l�ghted runway that extended out �nto the aud�ence. The early burlesque shocked sens�b�l�t�es w�th the fact that female performers were �ncluded �n usual enterta�nment fare, but the farther west the theater genre moved, the rowd�er and rawer the burlesque became.7

The Z�egfeld Foll�es, the bra�nch�ld of Florenz Z�egfeld, proved that sex d�d sell. Z�egfeld used the French Fol�es Bergère as �nsp�rat�on for h�s annual extravaganza that �ncluded model�ng, pos�ng, and female format�ons by h�s famous Z�egfeld g�rls. He cla�med h�s product�ons “glor�f�ed the Amer�can g�rl,” though the earl�est featured the european actress Anna Held. In h�s product�on Miss Innocence (1908), each female was dressed elegantly, often �n an elaborate headdress. Held and Z�egfeld spl�t �n 1913, but he cont�nued to produce large-scale mus�cals w�th other stars. s�nger edd�e Cantor, come-d�ans w. C. F�elds, w�ll rogers, and Fanny Br�ce, and pa�red dancers featur-�ng the latest dance steps were featured �n the vaudev�lle-type Foll�es shows. Irv�ng Berl�n was a regular composer for the troupe, and Joseph Urban la�d out the art�st�c des�gn for the elaborate stag�ng and set decorat�on. The Foll�es began �n 1907 and ended �n 1928, and then Z�egfeld transferred h�s stag�ng to the b�g screen �n a ser�es of f�lms that �ncluded elaborately choreographed dance product�ons before he d�ed �n 1932.8

The M�nsky Brothers (Morton, B�lly, Abe, and Herbert) made burlesque �nto an art form from 1900 unt�l 1935 from the�r cha�n of theaters �n New york. Belly dancers were f�rst �ntroduced, and then l�ghted runways, and ult�-mately performances showcas�ng str�p tease dancers wear�ng tw�rl�ng tassels, a costume �nnovat�on �ntroduced �n 1921. Gypsy rose Lee, Anne Cor�o, w�l-l�e Howard, Jack�e Gleason, and Ph�l s�lvers (who would later become fam�ly favor�tes on telev�s�on) as well as Abbot and Costello (f�lm comed�ans after the�r st�nt �n burlesque) were well-known burlesque enterta�ners unt�l 1942, when burlesque was banned. The rema�n�ng performers went �nto str�p clubs and Las Vegas shows �n the early 1950s, after the c�rcu�t was shut down by pol�ce enforc�ng pornography laws.9

Vaudev�lle was a var�ety show that developed from c�rcus performances, the var�ety port�on of m�nstrel, burlesque, and patent med�c�ne shows. The term vaudeville was used early �n the 1870s by Benjam�n Frankl�n Ke�th,


cons�dered to be the Father of Vaudev�lle. Ke�th opened h�s own theater and museum �n Boston �n 1883, and from the prof�ts, he then constructed the B�jou Theater. H�s product�ons followed str�ct standards of acceptable performance, allow�ng work�ng-class Amer�cans to attend �n large numbers. edward F. Albee later jo�ned Ke�th as a partner, but the team had f�erce com-pet�t�on. The two men were able to control the c�rcu�t unt�l well after Ke�th’s death through the establ�shment of book�ng agenc�es such as Un�ted Book-�ng Art�sts and the Vaudev�lle Manager’s Assoc�at�on; these l�m�ted the acts’ part�c�pat�on �n theaters that the team d�d not own. They p�oneered the use of cont�nuous shows last�ng 12 hours, w�th performances by 7–10 l�ve acts. Performers �n upscale vaudev�lle and trad�t�onal theater houses had only two performances each day. Vaudev�lle never d�ed, but rather faded away w�th the �nvent�on of rad�o and expanded construct�on of �nexpens�ve mov�e palaces. Many popular actors of the 1920s through 1940 tra�ned �n vaudev�lle, �n-clud�ng Bob Hope and Al Jolson. over 25,000 performers graced the vaude-v�lle stages from the 1880s through the 1920s.10

Theater fans make a clear d�st�nct�on between reg�onal theater and the rural theater of summer stock, even though summer stock usually attracted aud�-ences from a spec�f�c reg�on. The d�st�nct�on between the two �s that reg�onal theater was cons�dered h�ghbrow and summer stock lowbrow. reg�onal the-ater had profess�onal actors, playhouses, and product�ons, wh�le summer stock frequently used amateur actors, some of whom even pa�d to be �nvolved �n the performances. Th�s should not d�m�n�sh the s�gn�f�cance of summer stock �n bu�ld�ng culture �n rural Amer�ca. As the once-mass�ve Chautauqua c�rcu�t faded, summer stock theater rose to popular�ty �n the 1920s and 1930s �n the Northeast. Profess�onal and amateur actors, stage crews, product�on des�gners, and d�rectors were h�red each summer to put on a group of plays, or a new play each week, �n �ndependent theaters that attracted upper- and m�ddle-class vacat�oners from nearby summer resorts. some theater h�stor�ans cla�m that summer stock �s the only true reg�onal theater �n the Un�ted states. engl�sh and early Amer�can theaters had res�dent actor stocks, but summer stock d�d not operate year-round. engl�sh theater compan�es d�d not have a separate group to be �nvolved exclus�vely �n summer product�ons.

summer stock theaters operated dur�ng the months of June to september, from Ma�ne to V�rg�n�a to Pennsylvan�a �n the west. By the 1930s, some houses offered tour�ng compan�es, and most had a permanent playhouse. summer stock venues ranged from converted barns to small theaters con-structed spec�f�cally for the permanent summer company. early playhouses used local talent, then sh�fted to the star system that employed a featured actor (often on h�atus from Broadway shows that were closed dur�ng the hot summer months of July and August), and f�nally used a comb�nat�on of the

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two dur�ng the 1960s. Playwr�ght eugene o’Ne�ll prem�ered h�s f�rst work �n summer stock at the Prov�ncetown wharf Theatre �n Cape Cod, Massa-chusetts, �n 1918. summer stock’s popular�ty f�rst came w�th the automob�le, wh�ch allowed escape from the summer heat of the c�ty, and the new road system that made gett�ng to rural resorts easy.11

Amer�can theater came �nto �ts own dur�ng world war I. european plays and actors were not v�s�t�ng as frequently, and the �nfluence from europe on Amer�can stag�ng and plays was m�n�mal. The F�rst Internat�onal exh�b�-t�on of Modern Art, held �n 1913 at the bu�ld�ng that normally housed the 67th reg�ment Armory �n New york C�ty, w�th �ts Amer�can and european pa�nt�ngs and sculpture, challenged the trad�t�onal def�n�t�on of art and en-couraged people work�ng on the stage, and �n set and costume des�gn, to take greater art�st�c r�sks. The Broadway theaters �n New york became the center of Amer�ca’s theater world at the turn of the century, rout�nely tak�ng pro-duct�ons from Ph�ladelph�a and Ch�cago.

dur�ng the depress�on years of the 1930s, theaters rece�ved funds from the Federal Theatre Project, a part of Pres�dent Frankl�n delano roosevelt’s works Progress Adm�n�strat�on (wPA) that prov�ded salar�es for unem-ployed des�gners, wr�ters, actors, and stage workers. The program, under the d�rect�on of Hall�e Flanagan, came under f�re �n the late 1930s for employ�ng members of the soc�al�st and Commun�st part�es and for produc�ng works that attacked b�g bus�ness. The Living Newspaper, a short-l�ved exper�ment �n theater des�gn, was abandoned when federal fund�ng was abruptly cut after elected off�c�als objected to cr�t�c�sm from the qu�ckly wr�tten plays that �n-terpreted the econom�c, pol�t�cal, and soc�al �ssues from the front pages of the news. The electr�c �ndustry was mocked for the h�gh pr�ces for serv�ce �n the play Power.12

The per�od from 1900 to 1932 saw theaters �n New york C�ty dw�ndle from 5,000 houses to only 132. Travel was l�m�ted dur�ng the depress�on and world war II due to fuel shortages and restr�ct�ons on hard-to-f�nd products such as natural rubber, wh�ch was used to manufacture automob�le t�res. After world war II, there was a resurgence �n theater and summer stock product�ons. The decades between 1945 and 1965 are cons�dered the br�ghtest of the Broadway stage. The plays or mus�cals of Lerner and Loewe, Tennessee w�ll�ams, rogers and Hammerste�n, w�ll�am Inge, and Arthur M�ller were performed to small aud�ences �n theaters that were bu�lt decades before, w�thout expens�ve aud�o and l�ght�ng equ�pment: the play was the th�ng. Mus�cals starr�ng sh�rley MacLa�ne, dramas w�th headl�ners such as Gerald�ne Page and Marlon Brando, and plays and shows that rema�n on Broadway �n rev�vals today—West Side Story, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, and A Streetcar Named Desire—were f�rst performed �n th�s per�od.13


dur�ng the�r heyday, the summer theaters brought recent Broadway h�ts, comed�es, and melodramas to new aud�ences. Between 1930 and 1960, sum-mer stock employed more theater folk than any other venue �n Amer�ca, �nclud�ng Broadway. The Ford Foundat�on, under the d�rect�on of w. Mac-Ne�l Lowry, gave generously to the arts, but by the 1960s, the m�ddle classes could travel by a�r to exot�c locat�ons, and attendance at summer stock ven-ues and on Broadway fell. Many small Broadway theaters and summer stock venues could not attract enough revenue and were abandoned. A few re-g�onal theaters cont�nue to perform h�stor�c dramas; roanoke Island, North Carol�na, Tam�ment �n the Pocono Mounta�ns, and Green Mans�ons �n the Ad�rondack Mounta�ns rema�n �n operat�on today.14

Fund�ng has always been a concern for theater product�ons, and the fed-eral government created ass�stance �n the form of the Nat�onal endowment for the Arts, wh�ch prov�ded nearly $3 m�ll�on �n grants �n 1966 and �n-creased the f�gure each year unt�l �t reached over $162 m�ll�on �n 1995. After a long per�od of �ncreases, the leg�slature was mot�vated by const�tuent letters over fund�ng for art that offended some sens�b�l�t�es and took a red pen to the arts budget, reduc�ng fund�ng to $99 m�ll�on. dur�ng the per�od from 2004 through 2007, the fund�ng rema�ned around $124 m�ll�on for future years.15

Amer�can theater frequently exper�mented w�th avant-garde product�ons �n the decades between 1920 and 1970, notably �n theaters appeal�ng to workers and un�on members. The workers’ Theater, workers drama League (later called the New Playwr�ghts Theater), and the Theater Un�on put on performances to �llustrate the struggles of the work�ng class and promote a pol�t�cal transformat�on �n Amer�ca. The 1950s and the early 1960s saw l�ttle exper�mentat�on �n the ma�nstream theater, but the late 1960s �nto the 1970s were much d�fferent. The open Theater performances attempted to el�m�-nate the �nv�s�ble barr�er between the actors and the aud�ence and meld them together �n plays such as The Mutation Show by Joseph Cha�k�n (produced off Broadway) and the Bread and Puppet Theater’s Fire, wh�ch challenged Amer�ca’s pos�t�on as aggressor �n V�etnam. s�tt�ng was not an opt�on at Fire, as symbol�c masked f�gures were allowed the freedom to move through the aud�-ence �n a theater devo�d of trad�t�onal seats.16

There were only 23 reg�onal theaters �n the Un�ted states �n the early 1960s, but by 2007, the number had mushroomed to over 1,800. Many are new structures w�th state-of-the-art l�ght�ng and sound systems. The smaller venues offer new playwr�ghts an opportun�ty to get produced w�thout the large f�nanc�al losses a Broadway product�on could �ncur. some famous wr�t-ers prefer to test a new play �n a small venue before open�ng a Broadway play or tour�ng product�on. The top f�ve reg�onal theaters year �n and year out

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�n the Un�ted states �nclude the old Globe Theatres �n san d�ego, Cal�for-n�a; the south Coast repertory �n orange County, Cal�forn�a; the Goodman Theater �n Ch�cago; the Amer�can repertory Theater �n Cambr�dge, Mas-sachusetts; and the Guthr�e Theater of M�nneapol�s, M�nnesota.

The Guthr�e cont�nues to lead all small theaters �n the country, w�th 32,000 season t�cket subscr�bers. Playwr�ghts such as Arthur M�ller have prem�ered works on th�s stage w�th the company’s seasoned actors. Theater founder s�r Tyrone Guthr�e d�rected the f�rst product�on, shakespeare’s tragedy Ham-let. The project grew out of a plan that Guthr�e made w�th ol�ver rea and Peter Ze�sler to establ�sh a res�dent act�ng company and a venue to stage the class�cs, far away from Broadway’s glare and pressure for success. The group d�d not select M�nneapol�s; �n fact, the c�ty selected the Guthr�e planners. A drama sect�on appeal �n the New York Times brought offers from seven c�t�es, but M�nneapol�s brought more than �nterest: �t brought fund�ng and cooperat�on w�th the theater arts program at the Un�vers�ty of M�nnesota. The T. B. walker Foundat�on donated land and a s�zable fund to be put toward the theater’s construct�on. w�th Ford and McKn�ght Foundat�on grants prov�d�ng mon�es for construct�on and operat�on, the Guthr�e opened �n 1963. The focus of the Guthr�e has changed w�th the appo�ntment of each new art�st�c d�rector, but over the decades, the theater has been g�ven a Tony Award for outstand�ng contr�but�ons to Amer�can theater and �s rout�nely �ncluded �n l�sts of Amer�ca’s best reg�onal theaters. It now �ncludes a tour-�ng theater group and a lab theater that explores the works of contemporary playwr�ghts.17

wh�le reg�onal and local theaters have ga�ned aud�ences, Broadway fans have seen a decl�ne �n offer�ngs s�nce the m�d-1960s. stage product�ons have been transformed �nto f�lms on a regular bas�s s�nce the beg�nn�ngs of the f�lm �ndustry, but playwr�ghts have also taken f�lms and transformed them �nto stage shows. The most notable ser�es of successful plays adapted for screen are those of the Marx Brothers. Brothers Harpo, Ch�co, Groucho, Gummo, and Zeppo clowned the�r way to Broadway success �n nearly a dozen shows. However, only two of the recreated stage plays, Duck Soup (1933) and A Night at the Opera (1935)—product�ons not usually noted as h�gh art—are l�sted by the Amer�can F�lm Inst�tute among the 100 most s�gn�f�cant f�lms �n mov�e h�story.

The Wiz, a restag�ng of the 1939 class�c mov�e The Wizard of Oz, won Tony awards for choreography and costume des�gn �n 1975. The stage ver-s�on of the 1951 f�lm Sunset Boulevard rece�ved cr�t�cal accla�m when �t was �ntroduced �n London and then toured the Un�ted states �n the 1980s. More recently, modern f�lms that are box off�ce successes w�thout cr�t�cal accla�m have made the�r way to Broadway. Legally Blonde and Hairspray jo�n remakes


of d�sney an�mated features and have drawn a new generat�on of theatergo-ers. Popular mus�c from the 1960s �s currently featured on Broadway �n Jer-sey Boys (chron�cl�ng the l�fe of the Four seasons s�ng�ng group) and Dream Girls (a f�ct�onal�zed portrayal of Motown’s supremes). High School Musical, a popular d�sney telev�s�on mov�e w�th a plotl�ne revolv�ng around mus�-cal theater, has drawn teen and “tween” wannabes to Broadway �n droves. Broadway shows are exper�enc�ng longer l�ves for product�ons and mus�cals. Cats, Chicago, Beauty and the Beast, and Phantom of the Opera are currently �n content�on for record-break�ng runs on Broadway.18

symPhoniC musiC and oPera

The evolut�on of class�cal mus�c performance �n Amer�ca has always suf-fered somewhat from what m�ght be called a front�er mental�ty. Two and a half centur�es ago, �f someone �n town owned a v�ol�n, there could be mus�c for a v�llage dance. However, �f the v�llage had to be defended �n battle, or �f everyone was needed to br�ng �n the harvest, the v�ol�n was packed away �n �ts case and stayed there unt�l le�sure t�me returned. Amer�can soc�ety has always v�ewed ser�ous mus�c as a luxury, not a necess�ty. when an econom�c recess�on looms �n modern t�mes, char�table g�v�ng to symphony orchestras

The Broadway show Rent struck a chord w�th aud�ences �n the 1990s. Courtesy of Photofest.

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falls off steeply; when school lev�es fa�l, the f�rst programs to be cut are mus�c and the other arts—that �s, �f they had not been d�scont�nued �n favor of the study of math or sc�ence years before.

what �s remarkable �s how far the performance of class�cal mus�c �n Amer-�ca has come. Folk mus�c, church mus�c, and any number of s�ng�ng styles came over w�th the f�rst �mm�grants. Parents who could afford �nstruments and mus�c lessons had the�r ch�ldren study the p�ano or the v�ol�n, and mus�c was made �n the home—vo�ce and keyboard, soft-toned class�cal gu�tars, even a str�ng quartet. Cho�rs could always be mustered even �n small towns, and any talented s�nger drew an aud�ence; but �n t�mes when concerts of orches-tral or chamber mus�c were exceed�ngly rare events, Amer�cans’ apprec�at�on of �nstrumental mus�c was honed by playing �t, not l�sten�ng to �t.

The nat�on’s f�rst major symphony orchestra, the New york Ph�lhar-mon�c, was formed �n 1842. over a per�od of many years, a B�g F�ve of symphony orchestras arose, compr�s�ng some of the oldest from the b�ggest c�t�es. The Boston symphony orchestra (1885), the Ph�ladelph�a orchestra (1900), the Ch�cago symphony orchestra (1891), and a relat�ve newcomer, the Cleveland orchestra (1918), jo�ned the New york Ph�lharmon�c �n an unbreachable cl�que that pers�sts to the present day. desp�te ascents to fame by other f�ne orchestras—those of st. Lou�s, C�nc�nnat�, san Franc�sco, Bal-t�more, P�ttsburgh, M�nneapol�s, and Los Angeles, just to name a few—the B�g F�ve have always pa�d the h�ghest salar�es, rece�ved the most lav�sh f�nanc�al endowments, attracted the top conductors and best players, made the most record�ngs, and reta�ned the�r myst�que even dur�ng per�ods of ar-t�st�c decl�ne. opera houses also acqu�red a h�erarchy. No Amer�can house w�ll ever overtake the fame of the Metropol�tan opera �n New york C�ty, even �f other superb compan�es, such as the Ch�cago Lyr�c opera or those of Houston or san Franc�sco, occas�onally mount better product�ons.19

It �s no acc�dent that the major�ty of Amer�ca’s most prest�g�ous mus�cal organ�zat�ons are east of the M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver: out west, mus�c lovers had to wa�t longer wh�le cow towns slowly morphed �nto c�v�l�zed metropol�ses. Many m�ll�ona�re Amer�can �ndustr�al�sts lav�shly supported the�r home c�t�es’ cultural �nst�tut�ons, not only out of local pr�de, but also to attract execut�ves and keep them �n town. dur�ng the n�neteenth century, as w�th theater pro-duct�ons, much of Amer�can art mus�c was �mported from europe: famous composers, s�ngers, v�ol�n�sts, p�an�sts, and conductors toured the Un�ted states, and some of them stayed. one hundred years ago, when V�enna’s master conductor Gustav Mahler rehearsed the New york Ph�lharmon�c, he spoke German to the mus�c�ans because so many of them were �mm�grants from Germany and Austr�a.


only gradually d�d Amer�can mus�cal educat�on beg�n to produce mus�-c�ans compet�t�ve w�th those of europe, and as of a century ago, no Amer�can composer had made a true �nternat�onal reputat�on. on the other hand, �n the early decades of the century, the top opera s�ngers, such as enr�co Ca-ruso, were as fasc�nat�ng to the masses as rock stars are today. The twent�eth century saw a remarkable r�se �n Amer�can mus�cal prest�ge. europeans, �n-clud�ng conductors Arturo Toscan�n� and George szell, tenor Caruso, p�an�st Arthur rub�nste�n, and soprano Mar�a Callas, cont�nued to dom�nate the Amer�can mus�cal landscape. However, by the 1940s, the mus�c of Amer�can composers, such as George Gershw�n, Aaron Copland, and samuel Barber, attracted �nternat�onal attent�on, Afr�can Amer�can s�ngers Mar�an Anderson and Leontyne Pr�ce were major stars, and a young man from Boston, Leonard Bernste�n, was enter�ng the pr�me of a career that would outsh�ne that of any other Amer�can mus�c�an.

Class�cal mus�c performance �n the Un�ted states �n many ways reached �ts golden age �n the late 1950s, w�th Bernste�n—composer, p�an�st, educa-tor, and the f�rst Amer�can to be g�ven the post of mus�c d�rector of the New york Ph�lharmon�c—becom�ng a popular telev�s�on �dol w�th h�s Omnibus and Young People’s Concerts. Bugs Bunny sang wagner, com�c actor danny Kaye conducted orchestras, and a great many young Amer�cans learned �n-struments and played �n school ensembles. The r�se of the mus�c�ans’ un�ons gave profess�onal players protect�on from the long-held tyranny of conduc-tors, and the top Amer�can orchestras began to be recogn�zed as the most techn�cally accompl�shed ensembles �n the world.20

A gradual decl�ne set �n beg�nn�ng �n the 1960s. Amer�can composers, many now tenured on un�vers�ty facult�es and safe from the wh�ms of aud�ence tastes, began wr�t�ng cerebral mus�c that left the publ�c beh�nd. record�ngs, wh�ch had been benef�c�al �n spread�ng class�cal mus�c to the masses, also lessened the mot�vat�on for people to learn to play �nstruments themselves or to attend publ�c performances. As the century waned, the nat�on’s tastes changed. Telev�sed sports dom�nated weekends, and attent�on spans grew shorter as TV shows, w�th commerc�al breaks every few m�nutes, took f�rm hold of the publ�c. Class�cal mus�c, long perce�ved as a pleasure ma�nly for the el�te and educated, began to fall v�ct�m to the trad�t�onal Amer�can susp�-c�on of anyth�ng h�ghbrow. rock ‘n’ roll, r&B, and country mus�c, explod-�ng �n popular�ty, requ�red no background mus�cal knowledge to enjoy. As the world economy sh�fted, major Amer�can corporat�ons were acqu�red by overseas concerns, and the�r sense of obl�gat�on to local Amer�can cultural �nst�tut�ons van�shed. r�ch fam�l�es sh�fted the�r attent�on to the human�-t�es, rather than the arts, and �nd�v�dual char�table g�v�ng faded as the baby boomer generat�on came to power.

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C�t�ng a lack of �nnovat�ve and �mag�nat�ve composers focus�ng on the�r aud�ence, but �nstead wr�t�ng w�th an eye toward the h�story of mus�c and theory, one south Afr�can mus�c scholar has suggested that class�cal mus�c d�ed as early as 1950, after mak�ng a slow decl�ne from 1939: mus�c scholars, un�vers�ty-tra�ned theor�sts, and �ntellectuals made up more and more of the concert aud�ence, and the publ�c less and less.21

After 1970, most school systems cut the�r str�ng orchestra programs en-t�rely, and the rema�n�ng w�nd and brass students were bus�er w�th march�ng band than w�th concerts. Fewer and fewer youth wanted to learn the clar�net or trombone s�nce play�ng gu�tar �n a garage band was unden�ably cooler. Many Amer�can class�cal mus�c �nst�tut�ons, saddled w�th huge f�xed costs and accustomed to be�ng ba�led out by deep-pocketed donors, began to lan-gu�sh �n an era when even a nonprof�t ent�ty must pay �ts own way or van�sh. The Tulsa (oklahoma) Ph�lharmon�c, one example out of many orchestras that have suffered, faced a m�ll�on-dollar def�c�t and was forced to cancel the rema�n�ng concerts �n �ts 2002–2003 season.22

Class�cal rad�o stat�ons changed format to sports, l�ght rock, or talk. Most symphony orchestras felt they had to play more pops concerts to stay afloat, �n the process further dumb�ng down the publ�c taste, just as Broadway was reduced to adapt�ng more popular mov�es and cartoons for stage produc-t�ons. Most record compan�es had ceased to record class�cal mus�c by the end of the twent�eth century, w�th class�cal releases today averag�ng only about 100 new d�scs a year, compared to nearly 700 �n the 1980s. A top class�cal art�st such as cell�st yo-yo Ma �s far better known for a crossover Cd w�th pop star James Taylor than for h�s record�ng of the Bach su�tes. The Three Tenors, Plac�do dom�ngo, Jose Carreras, and Luc�ano Pavarott�, helped ac-celerate these trends dur�ng the�r 1990 concert tour: operat�c h�gh po�nts for wh�ch aud�ences used to happ�ly wa�t an hour or more were now strung together �n mach�ne-gun fash�on.23

Class�cal mus�c ex�sts �n today’s ma�nstream med�a only as endlessly re-peated excerpts of four or f�ve t�red favor�tes, grotesquely compressed �nto background mus�c for TV commerc�als. In the wake of september 11, 2001, Amer�can ph�lanthropy �n the perform�ng arts dropped off gr�evously, wh�le the pa�nstak�ngly bu�lt endowment funds of opera compan�es and symphony orchestras dropped prec�p�tously w�th the stock market. The market�ng of many class�cal solo�sts and s�ngers now depends more on the�r phys�cal and photogen�c appeal than the�r mus�cal art�stry. The h�gh costs of t�ckets are an-other barr�er to popular�ty: theater managers ma�nta�n that the pr�ce of a t�cket covers less than half the cost of the product�on today. T�cket pr�ces for the New york Ph�lharmon�c �n 2007 r�valed those of top-rated rock acts, and most orchestras perform today w�th only 60–65 percent of aud�ence seats f�lled.


savvy symphony promoters real�zed, w�th the success of L�ttle e�nste�n and tops of the charts class�cal mus�c Cds for ch�ldren, that �f the�r organ�za-t�ons were to surv�ve, they must hook parents on the �dea that class�cal mus�c prov�des ch�ldren a head start on sk�lls necessary for college and success �n l�fe. The Internet ass�sted �n th�s project. The san Franc�sco symphony and the Boston symphony orchestra developed k�ds’ s�tes offer�ng �nteract�ve games, �mages, mus�c feeds, and downloads, but k�ds are not the only group who requ�re educat�on �n the class�cal l�terature. Most orchestras now pro-v�de adult educat�onal concerts and concert prev�ews to educate the aud�ence about how to apprec�ate the mus�cal works and b�ograph�cal background of the composer. For l�steners who do not care to dress for a performance �n for-mal wear or even long pants, many orchestras now offer casual dress concerts. Most symphon�es now program w�th a hook, such as a meet-and-greet s�ngles event. orchestras have seen �ncreases �n attendance when a t�e-�n to telev�-s�on or popular culture �s used, such as vot�ng off a sect�on of the orchestra or play�ng mov�e mus�c wh�le screen�ng s�lent f�lms. opera compan�es have found some success �n project�ng supert�tles (translat�ons of opera texts) on a small screen above the stage. The Met reached some new aud�ences �n 2006 w�th l�ve closed-c�rcu�t h�gh-def�n�t�on telev�s�on broadcasts (shown across the country �n mov�e theaters) of Mozart’s The Magic Flute, staged by the producer of The Lion King, w�th the mus�c severely shortened to cater to modern attent�on spans.

desp�te all efforts, class�cal mus�c, never attract�ve to a major percentage of the publ�c and now scant�ly funded, hovers on the edge of �rrelevancy, wh�le TV real�ty shows, NAsCAr, American Idol, and ult�mate f�ght�ng def�ne the pop culture trend �n Amer�can tastes. If the complete d�sappearance of class�-cal mus�c �n Amer�ca seems unl�kely, so does a s�gn�f�cant comeback.

danCe

Amer�can dance d�d not break away from the european �nfluence unt�l the �ntroduct�on of modern dance �n the early 1920s. dance became a hot top�c �n Amer�ca and garnered major press coverage when the f�rst belly dance was performed at the world’s Columb�an expos�t�on �n 1893. early dance performances catered to spec�f�c ethn�c groups, featur�ng wooden shoes or clogs. Clog dancers were frequently used as com�c rel�ef �n var�ety shows and performed the clown dances. Modern clown�ng, or krumping, shares s�m�lar moves w�th break danc�ng. M�l�tary clogg�ng and clog dances were often part of local var�ety shows, and a novel form of the dance became popu-lar w�th the m�nstrel and vaudev�lle shows. Clog shoes and acrobat�cs were featured �n a b�zarre performance that requ�red the dancer to do steps atop

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a pedestal. The smaller the tap area, the larger the aud�ence the performer would draw.

Amer�can class�cal dance performances rel�ed heav�ly on european ballet, and unt�l choreographer Vaslav N�j�nsky and composer Igor strav�nsky pre-m�ered Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring ) �n Par�s �n 1913, all ballet followed str�ct convent�ons for performances. The Rite flew �n the face of the class�cal trad�t�ons of both mus�c and dance, and pol�ce were called to restore order �n the aud�ence after f�ght�ng broke out between supporters and detrac-tors of the new forms. russ�an promoter serge� d�agh�lev was qu�te pleased w�th the open controversy. Amer�can ballets were �nsp�red by th�s creat�ve �mpulse �n ballet and began to �nterpret dance �n the�r un�que way. Port�ons of The Rite of Spring today rema�n standard repertory for many profess�onal compan�es.24

Amer�ca developed a r�ch ballet and modern dance trad�t�on. Amer�can dancer Isadora duncan �nsp�red modern dance w�th her so-called free dance performance �n 1899. Her l�ght, free-form costumes, bare feet, and long, flow�ng ha�r shocked the dance and theater world �n Un�ted states, but aud�-ences �n Par�s loved her. duncan returned to the Un�ted states w�th dancers Lo�e Fuller and ruth st. den�s to set the stage for a transformat�on of the way �n wh�ch dance was perce�ved. Formal dance, hard-toed shoes, and str�ct �nterpretat�on gave way to open, �nterpretat�ve dance performed �n flow�ng costumes. duncan was k�lled �n a freak car �nc�dent when her scarf became tangled �n the wheel of her sports car �n 1927 at the age of 49, but ruth st. den�s and her husband, dancer Ted shawn, carr�ed on the modern dance trad�t�on �n the�r school that opened �n 1914. Th�s group of dancers, �nclud-�ng duncan, shawn, and st. den�s, are now called the f�rst generat�on of Amer�can modern dancers.

dor�s Humphrey, Charles we�dman, Martha Graham, and edna Guy, students at the den�shawn school, became the second generat�on. Martha Graham danced at den�shawn unt�l 1923, when she became a pr�nc�pal solo-�st �n the Greenwich Village Follies three years later. Graham cont�nued cho-reograph�ng and started her own modern dance company, oversee�ng �t unt�l her death �n 1991. The company carr�es on her v�s�on today �n performances around the world.25

Ted shawn was �nstrumental �n develop�ng the role of the male dancer beyond partner�ng the female �n l�fts and turns. Ted shawn and h�s Men dancers gave the�r f�rst performance �n Boston �n 1933 and changed the world of dance. shawn revolut�on�zed dance performance, both �n h�s meth-ods and �n the promot�on of the art form. H�s students would become the future leaders of dance �n Amer�ca. Merce Cunn�ngham, Alv�n A�ley, robert Joffrey, Agnes de M�lle, and Pearl Lang all benef�ted from h�s �nstruct�on,


mentor�ng, and promot�on. shawn’s fest�val Jacob’s P�llow, establ�shed �n 1932 as a home for Amer�can dance and a center for h�s company, �s Amer-�ca’s longest cont�nuously runn�ng dance fest�val. It offers dance workshops, profess�onal performances, and tra�n�ng, w�th over 80,000 v�s�tors attend�ng classes and performances each summer. shawn d�ed �n 1972 at the age of 81, but Jacob’s P�llow, named for the farm �n the Berksh�res �n western Mas-sachusetts where the fest�val �s held, cont�nues to share “Papa’s” sp�r�t of the dance.26

s�nce the organ�zat�on of the Ballet Negre, founded by Kather�ne dunham �n 1930, detractors of Afr�can Amer�can dancers as profess�onals cla�med that they were not su�ted to perform class�cal ballet ow�ng to d�fferences �n the european and Afr�can body styles. Afr�can Amer�can dancers were requ�red to overcome both rac�al and art�st�c d�scr�m�nat�on. edna Guy and Hems-ley w�nf�eld danced First Negro Dance Recital in America �n 1931, and by 1937, eugene Von Grona created the Amer�can Negro Ballet w�th dancer James weldon Johnson, garner�ng favorable rev�ews from major wh�te news sources. The Negro dance Company, created by Fel�c�a sorel and w�lson w�ll�ams, danced the choreography of Ann sokolow, a dancer tra�ned by Mar-tha Graham. Afr�can Amer�can dancer Kather�ne dunham, appo�nted the d�-rector of ballet for the Federal Theatre Project �n 1938, performed �n Tropics and Le Jazz Hot �n New york �n 1940, wh�ch establ�shed her as a sought-after star. That same year, her dance troupe jo�ned the Broadway mus�cal Cabin in the Sky, an all–Afr�can Amer�can product�on. desp�te the d�scr�m�nat�on the group faced, wh�te aud�ences regularly attended performances. The cre-at�on of the dance Theater of Harlem, under the d�rect�on of dancers Arthur M�tchell (a pr�nc�pal dancer �n the New york C�ty Ballet) and Karel shook (M�tchell’s dance teacher), took the debate head-on �n 1969 by creat�ng a bal-let school. The company f�rst met �n the basement of a Harlem church and now �s known throughout the world for �ts efforts �n educat�onal program-m�ng and dance performance. Today, contemporary dance compan�es rou-t�nely feature Afr�can Amer�can dancers such as Carmen de Lavallade, dudley w�ll�ams, and Gus solomon, and Afr�can Amer�cans d�rect �mportant dance troupes, �nclud�ng Jud�th Jam�son, who has taken over the pos�t�on of art�st d�rector of the Amer�can dance Theater from the late Alv�n A�ley.27

The 1960s and 1970s saw a boom �n dance, reflected �n the number of dance schools and new compan�es founded. The story of the oh�o Ballet (oB) �s a textbook �llustrat�on of the h�ghs and lows of a dance company. oB was founded �n 1968 by art�st�c d�rector He�nz Poll and assoc�ate d�rec-tor Thomas r. skelton (also an award-w�nn�ng l�ght�ng des�gner). The com-pany toured the Un�ted states, south Amer�ca, and europe to good rev�ews. Un�on dancers were pa�d for 36 weeks per year, but by the late 1980s, pay cuts were necessary. Beg�nn�ng �n 1975, the company establ�shed a trad�t�on

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of putt�ng on a s�x-week summer program of free shows on outdoor stages �n northeast oh�o. oB’s Nat�onal endowment for the Arts (NeA) fund�ng was reduced �n the 1980s, and revenues for �ts more cutt�ng-edge repertory were not as h�gh as those of ballet compan�es perform�ng class�cal story works such as Swan Lake. w�th skelton’s death �n 1994 and Poll’s ret�rement �n 1999, the company took stock. reorgan�zat�on efforts resulted �n a perma-nent home (and a 15-year contract) at the Un�vers�ty of Akron �n 2003, w�th the state of oh�o and a group of foundat�ons offer�ng fund�ng for the new Center for dance and Mus�c. The plan was for the company to work w�th the un�vers�ty �n creat�ng a h�gher prof�le for f�ne arts on the campus. oB also performed �n res�dence at the Cleveland Playhouse square Center, but f�nanc�al d�ff�cult�es and lack of attendance at the�r performances forced the company to �ncorporate w�th the Cleveland Ballet.28

Cleveland and san Jose appear unl�kely partners for a ballet company, but because of fund�ng d�ff�cult�es, the two compan�es attempted to work to-gether, g�v�ng the f�rst pos�t�on �n the ballet’s t�tle to the c�ty where they were perform�ng. off�ce staff was �n place �n both c�t�es, and the dancers l�ved and tra�ned �n Cleveland but performed �n both places. A formal announce-ment ended the company’s 25th season and spl�t the partnersh�p. Half of the dancers jo�ned the reconf�gured company, Ballet san Jose s�l�con Val-ley (popularly known as Ballet san Jose), and the other group of dancers jo�ned small compan�es �n the Cleveland area. Performances for the san Jose company today �nclude The Nutcracker, Carmina Burana, Swan Lake, several Balanch�ne ballets, and strav�nsky’s The Firebird.

wh�le Cleveland topped the l�st �n 2005 and 2007 of major U.s. c�t�es w�th the h�ghest percentage of the populat�on l�v�ng �n poverty, sponsors for the new Ballet san Jose are plent�ful and �nclude Fry’s electron�cs, sand�sk, eBay Foundat�on, L�near Technology, and the w�ll�am and Flora Hewlett Foundat�on (part of the Hewlett and Packard partnersh�p), prov�ng that lo-cat�on �s an �mportant component for a dance company. dancers from four reg�onal ballets w�th r�ghts to perform Poll’s choreography today, along w�th a group of dancers who stud�ed w�th Poll, cont�nue the trad�t�on of putt�ng on free summer performances �n Akron publ�c parks, but the formal dance company no longer performs. The ser�es �s called the He�nz Poll summer dance Fest�val, �n honor of the art�st�c d�rector and founder of the oh�o Ballet.29

L�ke symphony performances or operas, class�cal dance �s not a b�g money-maker. Trad�t�onally, performances �n the arts have been dependent on a patron, and ballet has followed that pattern to modern t�mes. A handful of nat�onal compan�es, usually bank�ng and f�nanc�al �nst�tut�ons w�th local branches, sponsor many reg�onal or large local dance compan�es. Many other countr�es prov�de back�ng for nat�onal dance compan�es, but that has never


been the case �n the Un�ted states. some states offer compet�t�ve grant fund-�ng for the arts, and many ballets use these renewable funds for operat�ng expenses. Most funds have str�ngs that requ�re compan�es to do outreach concerts to rural areas. Federal funds are ava�lable �n the form of spec�al�zed grants, many from the NeA. Congress�onal support (�n terms of the amount of money budgeted for the NeA) per�od�cally wavers, and some decades have found h�gh-pr�or�ty publ�c �ssues pressur�ng elected representat�ves to reduce cutt�ng-edge performance fund�ng. str�ngs currently attached to fed-eral grants almost un�formly requ�re the rec�p�ents to offer low-cost or free performances for the publ�c and at elementary, m�ddle, and h�gh schools. Grant appl�cat�ons must outl�ne a reg�onal need and a un�que proposal to address that need.

dur�ng the years when NeA and state fund�ng �s t�ght, avant-garde and controvers�al projects are rarely funded. Th�s forces many compan�es to go for attendance money and perform only hol�day and story ballets, further w�den-�ng the gap �n dance educat�on and creat�ng s�tuat�ons �n wh�ch aud�ences come to stereotype ballet as “women as swans.” Large dance compan�es have a grant wr�ter on staff who works year-round to obta�n fund�ng. smaller com-pan�es have staff members that take on the grant wr�t�ng dut�es �n between the�r own ass�gnments or ask commun�ty members to volunteer for the task, w�th m�xed results. A profess�onal grant wr�ter usually has an advantage over volunteer efforts. success attracts the successful, and the compan�es w�th �nter-nat�onal reputat�ons attract the largest amount of cap�tal. even w�th ongo�ng fund�ng d�ff�cult�es, a number of Amer�can dance compan�es have �nterna-t�onal reputat�ons.

tap dancing

dance had a rev�val �n the 1960s and 1970s, and �nterest �n tap danc�ng also �ncreased. Tap �s one of the pure Amer�can cultural �nnovat�ons, and a long l�ne of dancers have developed the art. european clog and j�gs, m�xed w�th Afr�can �mm�grant rhythms and �mprov�sat�ons, form the bas�c elements of tap. early saloon dancers Uncle J�m Lowe and w�ll�am Henry “Juba” Lane were documented step dancers who toured the country before the C�v�l war, often appear�ng �n rac�ally �ntegrated shows. Lane traveled to London to perform and challenged noted Ir�sh step dancer Jack d�amond to a dance-off. Although a clear w�nner was never establ�shed, Lane b�lled h�mself as the “K�ng of dance.” wh�tes adopted tap danc�ng, notably Thomas dartmouth “daddy” r�ce, who tapped �n h�s product�ons �n 1828. r�ce, a m�nstrelsy per-former, used blackface to portray the stereotypes of the dandy and the clown. Black dancer w�ll�am Henry “Juba” Lane ga�ned fame w�th h�s danc�ng �n 1840. several schools of tap developed, w�th one group us�ng wooden shoes

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(somet�mes called “buck and w�ng” style) and the other a smooth-sole shoe style, where the dancer would shuffle, rather than loudly pound, the shoe on the stage. These two styles �ntegrated by the 1920s to ut�l�ze a smooth shoe w�th metal plates aff�xed to the toe and heel.

The Floradora sextet, turn-of-the-century female dancers, tapped out a synchron�zed rout�ne that the Z�egfeld Foll�es chorus l�ne adapted �nto a reg-ular performance feature. eub�e Blake and Noble s�ssle created a show called Shuf f le Along that played on Broadway �n 1921, creat�ng nat�onal �nterest �n tap. Personal �nnovat�on �n tap led to a group of dancers called Nerve Tap-pers, who would tap as many beats w�th the foot as a loose ankle would allow. All vaudev�lle performers from the 1920s onward were expected to perform some form of tap as well as the black bottom and the Charleston, made popu-lar �n Broadway shows.30

Two levels of tour�ng tap performers developed: flash and class acts. The flash acts �ncluded attent�on-gett�ng tap steps and acrobat�c moves to awe aud�ences, wh�le the class acts frequently used a story l�ne that focused on the�r smooth steps and graceful movements. Hon� Coles and Cholly Atk�ns were a noted class acts duo, and B�ll “Bojangles” rob�nson would later jo�n ch�ld star sh�rley Temple to popular�ze the class act for mov�e aud�ences. Ch�ldren grow�ng up �n the 1930s frequently took tap lessons to tap just l�ke M�ss Temple. some groups developed a style that allowed them to play both the flash and class venues. The N�cholas and Condos brothers are the best-known duos of th�s type.

The 1930s and 1940s saw Fred Asta�re, G�nger rogers, and ray Bolger br�ng tap to the mov�es, and both tap and popular dance schools sprang up across Amer�ca to teach adults the buck and w�ng and shuffles. res�dents �n large c�t�es and small towns al�ke wanted to learn to dance. Amer�cans �n the M�dwest attended weekly lessons �n a stud�o, wh�le many c�ty dwellers tapped �nformally on street corners. Top tap acts rout�nely borrowed and adapted steps from street tappers. Actors and hoofers Buddy ebsen and Gene Kelly carr�ed on the tap legacy �nto the 1950s on the b�g screen and Broad-way. In the 1970s and 1980s, tapp�ng was aga�n the rage w�th Broadway h�ts such as On the Twentieth Century and a remake of the 1920 stage h�t The Girlfriend. Tommy Tune choreographed tap dances for a new group of Broadway h�ts and fam�l�es of tappers, such as Gregory and Maur�ce H�nes, who followed �n the steps of the brothers Harold and Fayard N�cholas and the Covan Brothers.31

Actors from earl�est t�mes were tra�ned �n danc�ng and s�ng�ng, �n add�-t�on to act�ng. Although not popularly known for the�r dance prowess, actors James dean and Marlon Brando were students at the dunham school of dance �n New york C�ty. dramat�c actor Chr�stopher walken, known for h�s


roles �n f�lms such as The Deer Hunter and Pulp Fiction, �s a tra�ned tap dancer who starred both �n Broadway and on f�lm �n the mus�cal h�t Chicago.

PoPular musiC

Popular mus�c performance, once centered on the parlor p�ano and fam�ly enterta�nment at the commun�ty school aud�tor�um, underwent a metamor-phos�s w�th the �nvent�on of the rad�o. rad�o featured profess�onal perform-ers and moved mus�c from a personal event to a reg�onal, nat�onal, and even �nternat�onal exper�ence. w�th the �nvent�on of the telev�s�on, l�steners no longer had to �mag�ne the appearance of the performer. sound and mus�c records, made at 78 rpm and 45 rpm, and then long-play records of 33 1/3 rpm, were popular for decades (along w�th tape cassettes from the 1960s onward), but these were swept away by Cds �n the 1980s. Mus�c v�deos, wh�ch ex-ploded on the scene �n the 1980s on MTV, had an �ndel�ble effect on the publ�c’s percept�on of mus�c�ans. After 2000, the Internet moved popular mus�c �nto the future, offer�ng download�ng capab�l�t�es �n both sound and the capture of v�sual �mages. desp�te the ava�lab�l�ty of enterta�ners on the

Gregory H�nes, r�ght, danced h�s way �nto fame through the 1970s and 1980s w�th mov�es such as History of the World: Part I and Broadway shows such as Jelly’s Last Jam. Courtesy of Photofest.

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Internet, l�ve concerts rema�n popular �n the Un�ted states. rock concerts are the most popular and br�ng �n the h�ghest revenues.

The legacy of culture-chang�ng rock performances began w�th elv�s Presley and the f�rst Amer�can tour of the Br�t�sh band the Beatles, but bands tour�ng the Un�ted states had the�r or�g�n �n the early jazz orchestras that traveled from c�ty to c�ty dur�ng the per�od 1914–1919. restr�ct�ons were placed on Afr�can Amer�can mus�c�ans near New orleans that made �t d�ff�cult for them to obta�n work perm�ts, so many left the area and began tour�ng. The or�g�nal Creole orchestra �s a typ�cal example. organ�zed �n Los Angeles by B�ll John-son �n 1909, the group of d�splaced New orleans jazzers, �nclud�ng Fredd�e Keppard, James Palao, and George Baquet, toured from 1914 through 1918 (�gnor�ng requests to make record�ngs of the�r mus�c). The�r dance mus�c was not well rece�ved due to the bas�c d�fference �n aud�ences: northern aud�ences expected to l�sten to the mus�c, but New orleans aud�ences expected to dance to �t. The mus�c became known as ratty because of the �mprov�sat�onal style used when the f�ve-�nstrument band played. The Creole orchestra d�ssolved �n 1918, but th�s per�od establ�shed a tour�ng trad�t�on that future rock bands would emulate to earn a l�v�ng.32

Mus�cal tours pr�or to the 1950s usually �ncluded danc�ng by aud�ence members. rel�g�ous, class�cal, and country performers developed c�rcu�ts that they would tour each year, but the gu�tar-play�ng vocal�st elv�s Presley would change th�s pattern. Presley performed l�ve �n shreveport, Lou�s�ana, on the Louisiana Hayride rad�o program (a compet�tor to the Grand ole opry) and was an �nstant h�t. He s�gned a contract comm�tt�ng h�m to a weekly show for one year, and �t was dur�ng th�s work that he met and s�gned w�th promoter Colonel Tom Parker, manager to stars eddy Arnold and Hank snow. From th�s partnersh�p, Presley was able to cross over from country mus�c to the new rock ‘n’ roll, a mus�cal format that had s�m�lar�t�es to early jazz �n that �t encouraged danc�ng. elv�s recorded, made mov�es, and toured, garner�ng top rank�ngs on the h�t parade and �n performance tours unt�l the early 1960s and the �ntroduct�on of engl�sh groups to the Amer�can mus�cal market. He cont�nued to perform develop�ng �nto a Las Vegas headl�ner for showrooms unt�l h�s death on August 16, 1977.33

The Br�t�sh Invas�on of the 1960s brought the Beatles, the roll�ng stones, the An�mals, Herman’s Herm�ts, the Zomb�es, and the K�nks. The Beatles, one of the f�rst groups to wr�te all the�r own songs, were also the f�rst to play at large venues once reserved only for sport�ng events. shea stad�um hosted the Beatles and nearly 60,000 scream�ng fans on August 15, 1965. The concert was so successful that the stad�um agreed to host many more rock concerts, �nclud�ng the Pol�ce, elton John, and a 1970 summer Fest�val for Peace w�th J�m� Hendr�x and Jan�s Jopl�n.34


Large-scale rock outdoor mus�c concerts were p�oneered �n the 1960s, and the largest was �n New york state. The woodstock Mus�c and Art Fest�val holds a un�que place �n the h�story of popular mus�c. The f�rst event took place from August 15 to 17, 1969, on land rented from farmer Max yas-gur near the towns of Bethel, woodstock, and wallk�ll. The young concert promoters, M�chael Lang, Art�e Kornfeld, Joel rosenman, and John roberts, planned for attendance of nearly 200,000, but by the t�me the event concluded, est�mates put the weekend crowd �n excess of 400,000. Fans trampled fences and declared woodstock a free event, deny�ng concert promoters any prof�ts and open�ng the organ�zers to a host of lawsu�ts from vendors and local res�dents for damages. word of mouth and rad�o d�sc jockeys hyped the event, and crowds swelled, block�ng the roadways �nto and out of the grounds.

s�nger-songwr�ter r�ch�e Havens played for hours before any of the other performers were able to reach the stage. H�s song “Freedom,” ent�rely �mpro-v�sed wh�le on stage, �s remembered as an anthem of the fest�val. The rock group the who played a 24-song set. The Grateful dead; Crosby, st�lls, Nash, and young; santana; Jefferson A�rplane; Jan�s Jopl�n; and a host of others,

A woodstock ’99 concertgoer hammers a pay phone off of a burned out Bell Atlant�c phone truck. r�ot�ng broke out after the three-day fest�val ended. © AP Photo/stephen Chern�n.

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some arr�v�ng by hel�copter to reach the stage, played to crowds left for an ent�re summer weekend w�thout food, shelter from the ra�ns, and san�tat�on. woodstock was a fa�lure for �ts promoters, but �t created mus�c h�story, �m-mortal�zed �n a record and f�lm that carr�ed the mus�c to m�ll�ons. An attempt at a woodstock rev�val �n 1994 was peaceful but fa�led to capture the sp�r�t of the f�rst concert. woodstock ’99, promoted aga�n by M�chael Lang, ended w�th a r�ot by several hundred fans, who torched vendor tra�lers, cla�m�ng they were angered by pr�ces of $4 for a bottle of water.35

rock groups gave t�tles to the�r tours �n the 1970s, many named for re-cently released albums. Large arena rock tours �n the 1980s began the evolu-t�on of concert themes. dav�d Bow�e performed as Z�ggy stardust w�th the sp�ders from Mars, and rock group KIss and Al�ce Cooper morphed �nto ghoul�sh f�gures w�th costumes and full-face makeup. ozzy osbourne b�t off a bat’s head �n one performance and used th�s as a theme for later tours, b�t�ng heads from plast�c bats �n each c�ty the tour played.

Performers today make more from tour�ng than from mus�c sales, and some groups tour year-round to earn �ncome and keep tour crews work�ng. The Grateful dead was formed �n the san Franc�sco Bay area �n 1965, wh�le the members l�ved at 710 Ashbury street. The group and the Ha�ght-Ashbury d�str�ct became part of a mus�c scene that would make both famous. The �n-ternat�onal med�a �n 1967 drew nat�onal attent�on to what �s now called the “summer of Love,” and h�pp�es from the world came to san Franc�sco to hear l�ve mus�c, wear�ng flowers �n the�r ha�r as gestures of peace �n the t�me of the V�etnam war. The Grateful dead, along w�th other oddly named mus�cal groups called Jefferson A�rplane, Qu�cks�lver Messenger serv�ce, and Moby Grape, gave free concerts �n parks. The dead added to the�r legend �n performances w�th author Ken Kesey.

The group cont�nued to tour regularly for decades and became legendary for shows featur�ng space mus�c, �ncorporat�ng hours of �mprov�sed mus�c solos fans called The X-Factor. Illegally recorded bootleg albums and tapes, encouraged by the group, were fever�shly traded among d�ehard fans, anger-�ng record execut�ves, who felt the pract�ce den�ed prof�ts to the record com-pany. The Grateful dead performed 85 concerts �n one year, even though the group fa�led to have a h�t song on the charts or to be �ncluded �n a regular rotat�on on any synd�cated rad�o programm�ng. even after the death of group leader Jerry Garc�a �n 1995 at the age of 53, the rema�n�ng members, known s�mply as The dead, were st�ll a top act on the college mus�c c�rcu�t. Group members sold merchand�s�ng r�ghts to T-sh�rts, bumper st�ckers, and hats to bu�ld the�r personal fortunes.36

The top tour�ng acts �n the country �n 2007 �ncluded rock mus�c groups that have been �n the �ndustry for decades, �nclud�ng Pearl Jam, rush, the


roll�ng stones, Genes�s, Guns N’ roses, Bob dylan, Bon Jov�, the who, and Aerosm�th as well as the Pol�ce, return�ng after a 23-year h�atus. Industry �ns�ders speculate that the rev�val tours earn top dollar because of the age of the aud�ence, many of whom have establ�shed careers w�th a large amount of d�sposable �ncome. Fans spent an average of $130 to be serenaded by former Beatle Paul McCartney on h�s tour �n 2002, wh�le new acts such as N�ckel-back set concertgoers back less than $30. rumors cla�med that t�cket scalpers rece�ved over $3,000 for front row seats to s�r Paul.37

outdoor amph�theaters were the top l�ve mus�c rock concert draws �n the 1980s, but today, many have closed. Arena concert venues allow larger crowds, and now that groups and record labels market the�r own T-sh�rts and posters, there �s less prof�t to be made �n own�ng a venue that features a large amount of land. The dramat�c �ncrease �n land values, espec�ally �n states w�th moderate cl�mates, has made home bu�ld�ng far more lucrat�ve.

H�p hop and rap mus�c performances began to develop �n large metro-pol�tan areas such as New york C�ty and Los Angeles �n the 1970s. Local performers developed styles that �ntegrated reg�onal character�st�cs and com-b�ned w�th exot�c �nfluences that �ncluded Jama�can “toast�ng.” Toasts were done by d�sc jockeys play�ng records (usually Amer�can r&B) at l�ve dances to encourage the dancers. Toast�ng evolved to encompass a pract�ce known as “dubb�ng,” where the dJ would select short phrases (samples) from the re-cord. samples would be man�pulated us�ng the turntable to create �nd�v�dual styles. Compet�t�ons, or “battles,” took place between compet�ng dJs. These performance styles came to the Un�ted states �n the m�d-1960s and were �ntegrated �nto mus�cal forms called “rapp�ng” and “h�p hop” that began to grow to popular�ty �n the 1970s. dance forms, such as lock�ng, popp�ng, clown�ng, and flow, were an �ntegral part of l�ve performances and aud�-ence part�c�pat�on, and each performer developed a style and a fan follow�ng. some noted l�ve performance dJs were: Theodor, �nventor of “scratch�ng,” a process that �nfluences the speed of the record; Grandmaster Flash (George saddler) who developed “punch phas�ng” (add�ng percuss�on from one re-cord to h�ghl�ght the beat of the ma�n record�ng); and The Fat Boys, a group that perfected us�ng human sounds to create percuss�on (a “Human Beat Box”). Afr�ka Bombaataa and the Zulu Nat�on were an early h�p hop act that focused on dance and mus�c, rather than on the gang aspect of performance mus�c. reg�onal Zulu Nat�on clubs were establ�shed around the country.

early rap mus�c was assoc�ated w�th gang act�v�ty and, as the mus�c style became more ma�nstream, rappers began tour�ng the Un�ted states. V�olence broke out at some concert venues and commun�t�es passed laws bann�ng rap performances. There �s debate as to whether rap and h�p hop appealed to

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wh�te and black aud�ences al�ke at f�rst, but record compan�es and concert promoters began to target wh�te aud�ences. The three-member rap group run d.M.C. sold out concert venues across the country �n the 1980s. Fe-males, targets of abuse �n early rap records and l�ve stage performances, began earn�ng top honors for rap mus�c �n groups such as salt ’N’ Pepa. By the m�d-1980s, h�p hop evolved �nto more than just mus�c and dance: the h�p hop culture �ncluded dress, ha�rstyles, and a un�que slang vocabulary. By the 1990s, spontaneously arranged dance part�es called “raves” featured all types of mus�c but featured h�p hop performers.

Lat�n, salsa, Tex-Mex, and Tejano mus�c are now also a major component of Amer�can performance culture. Lat�n �nfluences were f�rst found �n the folk mus�c performed �n the southwestern Un�ted states from the earl�est U.s. h�story, and popular mus�c �n the Un�ted states has been �nfluenced by Lat�n culture s�nce before the turn of the n�neteenth century. Couples danced the rumba and tango to orchestra mus�c of the 1920s and dancers added the mambo and conga l�ne to the popular dances �n the 1940s and 1950s. once conf�ned to areas of the country w�th large Lat�n populat�ons, performers such as Glor�a estefan’s M�am� sound Mach�ne and Carlos santana brought Lat�n �nfluences to the pop charts �n the 1970s. Jenn�fer Lopez, r�cky Mar-t�n, Chr�st�na Agu�lera, and Tex-Mex s�nger selena attracted sellout aud�-ences to performances �n the 1990s. Lat�n mus�c today �s cons�dered to be a ma�nstream mus�cal offer�ng.

regional PerformanCes

French observer Alex�s de Tocquev�lle noted the reg�onal d�fferences of the Amer�can landscape and culture when he toured the country �n 1831, and those un�que character�st�cs rema�n at the heart of Amer�can performance today. each reg�on offers un�que performance opportun�t�es and has devel-oped a culture of mus�c theater and dance performances.

the north

Br�t�sh tastes establ�shed the cr�ter�a for performance for the f�rst colon�es that would later become the Un�ted states. As the colon�sts constructed theaters, they became aware of the d�fferences between French and Br�t-�sh performances versus Amer�can offer�ngs. The symphony orchestras �n Boston, New york, and Ph�ladelph�a f�rst set the bar for Amer�can class�-cal mus�c, and the publ�c st�ll looks to these c�t�es to uphold the standards of performance. Theater product�ons may rehearse and offer tr�al runs �n other parts of the country, but the ult�mate object�ve �s to f�ll theaters on


Broadway. other �mportant performance trad�t�ons have developed �n the Amer�can North.

Upstate New york �s the home of the Chautauqua Inst�tut�on. The Chau-tauqua movement grew out of a publ�c des�re to exper�ence the performances wr�tten about �n magaz�nes and newspapers that were held at the Chautauqua Inst�tut�on at the lake �n southwestern New york state. The summer sess�ons or�g�nated �n 1874 w�th Lew�s M�ller of oh�o and John Heyl V�ncent of New Jersey as a sunday school camp and qu�ckly expanded �nto performances and �nstruct�on that �ncluded art, mus�c, and phys�cal educat�on courses for teachers. The program grew w�th the creat�on of the Chautauqua L�terary sc�ent�f�c C�rcle, wh�ch encouraged read�ng and, beg�nn�ng �n 1878, gave r�se to tens of thousands of read�ng c�rcles through the country.

Lectures were well establ�shed by 1880 and featured speakers on a w�de range of top�cs, �nclud�ng pol�t�cs, l�terature, ph�losophy, and �nternat�onal re-lat�ons. educator John dewey d�rected the preschool classes at the �nst�tut�on, and both the Boys’ and G�rls’ Clubs had constructed bu�ld�ngs on the grounds by 1902. Melv�l dewey began tra�n�ng l�brar�ans �n 1900. The Chautauqua Inst�tut�on for L�felong study was off�c�ally chartered �n 1902. Iron�cally, the country’s least capable pres�dent, Ulysses s. Grant, was the f�rst U.s. pres�-dent to attend classes and lectures at the �nst�tut�on, putt�ng the camp on the wealthy class’s l�st of the place to be �n the summer. Among the most popu-lar speakers were women’s r�ghts advocate susan B. Anthony, av�atr�x Amel�a earhart, F�rst Lady eleanor roosevelt, composer and conductor John Ph�l�p sousa, and (decades later) supreme Court Just�ce sandra day o’Connor.

Magaz�ne read�ng was a popular past�me at the turn of the century, and res�dents of rural towns and v�llages across the country w�shed to expand the�r knowledge, but they were unable to travel to the �nst�tut�on or were shut out by compet�t�on for t�ckets to the cho�ce performances each summer. The travel�ng Chautauqua exper�ence was created to br�ng the �nst�tut�on to these fam�l�es. At the he�ght of the movement, 21 troupes traveled 93 c�rcu�ts throughout the Un�ted states, perform�ng for and teach�ng more than 35 m�ll�on people each year. A typ�cal n�ght at a tent performance �n the M�dwest m�ght �n-clude speeches by a Popul�st Party member expla�n�ng the d�fference between the s�lver and gold econom�c platforms, a un�on leader from the Kn�ghts of Labor l�st�ng reasons why labor un�ons should be legal �n all �ndustr�es, mus�cal performances of hymns or a select�on from an opera, and a dramat�c �nterpretat�on of a p�ece of class�cal l�terature or scr�pture read�ng from the B�ble. The Chautauqua’s a�m was educat�on, but the crowds clearly v�ewed the performances as enterta�nment.

For a t�me traveler from today, the Chautauqua c�rcu�t would have resem-bled a l�ve presentat�on of the H�story Channel, m�xed l�berally w�th a large

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dose of the Publ�c Broadcast�ng serv�ce. someth�ng at the two- or three-day program was bound to capture the �nterest of every member of the fam�ly. A full mus�c program was offered at the New york summer camp, beg�nn�ng �n 1929, w�th the establ�shment of the Chautauqua symphony orchestra. The group cont�nues to perform each summer at the 5,000-seat V�ctor�an-style outdoor stage. An opera and ballet company and a conservatory theater were added to perform �n halls bu�lt on the grounds for the�r exclus�ve use. desp�te f�nanc�al ups and downs, �nclud�ng a bankruptcy �n 1933, the �n-st�tut�on cont�nues to put on a full summer sess�on, attract�ng an average of 150,000 people to the p�cturesque v�llage on the lake each year.38

The Tanglewood Fest�val, located �n the Berksh�re Mounta�ns of west-ern Massachusetts, �s the summer mus�cal venue for the Boston symphony orchestra (Bso; and �ts offshoot, the Boston Pops) as well as a group of select mus�c students. The place that earl�er �nsp�red Nathan�el Hawthorne’s ch�ldren’s stor�es The Tanglewood Tales has hosted the Bso s�nce 1937. After a d�sastrous �naugural performance, dur�ng wh�ch the aud�ence, mus�c�ans, and �nstruments were soaked �n a summer ra�nstorm, a pav�l�on des�gned by F�nn�sh arch�tect eero saar�nen was constructed. In the 1950s, Tanglewood banned women �n shorts from s�tt�ng �n the pav�l�on, cla�m�ng that uncov-ered legs were �ndecent. Bare-legged female v�s�tors were forced to rent sk�rts at the fest�val entrance or s�t on the lawn to l�sten to the performance. Bow�ng to recent publ�c pressure to �ncorporate a v�sual element, Tanglewood has added a f�lm n�ght. on these spec�al n�ghts, the conductor and orchestra play or�g�nal f�lm scores, wh�le mov�es are projected on a screen above the stage. over 5,000 mus�c fans today can be seated under the open-a�r shed, women �n shorts are now allowed adm�ss�on to any seat they w�sh, and an add�t�onal 10,000 mus�c fans can p�cn�c and take �n the performance under the stars. s�nce 1990, Tanglewood on Parade has become a trad�t�on that �ncludes a f�nale w�th Tcha�kovsky’s 1812 Overture and concludes w�th a f�reworks d�s-play. T�ckets to the event are always sold out, and telev�s�on stat�ons broad-cast the performance across the country.39

The Newport Mus�c Fest�val began �n rhode Island �n 1969 as a sum-mer performance locat�on for New york’s Metropol�tan opera. The locat�on turned out to be unsu�table for opera, but the fest�val has cont�nued w�th a ser�es of more than 60 chamber mus�c performances over 17 days each July, many of wh�ch use members of the Met opera orchestra. Among the fest�val’s notable performances have been rec�tals by award-w�nn�ng v�ol�n�st Andre� Gavr�lov and p�an�st Bella dav�dov�ch. The Newport Jazz Fest�val (also �n rhode Island) began �n 1954. Th�s August, outdoor, exclus�vely jazz fest�val �s cons�dered the f�rst of �ts k�nd �n the world; most of the world’s great jazz art�sts have passed through Newport dur�ng the summers. s�nger


Mahal�a Jackson brought gospel to a new aud�ence after perform�ng at the venue �n 1958. The fest�val closed down �n 1971 but was rev�ved aga�n �n 1981 by the or�g�nal founders, jazz club �mpresar�o George we�n and f�nan-c�al backers Lou�s and ela�ne Lor�llard. The current management team, JVC Fam�ly of Jazz Fest�vals, now produces 117 jazz fest�vals across the Un�ted states and cla�ms attendance of over 40,000 mus�c�ans and l�ve aud�ences of nearly 4 m�ll�on people s�nce the group took over product�on �n 1990. dave Brubeck, etta James, d�zzy G�llesp�e, Jack deJohnette, and Branford Marsa-l�s are but a few of the top mus�c�ans who have headl�ned at th�s granddaddy of jazz fest�vals.40

the midwest

At the close of world war I, Afr�can Amer�can mus�c�ans toured or re-located from the south to m�dwestern and northern c�t�es �n search of work. New orleans bass�st and bandleader B�ll Johnson settled �n Ch�cago after tour�ng fa�led to br�ng �n the prof�ts he had hoped for. He �nv�ted h�s fr�end Joe ol�ver to jo�n h�m s�nce Ch�cago’s economy was boom�ng and mus�c venues were open�ng around the c�ty. Jazz was st�ll a tough sell for most aud�ences unt�l 1917, when jazz record�ngs began to educate aud�ences on

dave Brubeck performs dur�ng the Newport JVC Jazz Fest�val �n rhode Island. © AP Photo/Joe G�bl�n.

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the �mprov�sat�onal nature of the mus�c. M�ss�ss�pp� r�verboats began to h�re jazz mus�c�ans to play for dance party excurs�ons, and the jazz age was born. rooftop d�n�ng and danc�ng became the rage, and Ch�cago became the place to be for jazz �n the 1920s.

when the storyv�lle brothels and clubs were closed dur�ng th�s per�od, ad-d�t�onal mus�c�ans went look�ng for work �n mus�c �n the w�ndy C�ty. Joe ol�-ver headed h�s K�ng ol�ver’s Creole Jazz Band, w�th a young newcomer named Lou�s Armstrong on trumpet. desp�te soc�etal d�scr�m�nat�on, wh�te patrons h�red Afr�can Amer�can orchestras to play for events. The 1930s saw jazz bands expand from f�ve p�eces to larger numbers. The orchestras also featured solo-�sts. duke ell�ngton, Paul wh�teman, and Fletcher Henderson headl�ned the top jazz clubs and hotel ballrooms �n Ch�cago and around the country. Blues-men from the south also came to Ch�cago. L�ttle walter, sonny Boy w�l-l�ams II, and B�g walter Horton were regulars on the local club c�rcu�t.

Blues and jazz went through a ser�es of changes, spl�nter�ng �nto d�verse styles, and by the 1960s, Thelon�us Monk and M�les dav�s rose to be the top jazzers. Ch�cago Blues developed �ts own �dent�f�able style, featur�ng a small str�ng band w�th ampl�f�ed �nstruments, percuss�on from a p�ano or drums, and a harmon�ca; some groups added a saxophone to the m�x. Ch�-cago blues usually has a s�ngle person on vocals. Important Ch�cago bluesmen w�ll�e d�xon, Carey Bell, and Fredd�e K�ng became known throughout the world for the�r �nd�v�dual�st�c styles. Jazz and blues clubs can st�ll be found throughout Ch�cago today, and fans cla�m that d�str�cts spec�al�ze, w�th sepa-rate venues for bebop, b�g band, sw�ng, fus�on, exper�mental, delta, jump, and Ch�cago styles.41

the South

The Grand ole opry �n Nashv�lle, Tennessee, �s the cap�tal of country and bluegrass mus�c. The f�rst performance hall, bu�lt by the Nat�onal L�fe and Acc�dent Insurance Company, was home to l�ve stage shows featur�ng banjo p�ckers and f�ddle players, s�ngers, and comed�ans who were broadcast to rad�o stat�ons across the country under the call letters wsM (we sh�eld M�ll�ons). The opry changed homes many t�mes to allow for �ncreas�ng aud�-ences, and Hank w�ll�ams, Pete seeger, woody Guthr�e, Flat and scruggs, Patsy Cl�ne, dolly Parton, Porter wagoner, and the sons of the P�oneers appeared at the var�ous early venues. early opry acts performed for the week-end broadcasts and toured the country �n tent shows and aud�tor�ums across the country dur�ng the week. The opry cont�nues to tour, but not at the frenet�c pace of �ts p�oneers.

Performances at the opry today can be heard on a two-hour weekend rad�o program broadcast to over 200 markets as well as on satell�te rad�o, the


Internet, and the Armed Forces Network. Performers have been featured on telev�s�on s�nce 1955 and are now seen on the Great Amer�can Country cable channel. The sol�d oak center stage of the ryan Aud�tor�um, wh�ch has housed the opry s�nce 1943, was moved to a new opry house �n 1974 and cont�nues to host fans to l�ve mus�c performances each year, w�th broad-casts on both rad�o and telev�s�on. Ambassadors, members of the Academy of Country Mus�c w�th sponsorsh�p of the opry, have toured s�nce the 1930s, br�ng�ng country, western, and bluegrass mus�c to the world.42

The c�ty of New orleans �s a street performer’s dream. Tap dancers, s�ng-ers, horn players, and bucket drummers occupy c�ty street corners each day and �nto the n�ght. Carn�vals are cultural events �n the B�g easy. The �nflu-ences of French costume balls and parades, masked Car�bbean carn�vals, and Afr�can mus�c rhythms and melod�c curves are ev�dent each year at the Mard� Gras celebrat�ons. Named for Mard� Gras day �n 1699, when a camp at Po�nt du Mard� Gras was constructed near the present-day c�ty, the f�rst documented parade took place �n 1837, but most h�stor�ans c�te 1857 as the �naugural Mard� Gras—the f�rst w�th a parade and ball organ�zed w�th

The Grand ole opry �s the longest cont�nuously runn�ng rad�o show �n the world. © AP Photo/Mark Humphrey.

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a un�fy�ng theme. The Myst�c Krewe of Comus, Merr�e Monarchs of M�rth carr�ed torches to l�ght the parade path �n an organ�zed and nonv�olent pa-rade. The ent�re c�ty, however, jo�ned the revelry �n 1872 and expanded the party w�th the select�on of the k�ng, an off�c�al flag, and an anthem adapted from a popular burlesque show. Burlesque sensat�on Lyd�a Thompson was, �n fact, a guest for the parade. Mard� Gras began as a rel�g�ous celebrat�on and has expanded over the decades to �nclude mult�ple types of performance art. rebu�ld�ng after Hurr�cane Katr�na has been slow, but the res�dents stood together and offered small parades and celebrat�ons only a few months after the devastat�ng storm. Attendance at Mard� Gras �ncreases each year, as ad-d�t�onal hotels and restaurants open �n the c�ty.43

New orleans’s Preservat�on Hall �n the heart of the French Quarter draws crowds from around the world to hear jazz mus�c�ans play. The hall �s old and surpr�s�ngly small. The aud�ence s�ts on worn wooden cha�rs and benches, wh�le the band plays the �mprov�sed jazz that mus�c h�stor�ans cla�m as an Amer�can �nnovat�on. Thousands v�s�t the hall, and the assoc�ated jazz fest�val held each year �n Apr�l attracted a crowd of over 600,000 �n 2001.44

Grassroots mus�c fest�vals such as the southwest Lou�s�ana Zydeco Mus�c Fest�val have been organ�zed �n an attempt to ma�nta�n the h�story of a spe-c�f�c mus�cal genre or performance style. Fearful of the d�sappearance of the Creole trad�t�on of the La La (house dance), where homemade gumbo and a bouchere (hog roast) are enjoyed, a group of Lou�s�ana res�dents formed the Treasure of opelousas and organ�zed a fest�val �n 1982 to celebrate Creole and zydeco mus�c and customs. Groups perform�ng at th�s venue regularly use frottiers (washboards), spoons, and a f�ddle to play dance mus�c. The fes-t�val puts on a month of events that �nclude an old-fash�oned ball, where the k�ng and queen of zydeco are crowned; a jam sess�on; a breakfast; and dances, culm�nat�ng �n a one-day mus�cal extravaganza near the f�rst of september each year �n Pla�sance, Lou�s�ana.45

The Bonnaroo Mus�c and Arts Fest�val, begun �n 2002, �s held each June �n Manchester, Tennessee (60 m�les south of Nashv�lle) on a 700-acre farm. It became the world’s most prof�table mus�c fest�val �n 2007. The event fea-tures performances on e�ght stages, w�th jam bands, such as Cat Power and death Cab for Cut�e, to more trad�t�onal bands, such as that of Ph�l Lesh (an or�g�nal member of the Grateful dead) and Blues Traveler.

the West

The Monterey Pop Internat�onal Pop Fest�val was conce�ved by Alan Par�ser after he attended the Monterey Jazz Fest�val. Par�ser felt that pop mus�c had matured as an art and that a pop fest�val would showcase talent �n the same way that the jazz fest�val d�d. record execut�ve Benny shap�ro and


rock producer Lou Adler jo�ned the plann�ng and recru�ted one mus�c group, the Mamas and the Papas, who eventually bought out the promoters and turned the fest�val �nto a nonprof�t event. A foundat�on was created, w�th a board of d�rectors that �ncluded Paul McCartney, M�ck Jagger, Paul s�mon, smokey rob�nson, or�g�nal Beach Boy Br�an w�lson, and others. After ex-tens�ve plann�ng, over 30 acts were booked to perform at the f�rst fest�val �n 1967, �nclud�ng the who, the J�m� Hendr�x exper�ence, Buffalo spr�ngf�eld, the Byrds, Johnny r�vers, ot�s redd�ng, and Jan�s Jopl�n w�th B�g Brother and the Hold�ng Company. The wh�tney Museum �n New york featured a four-month exh�b�t �n 2007, “The summer of Love: Art of the Psychedel�c era,” commemorat�ng the 40th ann�versary of the fest�val that many cultural observers v�ew as a watershed event �n the h�story of pop mus�c.46

Colorado has made a concerted effort s�nce 1960 to encourage the creat�on of fest�vals offer�ng l�ve performances throughout the state. s�nce the late 1940s, Aspen has held an annual class�cal mus�c fest�val that now runs from June through August and �s the only r�val to Tanglewood as the top Amer�can summer exper�ence for class�cal mus�c students and performers. Bow�ng to the wan�ng of aud�ence members for the class�cal performances, the fest�val merges seamlessly �nto Jazz Aspen snowmass (wh�ch has featured more cross-over rock than pure jazz �n �ts most recent seasons). Former Colorado m�n�ng town Tellur�de has offered �ts own set of mus�cal celebrat�ons s�nce the 1970s; class�cal mus�c fans can enjoy n�ne days of performances there. For those whose tastes run to bluegrass or country, s�nce the early 1970s, the summer solst�ce has been brought �n at the Tellur�de Bluegrass Fest�val. or�g�nally conce�ved �n hard-core bluegrass style, the event now sees rock and jazz mus�-c�ans jo�n�ng p�ckers on stage for concerts.47

wh�le New york C�ty �s the U.s. b�rthplace of the Poetry slam, the west �s home to a un�que form of spoken word performance termed cowboy poetry. when most Amer�cans th�nk of cowboys, they probably v�sual�ze a man �n jeans, western sh�rt, and boots who �s dr�v�ng a p�ckup truck, but both male and female ranch hands st�ll r�de the tra�ls on horseback �n many parts of the west. even more surpr�s�ng, many also celebrate the�r trade through poetry.

In celebrat�on of the�r western her�tage, cowboy poets, �nclud�ng the Gau-chos of the Pampas, F�sher Poets, Badger Clark, Baxter Black, and Paul Zar-zysk�, �nterpret the�r poems at publ�c gather�ngs. one of these, the Nat�onal Poetry Gather�ng, has been held s�nce 1983 at the beg�nn�ng of each year at the western Folkl�fe Center �n elko, Nevada. The Amer�can nat�onal cow-boy poet sp�r�t has grown to the po�nt that contests are also held �n Heber C�ty and Moab, Utah (�nclud�ng a Buckaroo Fa�r); Monterey, B�g Bear Lake, and santa Clar�ta, Cal�forn�a; and s�erra V�sta, Ar�zona. All of the venues have held contests for nearly a decade or more. The events range from s�mple

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spoken word presentat�ons and weekend contests to more fully staged poetry events that �nclude gu�tar and banjo p�ck�ng to accompany the poems. some poets do more than just read; they yodel and call the l�ttle dog�es on the tra�l. Many events have separate judged contests �n tall tale sp�nn�ng, storytell�ng, and a challenge to f�nd the best bold-faced l�ar. some of these poets and p�ckers have become so well known that the�r programm�ng at the Nat�onal Cowboy Poetry Gather�ng �n elko has attracted major sponsors and Nevada Human�t�es Counc�l fund�ng. Nat�onal Publ�c rad�o regularly broadcasts the poetry performances.48

The western states are known for rodeos, but the term “rodeo” was not gener-ally used unt�l after 1920. rodeo began as �nformal contests between herders, wranglers, and ranch hands and developed �nto a c�rcu�t of compet�t�ons and performances throughout the Un�ted states, many �n states outs�de the west. each ranch would send one of �ts best hands �n each category to compete �n early rodeos, usually after the cattle were brought to market. some accounts trace the f�rst documented rodeo to Ar�zona �n 1864, although �t d�d not offer

A compet�tor �n the bull-r�d�ng event of the n�nth annual Idaho women’s Pro rodeo. © AP Photo/Ted s. warren.


award money or pr�zes. The f�rst contests �ncluded challenges �n r�d�ng and rop�ng and featured two profess�onals who rode the cattle tra�l that ran beef from Ab�lene, Kansas, to an area northwest of Pecos, Texas. Trav w�ndham and Morg L�v�ngston were the ma�n challengers at the f�rst contest held on July 14, 1883, but other cowboys, �nclud�ng a few females, jo�ned the com-pet�t�ons. The contest jumped to another class w�th the move to �ts present locat�on �n 1936 and the construct�on of a profess�onal arena and aud�ence v�ew�ng stands.

eastern rodeos have the�r roots �n the w�ld west shows that toured the nat�on s�nce the C�v�l war. The elaborate product�ons that �ncluded drama, panoram�c d�splays, and an�mals were a natural add�t�on. Many western c�t-�es added rodeos to town her�tage celebrat�ons. some of these events, w�th rodeos, are st�ll held today, �nclud�ng the Pendleton (oregon) roundup and the Cheyenne (wyom�ng) and Prescott (Ar�zona) Front�er days. Mod-ern rodeo �s organ�zed �nto t�med and roughstock events. Bronc-r�d�ng and bull-r�d�ng contests are termed roughstock, ow�ng to the w�ld nature of an�-mals r�dden �n the r�ng. The r�der must touch, or spur, the an�mal to ga�n po�nts. T�med events �nclude rop�ng, wrestl�ng (somet�mes called dogging), and barrel rac�ng. The f�rst off�c�al rodeo c�rcu�t was created �n 1934, w�th compet�t�ons �n large c�t�es, �nclud�ng the eastern and m�dwestern metro-pol�tan areas of detro�t, Ph�ladelph�a, Ind�anapol�s, Boston, and New york. The current headquarters for profess�onal rodeo �s located �n Colorado, has over 7,000 members, and sanct�ons nearly 700 rodeos, w�th purses total�ng over $35 m�ll�on. There are currently 12 reg�onal rodeo c�rcu�ts. rodeo con-t�nues to draw crowds of nearly 20,000 to the nat�onal f�nals, w�th the largest crowds �n the western states. Canada and Austral�a also hold rodeos.49

Las Vegas, Nevada, once v�ewed as s�mply a place to gamble, has developed �nto a performance center attract�ng nat�onal and world v�s�tors. C�rque du sole�l �s the modern-day recreat�on of the trad�t�onal c�rcus. The company was created �n the early 1980s by a collect�on of street performers who soon added one tent and, s�nce 1993, have been �n permanent res�dence �n a show-room on the Las Vegas str�p. other cas�nos feature l�ve enterta�nment, �n-clud�ng mag�c, mus�c, and modern foll�es, but the largest enterta�nment draw for the c�ty �s the legal�zed gambl�ng.50

the northwest

The Br�tt Fest�vals, held s�nce 1962 �n the p�cturesque h�stor�c town of Jacksonv�lle, oregon, on the estate of the late photographer Peter Br�tt, have attracted aud�ences to class�cal, folk, rock, new age, and country per-formances and an educat�on program that �ncludes camps and mus�c �nstruc-

PerForMING ArTs 337

t�on. Founder John Trudeau turned the d�rect�on of the fest�val over to others after several decades of serv�ce. The three weeks of performances �n August �nclude the Martha Graham dance Company, who perform and g�ve dance master classes, and a symphony orchestra that draws 90 profess�onal mus�c�ans from orchestras throughout the country. Many of the Br�tt Fes-t�val’s class�c rock acts also appear on the stages of the Bonnaroo Fest�val �n Tennessee.51

Although there are other shakespeare celebrat�ons �n the Un�ted states, notably �n san d�ego and New york C�ty, the oregon shakespeare Fest�val �s the largest and oldest �n the Un�ted states. The fest�val hosts plays on three stages, w�th numerous off-fest�val s�tes, for e�ght months beg�nn�ng �n Febru-ary. Nearly 360,000 theater fans attend the 770 performances g�ven every year. one of the stages, the el�zabethan Theatre, �s a restored structure from the turn of the n�neteenth century. The grounds were or�g�nally used �n 1893 as a Chautauqua c�rcu�t s�te for performers such as w�ll�am Jenn�ngs Bryan and bandleader John Ph�ll�p sousa and were enlarged over the years to accom-modate more v�s�tors. As the Chautauqua movement lost popular�ty �n the 1920s, the f�rst structure was abandoned. Angus L. Bowmer, an �nstructor at southern oregon Normal school (southern oregon Un�vers�ty), proposed that a three-play July shakespeare fest�val be held dur�ng the depress�on �n 1935, us�ng a stage that was constructed by the state emergency rel�ef Ad-m�n�strat�on. The fest�val covered the costs of the product�on and made a b�t of a prof�t, and two years later, the oregon shakespeare Fest�val Assoc�at�on was �ncorporated. The fest�val was dark dur�ng world war II but returned w�th a new stage �n 1947 and a full-t�me pa�d general manager �n 1953. Ad-d�t�onal new construct�on followed, open�ng up add�t�onal theaters and halls �n the 1970s, and by 1978, the fest�val had completed a second traversal of the complete plays of the bard. By the 1990s, the group had an outreach pro-gram �n Portland and a new state-of-the-art el�zabethan stage. The fest�val, named by Time magaz�ne as one of the top reg�onal theaters �n Amer�ca �n 2003, draws near sellout crowds to dramat�c product�ons and chamber and symphon�c mus�c performances.52

Perhaps the b�ggest change over the centur�es of Amer�can performance, bes�des the steady and monumental �ncrease �n the sheer number of cultural events across the country, �s the newfound capab�l�ty to publ�c�ze even the smallest and most remote venues and performances from coast to coast. re-g�onal and geograph�c �solat�on once gave r�se to d�st�nctly �nd�v�dual styles �n many areas, but the prol�ferat�on of record�ngs, rad�o, and telev�s�on has made �t poss�ble for almost any Amer�can to see and hear performances that he or she m�ght never have the chance to exper�ence l�ve. F�nally, the Internet


and the r�se of download�ng have �nst�tuted a un�versal ava�lab�l�ty of cultural product for anyone �n the world who can afford to purchase �t.

The generat�ons of today can scarcely �mag�ne the phys�cal, pract�cal, and econom�c obstacles to exper�enc�ng exot�c performances that confronted the�r grandparents. If there �s a pr�ce to be pa�d today �n lost authent�c�ty, d�spa-rate styles blend�ng together, and d�m�n�shed apprec�at�on for the effort of mount�ng a l�ve performance, th�s �s counterbalanced somewhat by the fact that Amer�cans can now see, hear, or exper�ence v�rtually any performance that has ever been recorded, �n the pr�vacy of the�r homes, on the moment.

notes

1. don B. w�lmeth and T�ce L. M�ller, eds., “Introduct�on: survey from the Be-g�nn�ng to the Present,” �n Cambridge Guide to American Theater (New york: Cam-br�dge Un�vers�ty Press, 1996), 1–20.

2. Ib�d.3. Ib�d.4. Ib�d., 493.

An actor �n the oregon shakespeare Fest�val performs �n an all-male cast of “Henry IV Part 2.” © AP Photo/oregon shakespeare Fest�val, dav�d Coope.

PerForMING ArTs 339

5. “H�story of the r�ngl�ng Brothers & Barnum Ba�ley C�rcus,” http://www.r�ngl�ng.com.

6. see Isaac Goldberg and edward Jablonsk�, Tin Pan Alley: A Chronicle of Ameri-can Popular Music with a Supplement from Sweet and Swing to Rock ‘N’ Roll (New york: Freder�ck Ungar, 1961), chap. 1.

7. John Kenr�ck, “A H�story of the Mus�cal Burlesque,” http://www.mus�cals 101.com/burlesque.htm.

8. L�brary of Congress, Amer�can Memory Collect�on, “Th�s day �n H�story—March 21,” http://memory.loc.gov.

9. w�lmeth and M�ller, Cambridge Guide, 90–91.10. Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the

Gilded Age, hypertext extens�on by r�ck easton, http://xroads.v�rg�n�a.edu/~MA02/easton/vaudev�lle/vaudev�llema�n.html; U.s. L�brary of Congress Informat�on Bul-let�n, “Thanks for the Memory,” June 20, 2000, http://www.loc.gov; “Vaudev�lle,” Publ�c Broadcast�ng Amer�can Masters, http://www.pbs.org.

11. Martha schmoyer, Summer Stock! An American Theatrical Phenomenon (New york: Palgrave Macm�llan, 2004), 1–13.

12. New deal Network, “Power: A L�v�ng Newspaper,” http://newdeal.fer�.org.13. w�lmeth and M�ller, Cambridge Guide, 8–13.14. w�ll�am Arnold, “Homage to Broadway’s Heyday H�ts H�gh Po�nts,” Seattle

Post-Intelligencer, september 24, 2004, http://seattlep�.nwsource.com.15. Nat�onal endowment for the Arts, “H�story,” http://www.nea.gov.16. V�ctor�a Ann Lew�s, “rad�cal wallflowers: d�sab�l�ty and the People’s The-

ater,” Radical History Review 94 (2006): 84–110.17. r�chard Zogl�n, “B�gger Than Broadway!” Time, May 27, 2003, http://www.

t�me.com; Guthr�e Theater, http://www.guthr�etheater.org.18. Amer�can F�lm Inst�tute, “100 years . . . 100 Mov�es,” http://www.af�.com;

“The w�z,” http://www.�bdb.com; ern�o Hernandez, “Long runs on Broadway,” http://www.playb�ll.com.

19. “The Top U.s. orchestras,” Time, February 22, 1963, http://www.t�me.com; opera Company web s�tes, http://opera.stanford.edu.

20. John H. Mueller, The American Symphony Orchestra: A Social History of Musi-cal Taste (westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 17.

21. see Peter Van der Merwe, Roots of the Classical: The Popular Origins of Western Music (oxford, UK: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 2007).

22. M�chael Tsa�, “symphony F�nances a Problem across U.s.,” Honolulu Adver-tiser, october 15, 2003, http://the.honoluluadvert�ser.com.

23. Mart�n Kettle, “Van�sh�ng Act,” Manchester Guardian, Apr�l 3, 2007, http://mus�c.guard�an.co.uk/class�cal/story/0,2048916,00.html; Allan Koz�nn, “Check the Numbers: rumors of Class�cal Mus�c’s dem�se Are dead wrong,” New York Times, May 28, 2006, http://www.nyt�mes.com.

24. “Culture shock: Mus�c and dance,” http://www.pbs.org.25. Martha Graham Center for Contemporary dance, “About Martha Graham,”

http://www.marthagraham.org.


26. Jacob’s P�llow web s�te, http://www.jacobsp�llow.org.27. Alv�n A�ley Amer�can dance Theater web s�te, http://www.alv�na�ley.org.28. octav�o roca, “Ballet san Jose emerges from Cleveland Collapse,” Dance

Magazine 75 (2001): 38.29. w�lma sal�sbury, “Two Compan�es �n Trans�t�on—Cleveland san Jose Ballet

and oh�o Ballet Compan�es surv�ve F�nanc�al str�fe,” Dance Magazine 72 (1998): 70.30. Maryland H�stor�cal soc�ety, “shuffle Along: The eub�e Blake Collect�on,”

http://www.mdhs.org.31. Paul Corr and Tony Curt�s, “H�story of Tap dance,” http://www.offjazz.com.32. U.s. Nat�onal Parks serv�ce, “New orleans Jazz H�story, 1895–1927,” http://

www.nps.gov.33. “B�ography,” http://www.elv�s.com.34. Barbara McHugh, “H�story of shea stad�um,” http://newyork.mets.mlb.com.35. steve Morse, “destruct�on at woodstock ’99 shakes Promoter’s Fa�th,” Mil-

waukee Journal Sentinel, July 27, 1999, B8; r�ch�e Unterberger, Eight Miles High: Folk-Rock’s Flight from Haight-Ashbury to Woodstock (san Franc�sco: Backbeat Books, 2003), 265–87.

36. Herb Hendler, Year by Year in the Rock Era: Events and Conditions Shaping the Rock Generations That Reshaped America (westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), 101–7; w�ll�am F. Buckley Jr., “Jerry Garc�a, rIP, ob�tuary and ed�tor�al,” National Review 47 (1995): 102–3.

37. Fred Goodman, “Trouble for the Tour B�z,” Rolling Stone, August 2, 2002, http://www.roll�ngstone.com; Pr�nceton Un�vers�ty, “econom�st Alan Kruegar ex-am�nes Pr�c�ng of Concert T�ckets,” http://www.pr�nceton.edu/ma�n/news/arch�ve/s01/18/72I40/�ndex.xml.

38. The Chautauqua Inst�tut�on, “H�story,” http://www.c�web.org.39. Boston symphony orchestra, “H�story of Tanglewood,” http://www.tangle

wood.org.40. JVC Jazz Fest�val web s�te, http://www.fest�valproduct�ons.net.41. PBs, “Jazz,” http://www.pbs.org.42. Grand ole opry web s�te, http://www.opry.com.43. see Nat�onal Park serv�ce, “New orleans,” http://www.nps.gov.44. New orleans Jazz and Her�tage Fest�val web s�te, http://www.nojazzfest.com.45. southwest Lou�s�ana Zydeco Mus�c Fest�val web s�te, http://www.zydeco.org.46. Unterberger, Eight Miles, 271–73.47. Aspen Mus�c Fest�val and school web s�te, http://www.aspenmus�cfest�val.

com; Tellur�de Bluegrass Fest�val web s�te, http://www.bluegrass.com.48. western Folk L�fe Museum web s�te, http://cybercast.westernfolkl�fe.org.49. Bonn�e Cearly, “The H�story of the world’s F�rst rodeo,” http://www.pecos

rodeo.com; ralph Clark, “rodeo H�story,” http://www.prorodeoonl�ne.net.50. C�rque du sole�l off�c�al web s�te, http://www.c�rquedusole�l.com.51. Br�tt Fest�val web s�te, http://www.bemf.org.52. oregon shakespeare Fest�val web s�te, http://www.orshakes.org.

PerForMING ArTs 341

BiBliograPhy

Anderson, Jack. Ballet and Modern Dance: A Concise History. New york: Pr�nceton Book Company, 1992.

Bayles, Martha. Hole in Our Soul: The Loss of Beauty and Meaning in American Popu-lar Music. Ch�cago: Un�vers�ty of Ch�cago Press, 1996.

Bloom, Ken. Broadway: An Encyclopedia Guide to the History, People and Places of Times Square. New york: Ze�sler Group, 1991.

Bordman, Gerald. American Theater: A Chronicle of Comedy and Drama, 1914–1930. oxford, UK: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 1995.

Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip Hop Generation. New york: st. Mart�n’s Press, 2005.

Clarke, donald, ed. The Penguin Encyclopedia of Popular Music. London: Pengu�n, 1990.

Cs�da, Joseph, and June Bundy Cs�da. American Entertainment: A Unique History of Popular Show Business. New york: B�llboard-watson Gupt�ll, 1978.

Frank, rusty. Tap! The Greatest Tap Dance Stars and Their Stories. New york: w�l-l�am Morrow, 1990.

G�llett, Charl�e. The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll. New york: da Capo Press, 1995.

Glatt, John. Rage and Roll: Bill Graham and the Selling of Rock. New york: Carol, 1993.

Goldberg, Isaac, and edward Jablonsk�. Tin Pan Alley: A Chronicle of American Popu-lar Music with a Supplement from Sweet and Swing to Rock ‘N’ Roll. New york: Freder�ck Ungar, 1961.

Hendler, Herb. Year by Year in the Rock Era: Events and Conditions Shaping the Rock Generations That Reshaped America. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983.

H�cks, M�chael. Sixties Rock: Garage, Psychedelic, and Other Satisfactions. Ch�cago: Un�vers�ty of Ill�no�s Press, 1999.

Horow�tz, Joseph. Classical Music in America: A History of Its Rise and Fall. New york: w. w. Norton, 2005.

Lebrecht, Norman. Who Killed Classical Music? Maestros, Managers, and Corporate Politics. secaucus, NJ: Carol, 1997.

Lev�ne, Lawrence w. Highbrow Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambr�dge, MA: Harvard Un�vers�ty Press, 1988.

LoMonaco, Martha schmoyer. Summer Stock! An American Theatrical Phenomenon. New york: Palgrave Macm�llan, 2004.

Long, r�chard A. Hot Jazz and Jazz Dance. New york: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 1995.

Morales, ed. The Latin Beat: The Rhythms and Roots of Latin Music, from Bossa Nova to Salsa and Beyond. Cambr�dge, MA: da Capo Press, 2003.

Mueller, John H. The American Symphony Orchestra: A Social History of Musical Taste. westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.


Taylor, Karen Malpede. People’s Theatre in Amerika. New york: drama Book, 1972.Unterberger, r�ch�e. Eight Miles High: Folk-Rock’s Flight from Haight-Ashbury to

Woodstock. san Franc�sco: Backbeat Books, 2003.Van der Merwe, Peter. Roots of the Classical: The Popular Origins of Western Music.

oxford, UK: oxford Un�vers�ty Press, 2007.w�lmeth, don B., and T�ce L. M�ller. Cambridge Guide to American Theatre. New

york: Cambr�dge Un�vers�ty Press, 1993.Ze�dman, Irv�ng. The American Burlesque Show. New york: Hawthorn Books, 1967.

art

If art �s to nour�sh the roots of our culture, soc�ety must set the art�st free to follow h�s v�s�on wherever �t takes h�m. we must never forget that art �s not a form of propaganda; �t �s a form of truth.

—Pres�dent John F. Kennedy

American fine art today has no s�ngle style, method, subject matter, or med�um. Th�s eclect�c�sm draws from the rework�ng of past movements, the adopt�on of new technolog�es, and the �mag�nat�on of each art�st. reg�onal-�sm, def�ned pr�mar�ly by �ts local subject matter, rema�ns an �mportant force �n Amer�can art. Folk art also rema�ns an �mportant express�on of Amer�can l�fe. Government support for the arts developed only lately �n the Un�ted states, and even at that, �t was halt�ng and n�ggardly. The early publ�c art that �t supported tended to be propagand�st�c, thus Pres�dent Kennedy’s ad-mon�t�on �n 1963 quoted above. L�kew�se, most of Amer�ca’s great art mu-seums came �nto be�ng through the largess of those who had made �mmense fortunes, rather than through government fund�ng. As a young Amer�ca of mostly european �mm�grants looked back to europe for the best of art as well as fash�on and arch�tecture, truly Amer�can art took a long t�me to emerge, and when �t d�d, �t changed the focus of the art world.

art and artists in america

F�ne art and those who create �t have a struggl�ng ex�stence �n the every-day l�fe of Amer�ca. Jobs for art�sts �n general are scarce. In 2004, there were

9

Art, Arch�tecture, and Hous�ng

Benjamin F. Shearer

343


only 208,000 of them. of those, 94,000 were for mult�med�a art�sts and an�mators. Art d�rectors held another 71,000 jobs; 8,500 jobs fell �n all the other categor�es. That left f�ne art�sts, �nclud�ng sculptors, pa�nters, and �l-lustrators, at only 29,000 and craft art�sts at only 6,100 for the ent�re nat�on. The med�an annual �ncome for f�ne art�sts was $38,060 and for craft art�sts, $23,520, as of May 2004.1

Pragmat�c Amer�cans f�nd �t d�ff�cult to value th�ngs that are ne�ther nec-essary nor useful. In 2002, for example, only 29.5 percent of Amer�cans 18 years old or older purchased an artwork at least once. The greater the person’s educat�onal atta�nment, the greater the chances of buy�ng an artwork.2 Amer-�cans are also notor�ous for avo�d�ng confrontat�on, preferr�ng bus�nessl�ke comprom�se and accommodat�on so that they can go on w�th the�r personal bel�efs h�dden and �ntact. Amer�can art, however, became purposely confron-tat�onal, seem�ng to del�ght �n �conoclasm. The art that Amer�cans are now accustomed to exper�enc�ng has even delved overtly �nto the realms of rel�-g�on, race, sex, and pol�t�cs, the most avo�ded subjects by Amer�can soc�al convent�on. Contemporary Amer�can art, at least much of what �s cons�dered avant-garde, �s uncomfortable.

The comfortable art, often the romant�c real�sm that Amer�cans seem to prefer, can be found �n the�r homes, where �t �s decorat�on. Furn�ture stores use art on the walls of the�r d�splays as props, wh�ch set the tone. The d�s-play w�th the b�g dark wooden desk, green leather cha�rs, and sofa for the wood-paneled den �s complemented by pr�nts of r�ders att�red appropr�ately �n red, black, and wh�te wh�le hunt�ng foxes through a green countrys�de on chestnut horses. A pa�nt�ng of fluffy wh�te clouds hang�ng �n the deep blue sky �llum�ned by the fa�nt�ng sunl�ght w�th stars tw�nkl�ng around them adorns the wall above the headboard �n the ch�ld’s bedroom d�splay. There are gener�c seascapes �n the w�cker pat�o furn�ture d�splay, pa�nt�ngs of br�ght baskets of flowers for the eat�ng area d�splay, pa�nt�ngs of romant�c cottages �n �dyll�c forests for the fam�ly room d�splay that say th�s �s home sweet home. Amer�cans are just as l�kely to buy a pa�nt�ng or pr�nt because �ts col-ors go w�th the colors of the�r walls and furn�ture as they are to purchase art w�th a message they enjoy and do not have to f�gure out.

Great Amer�can art�sts at one t�me chron�cled the nat�on’s h�story. w�th art�st�c l�cense, Benjam�n west (1738–1820) dep�cted death �n the French and Ind�an war and w�ll�am Penn s�gn�ng the treaty w�th Nat�ve Amer�-cans that would found Pennsylvan�a. John Trumbull (1856–1843) produced major pa�nt�ngs of the revolut�onary war. every ch�ld �n Amer�ca knows George wash�ngton from the portra�ts by G�lbert stuart (1755–1828). Thomas Cole (d. 1848), Freder�c Church (1826–1900), and Albert B�erstadt (1830–1902) pa�nted the beauty of the Amer�can landscape. George Catl�n

ArT, ArCHITeCTUre, ANd HoUsING 345

(1796–1872) captured the l�fe of Nat�ve Amer�cans as �t was qu�ckly d�ss�-pat�ng �nto eventual ass�m�lat�on. what Catl�n d�d w�th a brush for nat�ves, Mathew Brady (c1823–1896) d�d w�th a camera for the C�v�l war. George Caleb B�ngham (1811–1879) captured fur traders and r�verboat l�fe �n the west on the M�ss�ss�pp� and M�ssour� r�vers. Charles russell (1864–1926) chron�cled the pass�ng of the old west �n h�s pa�nt�ngs.

As the twent�eth century opened w�th Amer�ca becom�ng ever more ur-ban�zed, robert Henr� (1865–1921), George Luks (1867–1933), edward Hopper (1882–1967), and the other members of the Ashcan school real�st�-cally portrayed l�fe �n New york C�ty. yet as Amer�can art�sts had always taken the�r cues from old europe, �ndeed many had stud�ed at least br�efly there, that trend would cont�nue. Modern�sm came to Amer�ca before world war I �n the var�ous forms of abstract art represented �n the pa�nt�ngs of Morgan russell (1886–1963) and Max weber (1881–1961), and many oth-ers. Modern art and �ts progeny would come to play a new role �n Amer�can soc�ety that was no longer as h�stor�cal or natural chron�cle. Furthermore, Amer�can modern�sts succeeded �n creat�ng an Amer�can art. By the end of world war II, many Amer�can art�sts set out to loose themselves from the convent�ons of representat�onal art and express themselves �n new ways al�en to many Amer�cans. wh�le all th�s was go�ng on, however, Norman rockwell (1894–1978) was st�ll celebrat�ng small-town Amer�ca �n h�s pa�nt�ngs for the covers of the Saturday Evening Post. By the end of the twent�eth century, art had appropr�ated new med�a and new technolog�es that prol�ferated new styles, new messages, and not a l�ttle controversy.

dur�ng the 1950s, abstract express�on�sm separated Amer�can from euro-pean modern art. Jackson Pollock (1912–1956) had forsaken representat�onal art for the art of self-express�on �n the 1940s. H�s so-called act�on pa�nt�ngs were abstracts made by pour�ng and dr�pp�ng pa�nt on canvases ly�ng on the floor �n a nearly unconsc�ous state of act�v�ty and revolut�on�zed Amer�can art. He would even cla�m that he h�mself d�d not know what would evolve on canvas as the pa�nt layered. He d�d bel�eve, however, that the act�on �tself was �mportant because �t revealed an �nner self, an �nner truth. The new age called for a new art, and the new age was Amer�can. Mark rothko’s (1903–1970) chromat�c stud�es, w�llem de Koon�ng’s (1904–1997) layer�ng of pa�nts to br�ng b�rth to emerg�ng forms, robert Motherwell’s (1915–1991) �ntroduc-t�on of mean�ng to abstract forms, and Lee Krasner’s (1908–1984) full ab-stract gestural canvases were all part of abstract express�on�sm.

Abstract express�on�sm began tak�ng many turns �n the turbulent but ar-t�st�cally �nnovat�ve 1960s and 1970s. Agnes Mart�n (1912–) pa�nted gr�ds, and Frank stella (1936–) d�d a ser�es of formal�zed black pa�nt�ngs as well as p�nstr�pes. These m�n�mal�sts bel�eved that form and content were one;


they were try�ng to make sense of the 1960s w�thout us�ng symbols and send�ng messages—pure art for art’s sake. robert rauschenberg (1925–) and Jasper Johns (1930–) turned to neo-dada�sm, m�x�ng known objects and symbols �n the�r works along w�th the�r pa�nt and effect�vely end�ng the re�gn of abstract express�on�sm. In 1959, Allen Kaprow (1927–2006) started do�ng happen�ngs, wh�ch brought a new v�tal�ty and creat�v�ty to art �n a very nontrad�t�onal way. In 1961, Claes oldenburg (1929–) opened the store, a happen�ng �n wh�ch h�s sculpted objects prov�ded the atmosphere of a var�ety store, where they were bought and sold. oldenburg also employed hamburg-ers and French fr�es as subjects for h�s art. Pop art, based sol�dly and happ�ly on Amer�ca’s mass consumer culture, also emerged �n the early 1960s �n the works of roy L�chtenste�n (1923–1997), Andy warhol (1928–1987), Tom wesselmann (1931–2004), and James rosenqu�st (1933–). Campbell’s soup cans, del Monte fru�t cans, Coke bottles, Mar�lyn Monroe, Jack�e Kennedy, el�zabeth Taylor, Volkswagen Beetles, and com�c books were only some of the subjects for these pop art�sts.

If the art of abstract express�on�sm could be cr�t�c�zed as the product of �ts creator’s self-centered egot�sm, conceptual art�sts took �t a step further, cla�m-�ng to be arb�ters of �deas to the people as they quest�oned soc�al norms. Thus the concept or �dea held greater �mportance than the art p�ece �tself, as Joseph Kosuth’s (1945–) 1967 Art as Idea as Idea ep�tom�zed. Th�s was the perfect med�um for pol�t�cal protest dur�ng the V�etnam war era. Its bas�s was �n l�n-gu�st�c theory, and thus �t branched rather qu�ckly �nto performance art, aga�n w�th the art�st-performer as arb�ter. Body art came �nto vogue. Chr�s Burden (1946–) crawled naked through broken glass on Ma�n street �n Los Angeles �n h�s 1973 performance Through the Night Softly. In h�s 1970 performance of Trademarks, V�to Acconc� (1940–) b�t h�s body wherever he could, �nked the b�tes, and appl�ed h�s so-called trademark to d�fferent places. Among the fem�n�st art�sts who were attempt�ng to recla�m women’s bod�es from a h�story of use (and abuse, they would argue) by male art�sts, Carolee schneemann (1939–) performed Interior Scroll �n 1975, �n wh�ch her otherw�se nude body was pa�nted, and she read from a scroll she pulled out of her vag�na. Photog-rapher C�ndy sherman (1954–) began her ser�es of so-called self-portra�ts �n 1977 w�th Untitled Film Still, wh�ch explored stereotypes of women �n f�lm. Her later ser�es cont�nue to �nvest�gate the development of self-�mage.

As fem�n�st art�sts were try�ng to reappropr�ate the female body and fem�-n�ne symbols of art for themselves, Afr�can Amer�cans, Nat�ve Amer�cans, and H�span�cs also sought to send a message. Betye saar (1926–) sought to debunk a fam�l�ar stereotype �n her 1972 The Liberation of Aunt Jemima. Fa�th r�nggold (1930–) employed the Amer�can flag to make her po�nt. Her 1967 The Flag Is Bleeding dep�cted three f�gures, one black, trapped �ns�de


the U.s. flag, �ts red str�pes bleed�ng. Her 1969 Flag for the Moon: Die Nig-ger Black Light #10 dep�cted the word die �n red �ns�de the wh�te stars on the flag’s blue f�eld and the word nigger formed by the flag’s wh�te str�pes. Th�s was powerful protest. Fr�tz scholder (1937–2005) used h�s art to try to r�d people of the not�on of Nat�ve Amer�cans as noble savages, preferr�ng to dep�ct h�s subjects as real people w�thout stereotyp�ng, such as �n h�s 1969 Indian with a Beer Can. r. C. Gorman (1931–2005) redef�ned Ind�an pa�nt-�ng styles w�th h�s abstracts. Jud�th Baca’s (1946–) Great Wall of Los Angeles, a g�gant�c, half-m�le collaborat�ve effort that was completed over the years 1976–1983, sought an �ntegrat�ve approach to the �nclus�on of all the cul-tures that �nform Los Angeles l�fe.

The 1960s and 1970s also b�rthed other art�st�c exper�ments. Lynda Beng-l�s’s (1941–) For Carl Andre, created �n 1970, was a scatolog�cal example of process art (also called ant�form art) �n plopp�ng layers of brown polyure-thane foam. In th�s art, the process was clear. As art�sts cont�nued to try to escape cultural and �nst�tut�onal boundar�es, some art�sts created earthworks �n the western deserts. Nancy Holt (1938–) completed Sun Tunnels �n 1976 �n the Great Bas�n desert, wh�ch cons�sted of plac�ng four large concrete p�pes �n an X w�th holes dr�lled �n the s�des to reflect constellat�ons. The p�pes were placed to v�ew the r�s�ng and sett�ng sun through them. robert sm�thson’s (1928–1973) The Spiral Jetty at the Great salt Lake �s perhaps the best known of the earthworks. It was completed �n 1970.

By the m�d-1970s, modern�sm was h�story. Postmodern art tolerated a d�vers�ty of styles that were not necessar�ly dependent on part�cular art�sts. The neoexpress�on�sts brought pa�nt�ng back to large canvases w�th a style that was recogn�zable and sellable. Jul�an schnabel (1951–) and dav�d salle (1952–) ushered �n th�s new style that borrowed heav�ly and l�berally from the past to the extent that the�r work could not be placed �n any part�cular style. Appropr�at�on art�sts took the�r cues from Amer�ca’s mass consumer culture. Vacuums, lava lamps, pots and pans, magaz�ne p�ctures—anyth�ng could become art w�th a message. Installat�on art, wh�ch def�nes the sett�ng for a p�ece, and v�deo art were com�ng of age, too, along w�th a new genera-t�on of art�sts who made �dent�ty pol�t�cs the�r cause. Gender, sexual�ty, and AIds became the subject matter for art�sts l�ke K�k� sm�th (1954–), robert Gober (1954–), and Jan�ne Anton� (1964–).

Amer�can art�sts have never been shy �n adopt�ng new technolog�es to the�r art. Adr�an P�per (1948–) took a h�dden tape recorder that played belch�ng no�ses w�th her to a l�brary for her Catalys�s ser�es (1970–1971). B�ll V�ola (1951–) used v�deo �n h�s �nstallat�on Stations (1994) to project naked human f�gures onto f�ve hang�ng screens, wh�ch produces the exper�ence of bod�es freed of the forces of nature. Tony oursler (1957–) projected v�deo to make


the faces on �nan�mate objects come al�ve. He used th�s techn�que �n h�s Cry-ing Doll (1993), �n wh�ch the face of the doll �s a mov�ng v�deo, and �n h�s We Have No Free Will (1995), w�th talk�ng puppets. H�s 1997 Eye in the Sky �s a v�deo sculpture featur�ng a f�berglass sphere on wh�ch �s projected an eye watch�ng telev�s�on.

The Internet and computer technolog�es are r�pe for art�st�c explorat�on. Mark Nap�er (1961–) m�xed up text and �mages from var�ous web s�tes to create h�s 1999 Riot to an arrest�ng effect. New york art�st Cory Arcangel (1978–) developed a web s�te that juxtaposed s�nger Kurt Coba�n’s su�c�de letter w�th Google Adsense �n 2006. He called h�s 2005 performance of I Heart Garfunkel a “messy lecture/performance �nvolv�ng my sl�de from the N�ntendo �Pod to my current obsess�on w�th Art Garfunkel.” In 2004, Ar-cangel took the group Iron Ma�den’s song “The Number of the Beast” and compressed �t 666 t�mes as an MP3. Also �n 2004, he erased all the �nvad-ers but one from the Atar� space Invaders v�deo game, thus creat�ng Space Invader, and he d�d a “mash-up” called Beach Boys/Geto Boys of the songs “L�ttle surfer G�rl,” by the Beach Boys, and “6 Feet deep,” by Graved�ggaz. In Arcangel’s Super Mario Clouds—2005 Rewrite, he erased everyth�ng but the clouds from a super Mar�o Brothers N�ntendo game and prov�ded the source code and �nstruct�ons for those who wanted to do �t themselves.3

Public art

The federal government had establ�shed a precedent �n 1927 to devote a percentage of construct�on costs to art when the Post off�ce department and department of Just�ce were bu�lt at Federal Tr�angle �n wash�ngton, d.C., and for the Nat�onal Arch�ves bu�ld�ng, wh�ch opened �n 1935. It had long been the government’s pract�ce to adorn publ�c bu�ld�ngs w�th appropr�ate art and decorat�on, even though there was no leg�slat�ve mandate to do so. In 1934, however, a federal percent-for-art program was establ�shed that al-lowed for approx�mately 1 percent of construct�on costs to be set as�de for art, w�th the �dea that patr�ot�c, democrat�c, real�st�c art w�th local, recogn�zable cues would �nsp�re Amer�cans otherw�se untouched by art to exper�ence good art �n federal bu�ld�ngs. Murals and monuments were then the stuff of pub-l�c art. wh�le the percent-for-art program suffered through shortages dur�ng world war II and squabbles about who or what comm�ttee should actually h�re the art�sts, by 1973, �t was up and runn�ng aga�n on a f�rm foot�ng as the Art �n Arch�tecture Program, w�th experts �n charge of comm�ss�on�ng the art�sts. The �nstallat�on of Alexander Calder’s mob�le Flamingo �n Ch�cago’s Federal Center �n that year proved to be a success.4

The not�on that government bu�ld�ngs should be showcases for relevant, s�te-spec�f�c art was p�cked up outs�de of wash�ngton f�rst by Ph�ladelph�a


�n 1959, by Balt�more �n 1964, and by san Franc�sco �n 1967. Later, state governments adopted percent-for-art programs based on the construct�on costs of state publ�c bu�ld�ngs. The movement spread across the nat�on. For example, oregon began �ts program �n 1977; Nebraska �n 1978; Ma�ne and New Hampsh�re �n 1979; w�scons�n �n 1980; Montana �n 1983; oh�o �n 1990; and Lou�s�ana �n 1999. More than 30 states now have percent-for-art programs.

Publ�c art, bolstered by these federal, state, and mun�c�pal percent-for-art programs, began p�ck�ng up steam �n the 1960s. Corporat�ons, pr�vate foun-dat�ons, and other large �nst�tut�ons jo�ned the movement, and �n fact, most publ�c art today �s not government funded. Publ�c art was to be the soc�ally relevant art that def�ned publ�c places—plazas, playgrounds, parks and sub-way stat�ons, walls and bu�ld�ng façades. Publ�c art allowed art�sts to br�ng the�r messages to the people; art could be an agent for change. Art�sts could become the arb�ters of publ�c op�n�on. Th�s �dyll was put to the test after the General serv�ces Adm�n�strat�on, the federal agency that oversees fed-eral construct�on projects, comm�ss�oned m�n�mal�st sculptor r�chard serra (1939–) �n 1979 to create a s�te-spec�f�c p�ece for the Federal Plaza at Fogarty square �n New york C�ty. In 1981, serra’s Tilted Arc was ded�cated. It was a 120-foot-long, 12-foot-h�gh, 2.5-�nch-th�ck sl�ghtly t�lted wall of rusted steel. workers �n the federal bu�ld�ngs began compla�n�ng about �t and pet�t�oned for �ts removal, and �n 1989, the General serv�ces Adm�n�strat�on removed Tilted Arc from the plaza after a ser�es of court cases and splenet�c rhetor�c on all s�des.

wh�le some couched th�s publ�c debacle �n the terms of �gnorant people and pol�t�c�ans who do not understand modern art aga�nst an enl�ghtened and m�sunderstood art�st, �t d�d br�ng forward a fundamental quest�on: what �f the publ�c do not want or l�ke the publ�c art the�r tax money pa�d for? Throughout the 1980s, publ�c art�sts wanted to make soc�al statements to advance the people, the publ�c, conv�nc�ng themselves that they were creat�ng the art of the publ�c. Mak�ng publ�c art was do�ng good for the people. In the 1990s, many publ�c art�sts began to quest�on the�r own per-sonal cultural super�or�ty and started creat�ng art �n collaborat�on w�th the publ�c. w�th the publ�c actually �nvolved �n art mak�ng, and w�th the art�st �mmersed �n the culture of the s�te through the people, Amer�can art w�ll have ach�eved true democracy.

WaterFire, �n Prov�dence, rhode Island, �s a stunn�ng example of publ�c art that �nvolves the publ�c d�rectly as volunteers and engages from 40,000 to 60,000 people each performance �n explor�ng the relat�onsh�p between human ex�stence and the pr�mal elements of water, f�re, earth, and a�r. WaterFire, the concept of art�st Barnaby evans, �s a s�te-spec�f�c sculpture


and performance. The s�te �s the three r�vers that run through downtown Prov�dence. Metal braz�ers are strateg�cally placed �n the water, f�lled w�th aromat�c oak, cedar, and p�ne, and set af�re at tw�l�ght. Volunteers dressed �n black tend the f�res. Torch-l�t boats travel the r�vers. An eclect�c assort-ment of mus�c accompan�es the performance. WaterFire was scheduled for 17 performances �n 2006. evans began h�s work �n Prov�dence �n 1994 w�th an �nstallat�on called FirstFire, and another called SecondFire �n 1996. These performances were so successful that �n 1997, waterF�re was set up as an ongo�ng nonprof�t arts organ�zat�on.5

the national Endowment for the arts

The U.s. government d�d not d�rectly support the arts outs�de of the federal bu�ld�ng programs unt�l the establ�shment of the Nat�onal endow-ment for the Arts (NeA) �n 1965, save for the emergency arts programs establ�shed by Pres�dent Frankl�n roosevelt to prov�de jobs dur�ng the Great

Crowds gather along the r�verfront to watch waterf�re, an art �llustrat�on by Barnaby evans. The work centers on a ser�es of 100 bonf�res that blaze just above the surface of the three r�vers that pass through the m�ddle of downtown Prov�dence. © AP Photo/stew M�lne.


depress�on. The NeA began award�ng the Nat�onal Medal of Art �n 1985. several of Amer�ca’s most noted art�sts have been honored w�th that award, �nclud�ng Georg�a o’Keefe (1985), w�llem de Koon�ng (1986), robert Motherwell (1989), Jasper Johns (1990), robert rauschenberg (1993), roy L�chtenste�n (1995), Agnes Mart�n (1998), and Claes oldenburg (2000).

In�t�al support for the arts was qu�te meager �n the NeA’s f�rst year, how-ever, amount�ng to less than $3 m�ll�on. NeA appropr�at�ons grew stead�ly, however, reach�ng nearly $176 m�ll�on �n f�scal year 1992. In the 1970s, the NeA also pursued publ�c art w�th �ts Art �n Arch�tecture program. Appro-pr�at�ons decreased stead�ly from that 1992 peak through f�scal year 2000, bottom�ng at $97.6 m�ll�on. s�nce then, fund�ng has �ncreased to nearly $121 m�ll�on �n f�scal year 2004. Although the NeA does support art mostly through grants to mount exh�b�t�ons, �ts nat�onal �n�t�at�ves �nclude support-�ng jazz presentat�ons, br�ng�ng shakespeare performances to Amer�can c�t�es and towns, and support�ng arts journal�sm �nst�tutes �n opera, theater, class�-cal mus�c, and dance. Its object�ves now have to do w�th access to and learn-�ng �n the arts.6 To put the place of arts �n the perspect�ve of federal spend�ng, one B2 sp�r�t bomber costs over $1 b�ll�on.

Funds for the NeA, wh�ch must be appropr�ated by the U.s. Congress, nearly came to an end �n 1989 when some congressmen and senators found out that NeA funds were used to support exh�b�t�ons of so-called obscene art, namely, of the works of robert Mapplethorpe (1946–1989) and Andres serrano (1950–). The travel�ng Mapplethorpe exh�b�t, wh�ch the Corcoran Gallery cancelled ow�ng to pol�t�cal cons�derat�ons, �ncluded homoerot�c photographs as well as photographs of nude ch�ldren. The serrano photograph that �nsp�red congres-s�onal �re was t�tled “P�ss Chr�st,” a photograph of a cruc�f�x emerged �n a clear conta�ner of the art�st’s ur�ne. The NeA was us�ng federal tax dollars to exh�b�t obscene, pornograph�c, sexually perverted, and sacr�leg�ous mater�al around the country �n the v�ew of several members of Congress, and they were outraged. Congress amended the NeA leg�slat�on �n 1990, �nstruct�ng the NeA cha�r to cons�der “general standards of respect and decency for the d�verse bel�efs and values of the Amer�can publ�c” as grants are awarded.7

Federally funded art projects were to be f�ltered through th�s so-called de-cency clause, and four art�sts, soon dubbed the “NeA 4,” challenged th�s new prov�s�on when the NeA yanked away the�r grants. They cla�med that the�r F�rst Amendment freedom of speech r�ghts had been v�olated, and they went to court. Karen F�nley (1956–), among other th�ngs a performance art�st, dealt w�th women’s �ssues somet�mes scatolog�cally �n such perfor-mances as We Keep Our Victims Ready, a ser�es of monologues �n wh�ch she smeared chocolate over her body, wh�ch was naked, save for boots and pant-�es. Holly Hughes (1955–), a lesb�an performance art�st, used expl�c�t sexual


and rel�g�ous �magery �n her show World without End. T�m M�ller (1958–) explored aspects of h�s gay �dent�ty �n such performances as Some Golden States �n 1987 and Stretch Marks �n 1989. In Blessed Are All the Little Fishes, performance art�st and later actor John Fleck (1951–) ur�nated on stage and s�mulated masturbat�on.

The NeA 4’s case meandered through the courts and was f�nally dec�ded by the supreme Court �n 1998. The Court found that because the NeA’s decency clause asked only that general standards be cons�dered �n award�ng grants, the art�sts’ F�rst Amendment pr�v�leges were not v�olated, nor would lack of government fund�ng prevent the art�sts from perform�ng the�r art. In short, the NeA 4 lost, and the NeA ceased to award �nd�v�dual grants for avant-garde categor�es. The Amer�can government would not subs�d�ze art that quest�oned bas�c Amer�can values.

museums

The Found�ng Fathers of the Un�ted states d�d not env�s�on the collec-t�on of art to be �n the purv�ew of government. For one th�ng, the Un�ted states began �ts ex�stence completely broke and heav�ly �n debt. For an-other, patron�z�ng the arts surely must have smacked to them to be the stuff of popes, monarchs, and noblemen, all anathema �n the new republ�c. Furthermore, they understood government to have a very small role �n do-mest�c l�fe. In 1841, the Nat�onal Inst�tute was created �n the Patent off�ce to oversee art and h�stor�cal �tems the government had come to own. John Varden, �ts f�rst curator, had begun collect�ng art pr�vately, and h�s col-lect�on was added to what the government already had. The �nst�tute was d�sbanded �n 1862 and �ts collect�ons sent to the sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on, wh�ch was founded �n 1846. After a f�re at the sm�thson�an Castle �n 1865, most of the art was loaned out to other museums well �nto the twent�eth century. A 1906 court case caused the sm�thson�an’s art collect�on to be named a Nat�onal Gallery of Art, a he�ghtened status that encouraged do-nat�ons of new artworks.

The federal government’s entrance �nto art collect�ng and museums had been, for the most part, acc�dental to th�s po�nt, and certa�nly unenthus�ast�c. There was no proper federal art museum unt�l f�nanc�er Andrew w. Mellon donated h�s european art collect�on to the Un�ted states �n 1937, the year he d�ed, and h�s foundat�on pa�d for the bu�ld�ng, des�gned by el�el saar�nen, to house �t. In 1941, the Nat�onal Gallery of Art opened on the mall �n the nat�on’s cap�tal. The Mellon fam�ly and foundat�on also donated funds for the gallery’s east Bu�ld�ng, des�gned by I. M. Pe�. It opened �n 1978. Var-den’s or�g�nal collect�on, greatly enlarged, �s housed �n the newly renovated old Patent off�ce Bu�ld�ng and �s known as the sm�thson�an Amer�can Art


Museum. The collect�on �ncludes the works of more than 7,000 Amer�can art�sts.8

The Nat�onal Gallery of Art was not the f�rst federal art museum. The sm�thson�an’s f�rst f�ne art museum was the Freer Gallery. Charles Lang Freer (1854–1919) made a fortune as a ra�lroad car manufacturer �n de-tro�t. He was an av�d collector of As�an art and Buddh�st sculpture. He gave h�s collect�on to the nat�on along w�th the money to bu�ld a museum. The Freer Gallery opened �n 1923. The Arthur M. sackler Gallery of As�an Art �s connected to the Freer and was opened �n 1987 to house dr. sackler’s (1913–1987) g�ft to the country.9

There was one case, however, �n wh�ch the U.s. government aggress�vely pursued a new collect�on and museum. Pres�dent Lyndon Johnson, not known as an art af�c�onado, sealed the deal w�th f�nanc�er Joseph H. H�rsh-horn to donate h�s collect�on of sculpture, Amer�can modern�sts, and French Impress�on�sts to the Amer�can people. H�rshhorn, born �n Latv�a �n 1899, made h�s fortune �n the uran�um m�n�ng bus�ness and cons�dered �t an honor to donate h�s art to the people of the Un�ted states. Although H�rshhorn also donated $1 m�ll�on toward the Gordon Bunshaft–des�gned H�rschhorn Museum and sculpture Garden of the sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on, government funds made �t happen. Ground was broken for the H�rshhorn �n 1969, and �t opened �n 1974. Joseph H�rshhorn, who d�ed �n 1981, left substant�ally all h�s art to the museum.10 w�th the establ�shment of the Nat�onal endowment for the Arts �n 1965, �t may have seemed that the federal government was about to embark on a cont�nu�ng program to support the arts.

Amer�ca’s great art museums were founded and nurtured not by govern-ment, but by the �n�t�at�ves of c�t�zens, part�cularly wealthy c�t�zens. New york C�ty’s Metropol�tan Museum of Art, arguably one of the world’s great museums, was founded �n 1870 by wealthy art patrons and art�sts seek�ng to further the democrat�c �deal of gett�ng art out of pr�vate collect�ons and to the people. It took nearly 100 years after the Amer�can revolut�on be-fore museums began to be establ�shed—br�ng�ng art to the Amer�can people was, therefore, a noble �deal. Banker and f�nanc�er w�ll�am w�lson Corcoran (1798–1888), one of Amer�ca’s few collectors of Amer�can art, donated h�s collect�on and the bu�ld�ng that housed �t to a board of trustees, who ran the congress�onally chartered, tax-exempt Corcoran Gallery of Art. The Corcoran �n wash�ngton, d.C., opened �n 1874. The Ph�ladelph�a Museum of Art was chartered �n 1876 as the Pennsylvan�a Museum and school of Industr�al Art. Aga�n, local bus�ness leaders, who wanted a school to support local art and text�le �ndustr�es, and art�sts, notably Thomas eak�ns (1844–1916), got to-gether to see that the C�ty of Brotherly Love would have an art museum. The genes�s for the movement was Ph�ladelph�a’s Centenn�al expos�t�on of 1876.


The permanent bu�ld�ng, called Memor�al Hall, was to be the expos�t�on’s art museum. The success of the Centenn�al expos�t�on was, �n turn, the genes�s of c�t�zens of C�nc�nnat�, oh�o, dec�d�ng to found an art museum, wh�ch opened �n 1886. The Art Inst�tute of Ch�cago was founded �n 1879 as the Ch�cago Academy of F�ne Arts, both a school and museum, as Ph�ladelph�a’s had been, and Mrs. Henry F�eld was �ts f�rst major donor.

The movement to establ�sh art museums went all over the country. The Los Angeles County Museum of Art, now w�th extens�ve and d�verse collec-t�ons, was establ�shed �n 1910 w�thout a collect�on. The Museum of F�ne Arts �n Houston, Texas, opened �n 1924, the result of 24 years of work by the Houston Publ�c school Art League. Today, Amer�ca has more than 1,700 art museums, and some of �ts most s�gn�f�cant ones were founded �n the twent�eth century. wealthy art collectors and patrons Mary sull�van, Abby Aldr�ch rockefeller, and L�ll�e P. Bl�ss founded the Museum of Modern Art �n 1929 �n New york C�ty because the large museums were reluctant to col-lect modern and contemporary art. Thus was establ�shed one of the world’s prem�er art museums. Major duncan Ph�ll�ps and h�s w�fe, Marjor�e, left the�r wash�ngton, d.C., home �n 1930 for another res�dence, turn�ng the�r old home �nto an art museum. The Ph�ll�ps Collect�on �s a major �nst�tut�on of modern art and �ts or�g�ns. Gertrude Vanderb�lt wh�tney founded the wh�tney Museum �n 1931, w�th her own collect�on of twent�eth-century Amer�can art as �ts foundat�on. The Fr�ck Collect�on was created and en-dowed by Henry Clay Fr�ck, the P�ttsburgh steel magnate. when he d�ed �n 1919, he requested that h�s New york C�ty res�dence become a museum to house h�s hundreds of artworks, �nclud�ng old masters, after the death of h�s w�fe. The museum opened to the publ�c �n 1935.

o�lman J. Paul Getty opened the J. Paul Getty Museum at h�s Mal�bu, Cal�forn�a, ranch �n 1954. s�nce 1984, the trustees of h�s estate have sought to promote Getty’s bel�ef �n art as a human�z�ng �nfluence by expand�ng the museum’s programs beyond the or�g�nal campus w�th the Getty Center �n Los Angeles, des�gned by r�chard Me�er and Partners and opened �n 1997. The collect�ons have been greatly enhanced beyond Getty’s collect�on of ant�qu�t�es and european pa�nt�ngs and furn�ture. In 1937, �ndustr�al�st solomon r. Guggenhe�m establ�shed h�s eponymous foundat�on to oper-ate museums based on h�s collect�ons of nonobject�ve art. wh�le solomon’s artworks were put �nto travel�ng shows and h�s n�ece Peggy Guggenhe�m was mak�ng her own name �n the art world as a dealer and patron, the f�rst permanent home for the Guggenhe�m opened �n Frank Lloyd wr�ght’s fa-mous New york C�ty landmark �n 1959. The K�mbell Art Museum �n Fort worth, Texas, opened �n a Lou�s I. Kahn–des�gned bu�ld�ng �n 1972. It was establ�shed through a foundat�on by entrepreneur Kay K�mbell, h�s w�fe, and


h�s w�fe’s s�ster and her husband. The museum houses a d�verse collect�on reach�ng back to ant�qu�ty.

Travel�ng museum exh�b�ts take �mportant art throughout the country. The Museum of Contemporary Art (MoCA) �n Cleveland, oh�o, recently exh�b�ted some of the pa�nt�ngs of dana schutz (1976–) completed between 2002 and 2006. schutz tr�ed to extend real�ty �nto the �mag�nary �n her pa�nt-�ngs. These �ncluded select�ons from her ser�es self-eaters. MoCA also ex-h�b�ted two shows of Cather�ne op�e’s (1961–) photographs, “1999” and “In and Around the House.” The “1999” photographs were taken on a tr�p around the country �n 1999; the photographs of the other show dep�ct a close look at Amer�can l�fe at home, w�th op�e’s fam�ly as subjects. In an exh�b�t called sarah Kabot: on the Fl�p s�de, emerg�ng Cleveland art�st sarah Kabot (1976–) had the opportun�ty to show her �nterest �n the relat�onsh�p between form and content through her art, wh�ch �ncluded transform�ng a sp�ral note-book �nto a new mean�ng.11

In Houston, Texas, the Contemporary Arts Museum presented �ts patrons w�th the travel�ng exh�b�t K�k� sm�th: A Gather�ng, 1980–2005. sm�th’s explorat�on of human�ty and sp�r�tual�ty could be d�scovered �n about 250 works �n d�verse med�a. In �ts Perspect�ves ser�es, the museum g�ves art�sts the�r f�rst opportun�t�es for museum exh�b�t�on. Art�sts who have lately ex-h�b�ted �n th�s ser�es �nclude M�chael B�se, who draws domest�c scenes; soody shar�f�, who photographs commun�t�es; Janak� Lenn�e, who pa�nts c�tyscapes; and demetr�us ol�ver, who �s a Houston conceptual art�st engaged �n per-formance, sculpture, and photography. The Houston museum also mounted a travel�ng retrospect�ve of sam G�ll�am’s (1933–) draped pa�nt�ngs. G�ll�am took canvases off stretchers and walls, turn�ng them �nto three-d�mens�onal �nstallat�ons.12

The Contemporary Art Center of V�rg�n�a �n V�rg�n�a Beach featured wa-ter�ng, an exh�b�t�on of 24 photographs by el�jah Gow�n (1967–). Gow�n used compos�te photos from the Internet that he bu�lt d�g�tally �nto mon-tages, and wh�ch he then, as negat�ves, put through a scann�ng and pr�nt-�ng process to �nvoke contemporary mean�ng for the act of bapt�z�ng. The Butler Inst�tute of Amer�can Art �n youngstown, oh�o, showed L�ghtboxes and Melts. Art�st ray Howlett (1940–) produced l�ght sculptures us�ng Led technology. The san Franc�sco Museum of Modern Art featured a nearly three-month run of the draw�ng restra�nt ser�es, an ongo�ng work of art by Matthew Barney (1967–). It �s a performance-based project that employs f�lm, photography, draw�ng, sculpture, and v�deo to �nvest�gate the �dea that form comes out of struggle aga�nst res�stance.13

The attendance rate for art museums across the Un�ted states �s 34.9 per-cent, wh�ch means that only about one �n three Amer�cans v�s�ts an art


museum �n a g�ven year. There are reg�onal var�at�ons, however, �n atten-dance rates. New england (42.4%), the M�d-Atlant�c (38.7%), and the Pac�f�c Northwest w�th Hawa�� (39.7%) exceed the nat�onal average. The attendance rate �n the south Atlant�c reg�on �s bolstered by Flor�da (35.5%), but �ts overall rate �s only 30.5 percent. (Th�s reg�on �ncludes the states of Flor�da, Georg�a, south Carol�na, North Carol�na, V�rg�n�a, west V�r-g�n�a, Maryland, and delaware.) The west south central reg�on outs�de of Texas, wh�ch exactly meets the nat�onal rate, has an attendance rate of only 26.5 percent. Th�s reg�on �ncludes Texas as well as oklahoma, Lou�s�ana, and Arkansas. Art museum attendance �n the mounta�n states (Montana, Idaho, wyom�ng, Utah, Nevada, Ar�zona, Colorado, and New Mex�co) at 40 percent exceeds the nat�onal average. In the east south central reg�on, �nclud�ng Kentucky, Tennessee, M�ss�ss�pp�, and Alabama, the attendance rate at art museums �s a meager 24.8 percent. The M�dwest generally meets the nat�onal rate. when part�c�pat�on rates �n art exper�ences through telev�-s�on are cons�dered, however, most reg�ons come near or above the nat�onal rate of 45.1 percent. The east south central reg�on �s the notable excep-t�on at only 36.5 percent.14 The Amer�can Assoc�at�on of Museums reported �n 2003 that med�an annual attendance for art museums totaled 61,312, whereas zoos had 520,935; sc�ence and technology museums had 183,417; arboretums and botan�cal gardens had 119,575; ch�ldren’s/youth museums had 85,088; and natural h�story museums had 64,768.15

the Contemporary art Scene

The wh�tney B�enn�al �s an �mportant event that showcases contemporary Amer�can art and may therefore be cons�dered representat�ve of what �s hap-pen�ng �n the Amer�can art scene. Among the art�sts whose works were cho-sen for �nclus�on �n the 2006 B�enn�al, called day for N�ght, was Los Angeles art�st L�sa Lap�nsk� (1967–), whose �nstallat�on Nightstand was �nsp�red by the contrad�ct�on between s�mple shaker furn�ture and the rel�g�ous ecstasy dep�cted �n shaker g�ft draw�ngs. In th�s sculpture, the bas�c wooden n�ght-stand adorned w�th cur�ous decorat�ons seems to have exploded �n all d�rec-t�ons. Tr�sha donnelly (1974–) �s a conceptual/performance art�st from san Franc�sco. Her demonstrat�ons rely on unpred�ctab�l�ty to transcend the t�me and place of exh�b�t�on. For her, art �s ephemeral, but �t can be the veh�cle to a br�ef transcendent exper�ence. Lucas deg�ul�o (1977–), also work�ng out of san Franc�sco, l�kes to make small sculptures out of th�ngs he f�nds and transform them �nto a sort of otherness. H�s Can Barnacles �n the B�enn�al �s a barnacle-encrusted alum�num can.

Four Houston, Texas, art�sts, all members of otabenga Jones & Assoc�-ates, an art�sts’ collect�ve founded �n 2002 and ded�cated to educate young


Afr�can Amer�cans about the fullness of the Afr�can Amer�cans exper�ence, were p�cked for �nd�v�dual works �n the B�enn�al. Jamal Cyrus (1973–) �n-vented a myth�cal record company of the 1970s, and h�s collage, on a Cream album, dep�cts �n a cutout a group of Afr�can Amer�can m�l�tants march�ng w�th f�sts ra�sed and carry�ng a coff�n. H�s 2005 p�ece �s called The Dowling Street Martyr Brigade, “Towards a Walk in the Sun.” robert A. Pru�tt (1975–) sought to comment on the Afr�can Amer�cans struggle �n h�s 2005 This Do in Remembrance of Me. Ha�r, �Pods, a m�xer, w�ne, and other offer�ngs lay on a commun�on table. Kenya A. evans (1974–) employed texts to d�m�n�sh and bolster the �mportance of h�story books, wh�le a slave on the ground attempts to defend h�mself helplessly from a robot�c slave master. Her canvas �s t�tled Untitled (Overseer). A draw�ng by dawolu Jabar� Anderson (1973–) �s t�tled Frederick Douglass Self-Defense Manual Series, Infinite Step Escape Technique #1: Hand Seeks Cotton �s an �nk and acryl�c on paper that the art�st treated to g�ve �t an h�stor�cal look.

The 2006 wh�tney B�enn�al, �f noth�ng else, exposed the great d�vers�ty of Amer�can art today. Los Angeles–based Mark Grotjahn (1968–) showed h�s debt to the conceptual art of an earl�er era �n h�s Untitled (White But-terf ly). Matthew Monahan (1972–), also based �n Los Angeles, explored the human body �ns�de and outs�de �n h�s draw�ngs and sculptures. Another Los Angeles–based art�st, Mark Bradford (1961–), �s famous for h�s m�xed med�a collages, �nstallat�ons, and v�deos that may �nclude str�ng, magaz�ne pages, and ads found on c�ty lampposts.

Angela strasshe�m (1969–), who d�v�des her t�me between New york C�ty and M�nneapol�s, M�nnesota, employed her tra�n�ng as a forens�c photogra-pher to create extremely cr�sp color photographs of the grotesque and the or-d�nary. Anthony Burd�n of Cal�forn�a, who �ns�sts on be�ng ageless, made h�s fame s�ng�ng along w�th tunes as he photographed the pass�ng scenery from h�s 1973 Chevy Nova, �n wh�ch he cla�ms to have l�ved. New yorker Kelley walker (1969–) used a computer, scanner, and photo software along w�th such th�ngs as smeared and dabbled chocolate and toothpaste on arch�val �m-ages to create d�g�tally pr�nted two-d�mens�onal abstracts. In Aust�n, Texas, Troy Braunt�ch (1954–), work�ng from photographs, has managed to ve�l representat�onal art to make �t someth�ng other than �tself. H�s 2005 Untitled (Shirts2) �n the B�enn�al, a 63 by 51 �nch conté crayon on black cotton dep�c-t�on of folded sh�rts �n a rack, �s almost ethereal. There �s noth�ng ethereal, however, about dash snow’s (1981–) photographs of h�s l�fe �n New york C�ty, �nclud�ng a dog eat�ng garbage.

Invent�ve Amer�can art�sts can turn about anyth�ng �nto art, as the B�en-n�al demonstrated. New york C�ty’s dan Colen (1979–) used wood, steel, o�l pa�nt, pap�er-mâché, felt, and styrofoam to create Untitled. Th�s 96 by 108


by 96 �nch sculpture appears to be a poorly constructed, graff�t�-encrusted wooden fence, the k�nd of fence the l�ttle rascals may have bu�lt around the�r clubhouse. Los Angeles sculptor L�z Larner (1960–), who uses color to draw attent�on to her works, rather than form, used alum�num tub�ng, fabr�c and r�bbons, batt�ng, w�re rope, padlocks, and keys to create her 82 by 117 by 117 �nch RWBs �n the wh�tney show. It appears to be a completely formless but colorful p�le of st�ffened spaghett�.16

wh�le the wh�tney B�enn�al shows may be sa�d to be mounted w�th�n the trad�t�on of avant-garde Amer�can art �n the sp�r�t of art for art’s sake, the U.s. government uses Amer�can art for pol�t�cs’ sake, thus reveal�ng another s�de of Amer�can art. The embass�es of the Un�ted states around the world act �n part as art museums to show Amer�can art. The U.s. department of state establ�shed �ts ArT �n embass�es Program �n 1964 to mount exh�b�t�ons of or�g�nal Amer�can art �n the publ�c rooms of d�plomat�c �nstallat�ons at some 180 �nternat�onal locat�ons. The purpose of the program �s to “prov�de �nter-nat�onal aud�ences w�th a sense of the qual�ty, scope, and d�vers�ty of Amer�-can art and culture” through the work of Amer�can art�sts.17 In 2004, the ArT �n embass�es Program, work�ng w�th the Bureau of Internat�onal Infor-mat�on Programs, showcased 17 of the younger program art�sts �n the hope of �ncreas�ng “�nternat�onal understand�ng” and �n the bel�ef that exper�enc�ng the�r art would also be to exper�ence the fundamental Amer�can values of “�nnovat�on, d�vers�ty, freedom, �nd�v�dual�sm [and] compet�t�ve excellence.” The�r works were chosen because they reflect “the great �mag�nat�ve var�ety of the current Amer�can art scene.”18

Among the art�sts whose works are shown around the world �s Ph�l�p Ar-gent (1962–), who l�ves �n santa Barbara, Cal�forn�a. He �s �nfluenced by the layer�ng of v�sual effects �n the way that w�ndows software presents �nforma-t�on. He uses that techn�que and puts together seen objects w�th �mag�ned ones to produce var�ous opt�cal effects. H�s acryl�c and d�amond dust on canvas called Window Drop #1 (2000) �s a pr�mary example of h�s techn�que. Graham Caldwell (1973–) of wash�ngton, d.C., sculpts �n glass. H�s 2002 work Elizabeth’s Tears �llustrates �n glass, steel, water, and wood h�s explora-t�on of connect�on and �nterdependence. New Mex�co art�st Lauren Camp (1966–) des�gns colorful threadworks about jazz because she cla�ms to be able to hear colors and shapes �n the mus�c. New york C�ty photographer Gregory Crewdson (1962–) attempts to �nvolve v�ewers of h�s work �n a nar-rat�ve from a frozen moment �n t�me. In h�s Natural wonders ser�es, he uses the beauty of nature to engage the v�ewer. New york C�ty nat�ve H�llary steel (1959–) �s a text�le art�st. Her use of color �s ord�nar�ly qu�te br�ght, but her Current Events (2001) �s made of hand-woven newspaper and cotton, mak�ng her po�nt that the cloth or fabr�c �tself has a structure and a h�story


that allows �t to del�ver messages. w�ll Cotton (1964–), who l�ves �n New york C�ty, does o�l pa�nt�ngs of confect�ons on l�nen. H�s pa�nt�ngs, such as Brittle House (2000), a m�n�ature, �dyll�c cottage made of peanut br�ttle, and Flanpond (2002), four flans that appear to be float�ng on flowery water, look good enough to eat and evoke a perfect world of unfettered consumpt�on. N�cole Cohen (1970–) of Los Angeles �s a v�deo �nstallat�on art�st. P�ctures of rooms become the stages (a d�g�tal pr�nt) on wh�ch a performance v�deo �s projected. sant�ago Cucullu (1969–) was born �n Argent�na but ra�sed �n the Un�ted states. He �s �nterested �n large wall p�eces, wh�ch �nclude Lunchtime, the Best of Times (2002), a h�gh shelf of folded plast�c tablecloths, and Come to Me (2002), a wall of colorful plast�c table sk�rt�ng.

Benjam�n edwards (1970–) of wash�ngton, d.C., chooses h�s subject matter out of the consumer soc�ety he �nhab�ts to create new syntheses from unorgan�zed real�t�es, as �n h�s Starbucks, Seattle: Compression (1998). K�ev-born Valer�e dem�anchuk, now of New york C�ty, �ntens�f�es the essence of her subject matter �n deta�led graph�te draw�ngs on pla�n draw�ng paper; her 2001 Terra Firma (Dry Land) �s but one example. Jason Falchook of wash�ngton, d.C., �s a photographer who explores l�fe w�th�n the boundar-�es of commun�t�es and somet�mes uses �nkjet pr�nters to produce h�s p�eces. Trenton doyle Hancock’s (1974–) m�xed med�a p�eces are �nsp�red by the d�scarded th�ngs (garbage) he f�nds, wh�ch, he bel�eves, have the�r own sto-r�es to tell. dante Mar�on� (1964–) �s a glassblower who creates h�s colorful and fanc�ful p�eces �n homage to the h�story of the craft. stacy Levy (1960–) of Ph�ladelph�a uses her art, rather than sc�ence, to evoke a he�ghtened sense of nature. Her Mold Garden (1999–2002) �s made of sandblasted glass, agar, and mold spores.19

Folk art

Amer�can folk art, more pejorat�vely known as pr�m�t�ve art or naïve art, �s the product of unschooled art�sts and arguably an unvarn�shed �ns�ght �nto Amer�can l�fe. Th�s �s outs�der art—outs�de the academ�c trad�t�on. Amer�-ca’s best-known folk art�st was probably Anna Mary robertson Moses, or Grandma Moses (1860–1961). A farmer’s w�fe and mother of f�ve ch�ldren who l�ved �n rural eastern New york state, she d�d not take up pa�nt�ng unt�l she was �n her sevent�es. w�th a br�ght palette, she dep�cted the s�mple l�fe and the natural beauty around her. Her pa�nt�ngs are of a happy Amer�ca. earl Cunn�ngham (1893–1977) was born �n Ma�ne but eventually settled �n st. August�ne, Flor�da. He had been a t�nker, a seaman who worked up and down the Atlant�c coast, and a ch�cken farmer before he opened h�s cur�o shop �n Flor�da �n 1949. even before mov�ng to Flor�da, however, he had begun to pa�nt v�v�dly colored fanc�ful landscapes of the places he had v�s�ted.


These, too, are happy pa�nt�ngs. Cunn�ngham’s works are the foundat�on of the Mennello Museum of Amer�can Art �n orlando, Flor�da.20

The essence of folk art �s self-express�on. wh�le some early Amer�can folk art�sts l�ke Joshua Johnson (1763–1824) and Amm� Ph�ll�ps (1788–1865) were portra�t pa�nters, Pennsylvan�a art�st edward H�cks (1780–1849), a Quaker and a preacher, used many of h�s pa�nt�ngs to del�ver moral and rel�g�ous lessons. B�ll Traylor (1854–1949) was born a slave �n Alabama. For 82 years, he rema�ned at the place where he was born, and then he moved to nearby Montgomery, Alabama, where he began draw�ng the scenes around h�m. Henry darger (1892–1973), who stole h�mself out of a deplorable ch�l-dren’s home for the so-called feeble-m�nded to become a jan�tor �n Ch�cago, created an ent�re unreal l�fe �n h�s small apartment, wr�tten and �llustrated by h�mself. The Amer�can Folk Art Museum �n New york C�ty celebrates outs�der Art week �n January.

arChiteCture and housing

The mother art �s arch�tecture. w�thout an arch�tecture of our own we have no soul of our own c�v�l�zat�on.

—Frank Lloyd wr�ght

It �s cur�ous that no one anywhere would �dent�fy a photograph of any street �n any Amer�can c�ty as a street �n Johannesburg, Par�s, Istanbul, or r�o de Jane�ro because �t looks Amer�can. yet for all the efforts of arch�tects at one t�me to create an Amer�can arch�tecture, none emerged. L�kew�se, Amer�can res�dent�al ne�ghborhoods look Amer�can, but here aga�n, houses, too, appear to be cop�es of h�stor�cal rel�cs bu�lt w�th locally ava�lable mater�als. Amer�can bu�ld�ngs, hav�ng gone through a h�story of der�vat�ve european arch�tecture, are now sa�d to be eclect�c and reg�onal. A walk through any c�ty or res�dent�al ne�ghborhood proves the po�nt. Banks �n central c�t�es may demonstrate the�r f�nanc�al strength through Ion�c columns, romanesque stonework, or tower-�ng he�ghts �n glass and steel. In many suburban ne�ghborhoods, faux span�sh colon�al, French prov�nc�al, Tudor rev�val, dutch colon�al, and Greek rev�val houses may share the same block.

Th�s �s not to say that the potpourr� of styles that const�tutes Amer�-can arch�tecture, publ�c and res�dent�al, are not w�thout Amer�can values. George wash�ngton and Thomas Jefferson spent decades bu�ld�ng the�r homes, Mount Vernon and Mont�cello, to make statements that endure. wash�ngton, the consummate pract�cal farmer, m�l�tary hero, and father of the nat�on, found a way to wed the grand style bef�tt�ng a publ�c man w�th the comforts of pr�vate l�fe. H�s f�nal render�ng of Mount Vernon, garnered


from h�s perusal of the pedestr�an engl�sh bu�ld�ng gu�des ava�lable to h�m, suggested w�th Pallad�an and neoclass�cal accents that th�s home was a tem-ple of democracy. Call�ng to m�nd the anc�ent roman republ�c, Mount Ver-non became a symbol of the strength of democracy, an Amer�can castle, a sacrosanct place �n wh�ch the occupants were safe, a place repl�cated to th�s day all over Amer�ca.

For Jefferson, Mont�cello was as much a home as �t was an �dea and an �deal. He famously den�grated arch�tecture �n colon�al Amer�ca. Jefferson sought perfect�on �n class�cal arch�tecture, borrow�ng l�berally from en-gl�sh and French arch�tectural stud�es of class�cal bu�ld�ngs. The d�sc�pl�nes of art and arch�tecture blurred �n Jefferson’s works. He bel�eved Amer�ca needed arch�tecture to express �ts un�que place �n the world, and �t was he who would proffer the reworked roman temple as the exemplar of Amer�can democrat�c arch�tecture: bold, pure, sol�d. In fact, Jefferson’s des�gn for the V�rg�n�a statehouse, w�dely cop�ed �n the south for l�brar�es and other publ�c bu�ld�ngs, was squarely based on a roman temple. what made Jefferson’s arch�tecture Amer�can, however, was the freedom he felt to blend and marry d�ffer�ng class�cal styles together. It was Jefferson who would set the tone for Amer�ca’s asp�rat�ons and publ�c arch�tecture for years to come.

american Cities

Amer�can c�t�es look young and orderly. They express a k�nd of hopeful-ness and v�tal�ty. Most of them were la�d out on gr�ds, w�th stra�ght streets and broad avenues. wh�le sect�ons of c�t�es developed over t�me around en-trepreneur�al v�s�ons punctuated by freestand�ng, s�ngle arch�tectural state-ments, the gr�d ma�nta�ns a certa�n c�v�c un�ty. It also def�nes the footpr�nts of the bu�ld�ngs and the publ�c spaces where commerce can take place.

The rap�d expans�on of the Un�ted states was all about the successful entrepreneur�al commerce that took place on Ma�n street Amer�ca. For a century from the 1850s, these small-town and c�ty commerc�al centers pro-v�ded one-stop shopp�ng for burgeon�ng populat�ons and bus�nesses. Grocery stores, drugstores, hardware stores, furn�ture stores, cloth�ng stores, empo-r�ums, shoe stores, jewelry stores, banks, hotels, theaters, restaurants, doc-tors’ and lawyers’ off�ces, repa�r shops, candy stores, b�ll�ard halls, bars and gr�lls—all these and more came together �n commerc�al bu�ld�ngs remarkably al�ke across the country. Amer�ca’s commerc�al Ma�n street arch�tecture was dom�nated by the supremacy of street-level trade; that �s, access to f�rst-floor bus�nesses from w�de s�dewalks that �nv�ted bus�ness act�v�ty was easy, and park�ng for horses and bugg�es and cars was �mmed�ately ava�lable off the s�dewalks. one-story bus�nesses, �n detached bu�ld�ngs and rows, popped up everywhere. The popular two- and three-story bu�ld�ngs were clearly def�ned


�nto two zones: the commerc�al, publ�c spaces on the f�rst floor and more pr�-vate spaces on upper floors. Thus doctors’ off�ces m�ght be above drugstores or hotel rooms or apartments above shoe stores. some twent�eth-century bu�ld�ngs began to feature framed large w�ndows for d�splays, and as land val-ues �ncreased, bu�ld�ngs began gett�ng taller, but f�ve stor�es was cons�dered a max�mum, unt�l passenger elevators and structural steel made the sky the l�m�t.21

No matter the style of the façades, wh�ch were often des�gned �n the style prevalent at the t�me, Ma�n street Amer�ca st�ll has a fam�l�ar feel for Amer�-cans, even though �t has fallen on hard t�mes. w�th the sh�ft of populat�on to suburbs and the development of shopp�ng malls to serve �t, large central c�ty commerc�al d�str�cts fell �nto d�suse and d�srepa�r. L�kew�se, the thou-sands of Ma�n streets �n small towns across the country exper�enced a s�m�lar dem�se because small mom-and-pop bus�nesses could not compete aga�nst b�g cha�n stores w�th more var�ety and better pr�ces. In Amer�can memory, however, Ma�n street �s the real Amer�ca—a safe place w�th a bustl�ng fr�end-l�ness and hardwork�ng, honest merchants who treat the�r customers as k�ngs and queens. Happ�ly, urban renewal and h�stor�c preservat�on programs have brought some Ma�n streets back, re�ncarnated as spec�alty shops and bou-t�ques that may make the�r revenues more from Internet sales than foot trade. The b�g crowds are at the shopp�ng malls. That old Ma�n street Amer�ca feel-�ng, replete w�th penny candy and �ce cream sodas, �s now mostly the stuff of theme park–�nduced �mag�nat�on.

The only th�ng that could be more �dyll�c than v�s�t�ng walt d�sney world’s Ma�n street would be to l�ve �n �t, or at least a vers�on of �t. seas�de, an 80-acre development on Flor�da’s northern Gulf Coast, hatched a movement called the new urbanism. Begun �n 1981, �ts pastel-pa�nted wooden cottages w�th front porches catch the Gulf breezes. wh�te p�cket fences both def�ne propert�es and �nv�te conversat�on w�th passers-by. everyth�ng �s w�th�n walk-�ng d�stance: the small stores and the town square where commun�ty events take place. The streets are narrower than Amer�cans are accustomed to; cars do not dom�nate the streets, and garages do not dom�nate the front of the homes. In fact, the ent�re development �s scaled down from normal s�ze to g�ve �t the feel of a manageable urban env�ronment. Cr�t�cs may have called seas�de a la-la land w�th str�ct rules, but �t sparked a revolut�on.

The pr�mary arch�tects of seas�de, Andres duany and el�zabeth Plater-Zyberk, were among the founders of the Congress for the New Urban�sm �n 1993. It now cla�ms some 2,000 members worldw�de. The congress’s charter takes a stand �n favor of restor�ng urban centers, rat�onal�z�ng suburban sprawl “�nto commun�t�es of real ne�ghborhoods,” conserv�ng the env�ronment, and preserv�ng what �s already bu�lt. Furthermore, �t declares that land develop-


ment pol�c�es and pract�ces should further d�vers�ty “�n use and populat�on”; support the automob�le as well as mass trans�t and pedestr�an traff�c; shape urban areas by the use of “access�ble publ�c spaces and commun�ty �nst�tut�ons”; and employ arch�tecture and landscape des�gn based on “local h�story, cl�mate, ecology, and bu�ld�ng pract�ce” to frame urban areas. F�nally, the group’s char-ter comm�ts to “reestabl�sh�ng the relat�onsh�p between the art of bu�ld�ng and the mak�ng of commun�ty.” Th�s would occur only when c�t�zens part�c�pate �n plann�ng and des�gn�ng the�r commun�t�es.22 Ideal�sm �s not dead �n Amer�can arch�tecture; look�ng back to an �deal�zed past �s always comfortable.

Amer�ca’s efforts to rev�tal�ze urban centers began �n the 1960s and cont�n-ues. In the largest c�t�es, urban malls, some of them spectacular, l�ke L�berty Place �n Ph�ladelph�a, were bu�lt around subway and tra�n stops. The value of waterfront property was real�zed �n New york C�ty’s south street seaport and Balt�more’s Inner Harbor. In Boston, a d�lap�dated old Faneu�l Hall was renovated and reborn as a modern marketplace. In wash�ngton, d.C., the old Post off�ce was recla�med as a tour�st attract�on featur�ng small shops and food, and the magn�f�cent tra�n stat�on near the Cap�tol was restored as a busy tour�st center, w�th a number of reta�l establ�shments and st�ll w�th arr�v�ng and depart�ng tra�ns as well as a subway stop. w�th developments l�ke san Franc�sco’s embarcadero Center and Ch�cago’s water Tower Place, Amer�can c�t�es have taken on a new look. The new Ma�n street of Amer�ca’s b�g c�t�es �s spac�ous, tall, glass and steel–encased reta�l, off�ce, eat�ng, and dr�nk�ng establ�shments and l�v�ng quarters that are not necessar�ly depen-dent on the automob�le. They are safe places.

american architects

Benjam�n Latrobe (1764–1820), who des�gned the U.s. Cap�tol, was Br�t-�sh, hav�ng come to Amer�ca �n 1796. even the f�rst U.s.-born Amer�can arch�tect, Charles Bullf�nch (1763–1844), traveled to europe for �nsp�rat�on. H�s Massachusetts state House, completed �n 1798, demonstrated h�s debt to the class�c�sm then current �n england.23 Amer�ca had no profess�onal ar-ch�tecture program, unt�l the f�rst was establ�shed �n 1865 at the Massachu-setts Inst�tute of Technology. There were 13 profess�onal programs by 1900, but they were all modeled after the ecole des Beaux-Arts �n Par�s, where many Amer�can arch�tects had stud�ed.24 Amer�ca’s affa�r w�th engl�sh clas-s�cal arch�tecture was therefore re�nforced by Beaux-Arts class�c�sm. Indeed, arch�tects chose class�cal bu�ld�ngs to make the statement to the world that the Un�ted states was no longer a second-rate power �n any respect at the 1893 world’s Columb�an expos�t�on �n Ch�cago.

skyscrapers were the chance for Amer�can arch�tects to sh�ne. In 1875, a skyscraper was a 10-story bu�ld�ng. when arch�tect Cass G�lbert’s New york


C�ty woolworth Bu�ld�ng was completed �n 1913, �t stacked 60 tall stor�es to a he�ght of 792 feet. In 1931, what was long Amer�ca’s tallest bu�ld�ng, the emp�re state Bu�ld�ng, was bu�lt to 102 stor�es and a total he�ght of 1,252 feet, dwarf�ng the 1930 Chrysler Bu�ld�ng at only 1,046 feet. These three skyscrapers def�ned and redef�ned the New york C�ty skyl�ne, yet they rema�n per�od p�eces. The woolworth Bu�ld�ng �s swept w�th Goth�c orna-ment. The vert�cal�ty of Goth�c arch�tecture seemed to lend �tself to sky-scrapers for there were no other precedents for what these tall bu�ld�ngs m�ght look l�ke. The Chrysler Bu�ld�ng �s full-blown art deco, w�th decora-t�on relat�ng to automob�les, Chrysler’s l�vel�hood. The emp�re state Bu�ld-�ng �s �n a muted art deco style.

operat�ng out of Ch�cago, arch�tect Lou�s sull�van (1856–1924) had some �deas about tall bu�ld�ngs. He bel�eved that they should embrace the�r tallness �n new ways and that the�r forms should follow the bu�ld�ngs’ funct�ons. The wa�nwr�ght Bu�ld�ng �n downtown st. Lou�s, wh�ch was completed �n 1892, �s on the Nat�onal reg�ster of H�stor�c Places because sull�van and h�s part-ner, dankmar Adler, dealt w�th steel and glass and br�ck and terra cotta for a tall bu�ld�ng �n an ent�rely new way.

The 10-story wa�nwr�ght Bu�ld�ng respected the urban trad�t�on of d�f-ferent�at�ng publ�c from off�ce funct�ons �n the façade. The f�rst two stor�es are def�ned as reta�l and publ�c space—th�s was form follow�ng funct�on. However, �n no other respect was th�s bu�ld�ng trad�t�onal. The br�ck p�ers of the façade that extend from above the second floor to the terra cotta corn�ce that caps the bu�ld�ng suggest the strength of the structural steel they h�de, but more s�gn�f�cantly, they suggest the tallness of the bu�ld�ng �tself. L�ke-w�se, the larger corner posts, although not structurally funct�onal, suggest the strength of the steel that �s really the structure of the bu�ld�ng �n terms recog-n�zable to the un�n�t�ated. Terra cotta spandrels or panels between the w�n-dows lend hor�zontal cues to the bu�ld�ng. sull�van var�ed the organ�c des�gns of the spandrels above each floor, thus solv�ng the �ssue of ornament �n th�s new arch�tecture. These terra cotta panels as well as the corn�ce were not the work of art�sans, but they could be produced mechan�cally. wh�le sull�van’s des�gn of the wa�nwr�ght Bu�ld�ng predated the modern skyscraper, �t was dec�dedly an Amer�can contr�but�on to the tall bu�ld�ng.

The Un�ted states now has n�ne skyscrapers that hover above 1,000 feet. Among the top f�ve are the sears Tower �n Ch�cago, w�th 110 stor�es, wh�ch �s the tallest at 1,450 feet. The emp�re state Bu�ld�ng �s 102 stor�es at 1,250 feet. The Aon Centre �n Ch�cago, although only 80 stor�es, r�ses to a he�ght of 1,136 feet. Ch�cago also has Amer�ca’s fourth tallest bu�ld�ng, the John Han-cock Center, wh�ch has 100 stor�es at 1,127 feet. New york C�ty’s Chrysler Bu�ld�ng, w�th 77 stor�es, r�ses to 1,046 feet.


Another or�g�nal Amer�can arch�tect worked for Adler and sull�van from 1888 unt�l 1903. Frank Lloyd wr�ght (1867–1959) always cla�med sull�-van as h�s mentor, even though h�s �nfluences were qu�te d�verse and even �ncluded Japanese arch�tecture. wr�ght’s endur�ng legacy to Amer�can arch�-tecture would be h�s l�berat�on of the house from a rabb�t warren to an open space, but h�s f�nal work, the solomon r. Guggenhe�m Museum �n New york C�ty, gave Amer�ca one of �ts s�gnature bu�ld�ngs. If wr�ght was a mem-ber of any part�cular school, �t was h�s own. H�s cant�levered bu�ld�ngs and houses suggested an organ�c arch�tecture spr�ng�ng from nature l�ke branches unfold�ng from trees. Nature and technology could be complementary. In the Guggenhe�m, however, technology and modern mater�als—molded concrete and steel—are formed �nto a plast�c sculpture. The form of the sculpture was def�ned by the funct�on of a museum: to v�ew art, �n th�s case, on sp�ral�ng ramps. The museum was completed �n 1959, shortly after wr�ght’s death.

In 1932, Amer�can arch�tecture was awakened from �ts class�cal slum-ber by a show at the Museum of Modern Art �n New york that was called Modern Arch�tecture: Internat�onal exh�b�t�on. The show went on the road,

The solomon r. Guggenhe�m Museum �n New york C�ty, de-s�gned by Frank Lloyd wr�ght, stands out arch�tecturally. Corb�s.


and a book called The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 by Henry russell H�tchcock and Ph�l�p Johnson was based on �t.25 Johnson would later attend arch�tecture school and prove one of �ts most famous pract�t�on-ers. The �nternat�onal style—modern arch�tecture—opened a new avenue of express�on for Amer�can arch�tecture because �t condemned h�stor�cal decorat�on, class�cal symmetry, and mass, all the stuff of trad�t�onal Amer�-can arch�tecture. As fate would have �t, two of europe’s greatest modern�st arch�tects ended up as c�t�zens of the Un�ted states. walter Grop�us, who founded the Bauhaus �n Germany �n 1919, came to the Un�ted states to d�-rect Harvard’s Graduate school of des�gn �n 1937, ret�r�ng �n 1952. In that same year, Ludw�g M�es van der rohe came to the Un�ted states and was ensconced �n the Armour Inst�tute of Technology as head of �ts arch�tecture program from 1938 unt�l 1958. M�es’s seagram Bu�ld�ng �n New york C�ty, completed �n 1958, �s cons�dered the he�ght of h�s work and spawned glass and steel towers of s�mple elegance �n many of Amer�ca’s largest c�t�es. To M�es, less was more.

It was Ph�l�p Johnson (1906–2005) who f�rst brought M�es to Amer�ca, and he collaborated w�th h�m on the seagram Bu�ld�ng. The pure l�nes of �nternat�onal-style glass and steel towers became so ub�qu�tous across Amer-�ca’s c�t�es (Amer�ca was not alone �n th�s exper�ence) that they atta�ned a k�nd of anonym�ty, save for the color of the glass. Most Amer�cans found them ster�le and bereft of mean�ng. Johnson’s famous glass house, an homage to M�es, wh�ch he bu�lt �n 1949 �n New Canaan, Connect�cut, �s a case �n po�nt. Th�s glass and steel box looked more l�ke an arch�tectural statement than home sweet home to the Amer�can eye, but Johnson l�ved �n �t. In the dom�nant arch�tectural c�rcles, however, modern�sm represented the perfect m�ngl�ng of mater�als, technology, prec�s�on, and art—the essence of modern arch�tecture. The form and the mater�als were themselves the decorat�on.

Johnson, however, began to crawl out of the box, as �t were. In 1967, he jo�ned w�th arch�tect John Burgee. In the�r des�gn for the Ids Center �n M�nneapol�s, M�nnesota, completed �n 1973, modern arch�tecture appeared sleek, but w�th human spaces—a glass atr�um and elevated walkways. The�r 1976 Pennzo�l Place �n Houston was another �nnovat�on—modern arch�-tecture truly out of the box and now shaped to dramat�c effect. Johnson then began wedd�ng h�stor�c�sm to modern arch�tecture methods. H�s 1984 republ�cbank Center �n Houston was topped w�th ever-taller three-stepped pyram�ds. H�s AT&T Bu�ld�ng (now sony) �n New york C�ty, also �n 1984, was controvers�al—�t was apparently �nsp�red by furn�ture, a Ch�ppendale h�ghboy. wh�le controvers�al, �t was another arch�tectural statement by Johnson, namely, that the european modern�sm he helped to �ntroduce to


Amer�ca and that dom�nated Amer�can arch�tecture for 50 years was nearly dead.

The Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze was �naugurated �n 1979 to recogn�ze the world’s most s�gn�f�cant arch�tects. often referred to as arch�tecture’s Nobel Pr�ze, Ph�l�p Johnson was �ts f�rst rec�p�ent. In accept�ng the pr�ze, Johnson noted that “new understand�ngs are sweep�ng the art.” He hoped that arch�-tects m�ght, as they had �n the past, “jo�n pa�nt�ng and sculpture once more to enhance our l�ves.”26

Modern�st arch�tects were employ�ng technology to bu�ld forms other than boxes. one of Amer�ca’s most recogn�zable bu�ld�ngs, w�ll�am Pere�ra Assoc�ates’ 1972 Transamer�ca Pyram�d �n san Franc�sco, def�nes both the corporat�on (�t appears �n all �ts advert�sements) and the c�tyscape. Kev�n roche and John d�nkeloo completed the sculptures that had been des�gned under eero saar�nen after h�s death. Two of the bu�ld�ngs are qu�te fam�l�ar to travelers: the old TwA term�nal at New york’s JFK Internat�onal A�rport and wash�ngton, d.C.’s, dulles Internat�onal A�rport. roche was awarded the Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze �n 1982, a year after d�nkeloo’s death. Ieoh M�ng Pe�, born �n Ch�na �n 1917, came to Amer�ca from Ch�na �n 1935. He became the master of geometr�cal shapes �n arch�tecture. H�s well-known des�gns �nclude the John F�tzgerald Kennedy L�brary and Museum outs�de Boston; the east Bu�ld�ng of the Nat�onal Gallery of Art �n the nat�on’s cap�tal; and the Jacob K. Jav�ts Center �n New york C�ty. Cleveland, oh�o, �s home to the rock and roll Hall of Fame and Museum, opened �n 1995 and des�gned by Pe�. H�s famous pyram�d at the Louvre �s known through-out the world.

Modern arch�tecture was tak�ng shape �n many d�fferent ways as arch�tects grew rest�ve under orthodox �nternat�onal style. robert Ventur� rece�ved the Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze �n 1991. The jury’s c�tat�on noted that h�s 1966 book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture “�s generally acknowl-edged to have d�verted the ma�nstream of arch�tecture away from modern-�sm.”27 Ventur� argued essent�ally that modern arch�tecture had lost context �n �ts struggle for s�mpl�c�ty and clar�ty. Bu�ld�ngs were be�ng des�gned to myth�c arch�tectural �deals, rather than to the s�te or h�stor�cal cues. The contrad�ct�on and complex�ty that can be observed �n the arch�tecture of any c�ty should be part and parcel of the new arch�tecture. There should not be one school of arch�tecture, but many. Bu�ld�ngs should have mean�ng. Thus none of Ventur�’s bu�ld�ngs look al�ke. The seattle Art Museum looks noth-�ng l�ke oberl�n College’s Allen Memor�al Art Museum.

The symbol�c end of modern arch�tecture �n Amer�ca occurred �n 1972 when the ma�n bu�ld�ngs of the modern�st Pru�tt-Igoe hous�ng project �n


st. Lou�s were dynam�ted. opened �n 1955 and des�gned by Amer�can arch�-tect M�noru yamasak�, who also des�gned New york C�ty’s �ll-fated world Trade Center tw�n towers, Pru�tt-Igoe represented h�gh-r�se hous�ng for the poor �n a new age. By the t�me �t was demol�shed, �t had become a drug-�nfested, cr�me-r�dden, hell�sh place. Modern arch�tecture, contrary to �ts hopes and bel�efs, proved not to be ennobl�ng.

Frank Gehry won the Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze �n 1989, and he was the last Amer�can to rece�ve that award unt�l Thom Mayne was named the laureate for 2005. Both operat�ng out of Cal�forn�a, they typ�fy where Amer�can arch�tecture �s now. Gehry ga�ned not�ce �n 1979 when he reno-vated h�s 1920s santa Mon�ca bungalow �nto a deconstructed express�on of arch�tecturally cur�ous mater�als (plywood, cha�n-l�nk fenc�ng) and un-expected planes. In h�s later and larger works, Gehry successfully used new technolog�es to create volum�nous space �n var�ous forms that came together �n bu�ld�ngs whose �nter�ors were sol�dly funct�onal. H�s Freder�ck r. we�s-man Art and Teach�ng Museum at the Un�vers�ty of M�nnesota, completed �n 1993, �s one such example. H�s Guggenhe�m Museum �n B�lbao, spa�n, f�n�shed �n 1997, �s an exqu�s�te example that r�vals and even vaguely recalls Frank Lloyd wr�ght’s Guggenhe�m �n New york. Clearly arch�tecture for h�m �s art, and h�s bu�ld�ngs are sculptures. The Pr�tzker jury compl�mented Gehry’s r�sk tak�ng and forward v�s�on at a t�me when most were look�ng backward. The jury also noted that Gehry’s work �s “refresh�ngly or�g�nal and totally Amer�can, proceed�ng as �t does from h�s popul�st southern Cal�-forn�a perspect�ve.”28

Thom Mayne founded h�s f�rm Morphos�s �n 1972 �n Los Angeles. He and h�s f�rm have des�gned bu�ld�ngs all around the world. However, as the Pr�tzker jury po�nted out, Mayne’s approach to arch�tecture “�s not der�ved from european modern�sm, As�an �nfluences, or even from Amer�can prec-edents of the last century.” Indeed, h�s work �s or�g�nal and “representat�ve of the un�que . . . culture of southern Cal�forn�a.”29 Mayne’s works defy la-bels, but they are absolutely marr�ages of art, technology, and eng�neer�ng that are at one w�th the�r env�ronments and attent�ve to cl�ents’ program object�ves. Mayne and h�s colleagues have des�gned a number of �nnovat�ve schools, �nclud�ng the celebrated d�amond ranch H�gh school �n Pomona (1999) and the sc�ence Center school (2004), as well as off�ce bu�ld�ngs and res�dent�al complexes �n the Los Angeles area, but the�r most �nterest-�ng des�gns may be yet to come. Morphos�s won the compet�t�on for the olymp�c V�llage �n New york C�ty and the state of Alaska’s new cap�tol. Th�s new cap�tol bu�ld�ng would �ncorporate a dome—the symbol of most state cap�tols, fash�oned after the U.s. Cap�tol—but not �n class�cal form. Th�s would be an ell�pt�cal, translucent dome that would be l�t as a beacon


of democracy �n a thoroughly contemporary sett�ng that could dom�nate the c�ty of Juneau.

housing

There are 119,117,000 hous�ng un�ts �n the Un�ted states of Amer�ca. exclud�ng seasonal hous�ng un�ts, there are 116,038,000 that may be oc-cup�ed year-round. The Amer�can dream �s to own a home, and when most Amer�cans th�nk of own�ng a home, they usually th�nk of a detached s�ngle-fam�ly house, that �s, a house whose walls stand alone and do not touch the ne�ghbor’s. More than 71.5 m�ll�on of Amer�ca’s hous�ng un�ts are those dream houses. There are also some 8.2 m�ll�on manufactured or mob�le home res�dent�al un�ts; 670,000 un�ts �n cooperat�ves; and 5.6 m�ll�on condom�n-�um un�ts. The rema�nder of the hous�ng un�ts are composed of attached structures such as apartment bu�ld�ngs, row houses, and townhouses. Half of all Amer�can hous�ng un�ts were bu�lt before 1969.30

only a l�ttle over 24.1 m�ll�on hous�ng un�ts l�e outs�de of metropol�tan stat�st�cal areas (MsAs), wh�ch are federally def�ned areas �n and around large populat�on centers (c�t�es) that are soc�oeconom�cally �nterdependent. MsAs are, then, urban areas that �nclude dependent suburbs. Almost 92 m�ll�on hous�ng un�ts l�e �ns�de MsAs, but of them, only about 35 m�ll�on are �n cen-tral c�t�es, whereas 57 m�ll�on are �n the suburbs of those c�t�es. Thus nearly half of Amer�ca’s hous�ng stock �s �n the suburbs.31

Amer�can year-round res�dences are not pr�m�t�ve by any standard. V�rtu-ally 100 percent have all plumb�ng fac�l�t�es and heat�ng equ�pment, w�th natural gas favored to electr�c�ty 59 percent to 37 percent. over 10.5 percent of res�dent�al un�ts use heat�ng o�l. The vast major�ty are t�ed �nto publ�c sewer and water systems. of the hous�ng un�ts, 114 m�ll�on of them have full k�tchens (s�nk, refr�gerator, stove or range), and 67 m�ll�on have d�shwashers; 52.6 m�ll�on have garbage d�sposals �nstalled �n the k�tchen s�nk, 90 m�ll�on have wash�ng mach�nes, and over 67 m�ll�on also have clothes dryers. over 65 m�ll�on have central a�r-cond�t�on�ng, but another 25 m�ll�on un�ts have w�ndow un�ts.

Bu�lders cont�nue to bu�ld the homes Amer�cans want. In 2005, they started 2.06 m�ll�on new hous�ng projects, of wh�ch 1.72 m�ll�on, about 85 percent, were s�ngle-fam�ly houses. The Amer�can dream comes, however, at a pr�ce. In 1980, the average pr�ce of a new home was $76,400. In 2005, �t was $295,100. The pr�ces of ex�st�ng s�ngle-fam�ly homes l�kew�se have r�sen, much to the pleasure of those who stayed �n them, but they were sl�ghtly less expens�ve to purchase than new homes. They averaged $257,500 �n 2005, and the med�an was $207,300. In 2005, new home sales totaled 1.28 m�ll�on un�ts, and ex�st�ng s�ngle-fam�ly home sales came to 6.18 m�ll�on.


Affordable hous�ng has become an �ssue: 1.3 m�ll�on Amer�can households are �n publ�c hous�ng un�ts operated by 3,300 local hous�ng agenc�es, to wh�ch the U.s. department of Hous�ng and Urban development adm�n�sters federal a�d.32 Hous�ng �s also a rac�al �ssue that �s reflected �n home owner-sh�p when cons�der�ng the race of the householder. s�xty-n�ne percent of all Amer�cans own the�r own home. Non-H�span�c wh�tes exceed the nat�onal norm at 76 percent, but no m�nor�ty group even meets the norm. Afr�can Amer�can home ownersh�p stands at 49.1 percent; H�span�c home ownersh�p at 46.7 percent; and As�an home ownersh�p at 59.8 percent. one ongo�ng survey of hous�ng pr�ces found that �n the f�rst quarter of 2006, only 41.3 per-cent of the new and ex�st�ng homes sold that quarter could be afforded by fam�l�es whose �ncome was at the nat�onal med�an of $59,000. Among large MsAs, Ind�anapol�s, detro�t, youngstown, rochester, and Buffalo were found to be the most affordable.33 These areas are not, however, where hous-�ng �s expand�ng. The hottest hous�ng markets �n the Un�ted states �n 2005 �n terms of s�ngle-fam�ly hous�ng perm�ts were the MsAs of Atlanta, Phoen�x, Houston, dallas, and r�vers�de, Cal�forn�a.

Most of Amer�ca’s homes bu�lt before 1969—half of all homes, as noted earl�er—surv�ve. Compar�ng some of the features of new 1950 homes, bu�lt dur�ng the boom of bab�es and houses that followed world war II, to new 2004 homes helps to understand how Amer�can houses have changed. The new home of 1950 had, on average, 983 square feet of f�n�shed area. In fact, 62 percent of them had less than 1,200 square feet; 19 percent had 1,200–1,599 square feet; and only 17 percent had between 1,600 and 1,999 square feet. None was larger than 2,000 square feet. The new home of 2004, how-ever, averaged 2,349 square feet, even though the s�ze of Amer�can fam�l�es has dw�ndled s�nce 1950. Fully 57 percent of these homes had 2,000 square feet or more—39 percent had 2,400 square feet or more. Amer�cans want a lot of space, and w�th easy cred�t and �nnovat�ve mortgage packag�ng (�nterest-only mortgages, for example), some can get �t.34

The typ�cal new home of 1950 was one story (86%), had two or fewer bed-rooms (66%), one and a half bathrooms or fewer (96%), no f�replace (78%), and no garage or carport (53%). The typ�cal new home of 2004 was two stor�es (52%), had three bedrooms (51%) or four bedrooms (37%), and only 5 percent had one and a half or fewer bathrooms (39% had two, 33% had two and a half, and 24% had three). Most new homes had at least one f�replace (55%) and a two-car garage (64%)—19 percent had three-car garages. N�nety percent of the new 2004 homes were bu�lt w�th central a�r-cond�t�on�ng, wh�ch d�d not ex�st �n 1950.35 June �s nat�onal homeownersh�p month �n Amer�ca.

Amer�cans by and large want trad�t�onal houses, rather than rad�cally �n-novat�ve houses that look l�ke they came out of a Jetsons cartoon. what


�s trad�t�onal var�es by reg�on, but that does not mean that today, a Cape Cod cottage would not appear as a trad�t�onal house �n a Ch�cago suburb. Contemporary re�terat�ons of trad�t�onal Amer�can houses cont�nue to be bu�lt all over the country. The engl�sh brought med�eval arch�tecture to Amer�ca �n New england �n the form of one- and two-room s�mple, heavy t�mber cottages. Unt�l about 1700, the two-and-a-half-story vers�ons of these clapboard-s�ded cottages, �nclud�ng saltboxes and Garr�son houses, were bu�lt there. The saltbox was typ�f�ed by a rear extens�on along the length of the house. Garr�son houses had overhang�ng second stor�es, often decorated w�th pendants. Both were only one room deep, had steep roofs on wh�ch snow would be less l�kely to accumulate, and central ch�mneys and f�replaces that could warm the home �n w�nter. The symmetr�cal two-and-a-half-story New england farmhouse, popular throughout the e�ghteenth century and the f�rst half of the n�neteenth, was framed and s�ded w�th wood and had the steep, gabled roof and central ch�mney of the saltboxes, but �t was larger and two rooms deep. The Cape Cod cottage of the e�ghteenth century was a very bas�c, almost square, one-and-a-half-story house w�th a centered ch�mney, steep roof, and the front door centered between four w�ndows. Cedar sh�n-gles are �ts d�st�ngu�sh�ng character�st�c. At the other end of the spectrum, New england �mported Georg�an arch�tecture dur�ng the e�ghteenth cen-tury before the revolut�on. These large, two-story, symmetr�cal homes were the cho�ce of well-to-do, urban New englanders, who embell�shed them �n var�ous ways.

In the M�d-Atlant�c reg�on, much of the e�ghteenth-century res�dent�al ar-ch�tecture was qu�te substant�al. Quakers, swedes, and Germans bu�lt small, two-story stone houses at f�rst, and eventually larger stone farmhouses that, w�th t�me, took on Georg�an themes. Greatly pr�zed today, these houses were be�ng bu�lt from the m�ddle of the e�ghteenth century unt�l nearly the end of the n�neteenth century. The dutch �n New york were also bu�ld�ng stone farmhouses, noted for the�r stepped gable roofs. The gambrel roof was not, however, the s�ne qua non of a dutch house, as �t seems to be for so-called dutch colon�al houses today.

Two houses or�g�nat�ng �n the M�d-Atlant�c reg�on were to become ub�q-u�tous �n westward-expand�ng Amer�ca. one was the tall, two-story, long and narrow M�d-Atlant�c I house, brought to Amer�ca by the engl�sh. These symmetr�cal houses were bu�lt for more than two centur�es �nto the twent�eth century. They were made of stone, wood, br�cks, and even logs. Most were qu�te pla�n, but decorat�on l�ke a Greek temple entrance was not unheard of �n the early n�neteenth century. They are the old m�dwestern farmhouses that pepper the cornf�elds. Log houses, favored by Germans and scand�na-v�ans, also spread across the country w�th new settlers. The cla�m to have


been born �n a log cab�n became a valuable pol�t�cal commod�ty �n the n�ne-teenth century—�t was proof of be�ng a man of the people. Contemporary log houses now have the oppos�te connotat�on.

Plantat�on houses from the V�rg�n�a t�dewater southward were, of course, the homes of wealthy people, mostly of engl�sh extract�on. The s�mple struc-tures of the f�rst settlers were eventually replaced by v�llas, often �n the class�cal trad�t�on, as �nterpreted by Andrea Pallad�o, often through engl�sh enthus�-asts. Many of these great, h�stor�cal Amer�can homes came r�ght out of arch�-tectural books and lent l�ttle to development of an Amer�can vernacular.

The seaports of Charleston, south Carol�na, and New orleans, on the other hand, developed arch�tectures un�que �n Amer�ca. Charleston’s s�ngle houses, wh�ch appear to be s�tt�ng s�deways on the�r narrow lots, could r�se to three stor�es. P�azzas or porches stretch along the s�des of the houses on the f�rst and second floors. Around New orleans, Creole cottages on posts w�th the�r surround�ng porches almost �nv�te a crawf�sh bo�l. The same look appeared �n much larger plantat�on houses. Cajun houses, w�th a s�ngle front porch, were l�ke the Creole cottages, bu�lt on p�ers. In New orleans �tself, an �nd�genous arch�tecture grew up from French, span�sh, and other �nfluences when the c�ty was rebu�lt after f�res �n 1788 and 1794. The one-and-a-half-story Creole cottage went urban (no front porch at street s�de) and was expanded to a town-house, often w�th a balcony. shotgun houses, bu�lt for a century after 1830 to house Ha�t�ans, are another spec�alty of New orleans. They are only one-story dwell�ngs that are one room w�de but may extend back to two or more rooms. Anglo �nfluences were qu�ck to �nvade New orleans when �t became U.s. terr�tory, and many of New orleans’s grand homes, and even the fronts of shotgun houses, took on the h�ghly pr�zed class�cal des�gn elements prevalent around the country.

Although spa�n owned a large part of the Un�ted states at one t�me, from Flor�da to Cal�forn�a, �t had l�ttle �nfluence on the development of Amer�can arch�tecture outs�de of New orleans, the southwest, and Cal�forn�a. span�sh Flor�da was essent�ally a d�sconnected backwater of the span�sh emp�re that was not heav�ly colon�zed. Texas, New Mex�co, and po�nts north and west of them were, however, very connected. The early span�sh houses �n New Mex-�co were s�ngle-level adobe structures that could take var�ous shapes and even enclose a courtyard. New Mex�co’s later terr�tor�al arch�tecture of the m�d-n�neteenth century wedded the adobe construct�on w�th modern Amer�can w�ndow treatments and class�cal decorat�on. The span�sh Cal�forn�a houses, often U shaped, w�th porches along the �ns�de of the U and clay t�le roofs, were also made of adobe br�cks.

wh�le reg�onal arch�tectures have pers�sted and been rev�ved, Amer�ca’s search for a nat�onal style began after the revolut�on w�th class�cal rev�val�sm


�n the form of the rather elegant Federal style, Jefferson�an class�c�sm based on roman forms, and Greek rev�val. By the m�d-n�neteenth century, how-ever, arch�tects were look�ng elsewhere for �nsp�rat�on. Tell�ngly for Amer�-can arch�tecture, these new styles were generally named for the Br�t�sh queen V�ctor�a. Goth�c style came �nto vogue w�th a l�berat�ng vert�cal�ty, �n com-par�son to the composed block of Greek temples. Furthermore, Goth�c was a Chr�st�an, rel�g�ous arch�tecture. Goth�c cues appeared �n res�dent�al arch�tec-ture as tremendously art�culated, large homes and also even �n small, wh�te, wood-frame homes as wood cutout g�ngerbread na�led to very steep gables. For large homes, Ital�an v�lla and Ital�anate styles became popular.

In the second half of the n�neteenth century, the rev�tal�zat�on of Par�s drew arch�tectural �nterest and brought mansard roofs to Amer�ca �n the sec-ond emp�re style. Arch�tect Henry H. r�chardson went back �nto Chr�st�an h�story to red�scover romanesque arch�tecture, bu�ld�ng mass�ve stone houses w�th turrets and sweep�ng arches. Before arch�tects t�red of look�ng across the sea for new �deas, the Queen Anne style br�efly flour�shed, the style that most Amer�cans would call qu�ntessent�al V�ctor�an. These houses had tur-rets and towers and gables and porches popp�ng out from everywhere. They

An example of a Nat�ve Amer�can adobe home. Getty Images/dAJ.


were showy homes, but a b�t too much for people of s�mple taste. sh�ngle-style homes, wh�ch were very large houses w�th smooth l�nes of sh�ngles and eyebrow dormers, d�d emerge, also thanks to Henry H. r�chardson, as an �n-d�genous Amer�can style late �n the century, but these were country and shore houses not su�table for urban env�ronments. By the end of the n�neteenth century, and throughout much of the twent�eth, the arch�tecture of Amer�can homes returned to where �t had started. The colon�al rev�val brought back all the old styles, but �n larger vers�ons. The Georg�an colon�al �s Amer�ca’s favored home.

The twent�eth century dawned on another rev�val of class�cal res�dent�al ar-ch�tecture, Amer�can style. Arch�tects also looked to the Ital�an rena�ssance, France, and england. engl�sh rev�val houses were bu�lt all over the nat�on before world war II. They are known popularly as Tudor houses. In Cal�for-n�a and the southwest, m�ss�on, span�sh colon�al, and pueblo styles were re-v�ved. Meanwh�le, however, Frank Lloyd wr�ght and h�s compatr�ots �n the m�dwestern pra�r�e school were des�gn�ng houses w�th modern mater�als that would take the�r occupants out of the box by open�ng spaces and �ntegrat�ng the s�te w�th the env�ronment. Famous as wr�ght’s homes have become, the pra�r�e school was a complete fa�lure. In Cal�forn�a, craftsman-style houses, character�zed by bu�lt-�n wooden structures, large hearths, �nformal spaces, and �nv�t�ng front porches that trans�t�oned from outs�de �n, were popular for a br�ef per�od of about 25 years, unt�l 1930.

wh�le the pra�r�e- and craftsman-style homes had l�m�ted appeal, the bun-galow, f�rst popular�zed �n Cal�forn�a, had w�de appeal. These one-and-a-half-story unassum�ng, rather small houses w�th spac�ous front porches and gently slop�ng roofs became and rema�n the homes of m�ddle Amer�ca. whether gabled �n front or on the s�de, most Amer�cans are qu�te fam�l�ar w�th the layout e�ther because they grew up �n one or because �t was grandma’s house. The front door opens �nto the l�v�ng room, wh�ch flows �nto the d�n�ng room �nto a small, square hall. A door to the rear enters the k�tchen, where there �s a back door. To the r�ght of the hall there �s a bathroom w�th two bedrooms front and rear s�d�ng the k�tchen and d�n�ng room. A steep set of sta�rs off the hall leads to the upper half story, where there �s storage space that many fam�l�es f�n�shed �nto another bedroom. sears, roebuck & Company as well as others sold tens of thousands of bungalows all over the country. They were del�vered on ra�lroad flatcars to be assembled at the bu�ld�ng s�te.

The twent�eth century also gave r�se to two seem�ngly very d�fferent arch�-tectural express�ons. Art Moderne, w�th �ts round, smooth stucco l�nes and protrud�ng features, had the look of a 1956 oldsmob�le. The use of glass br�ck �s a g�veaway to th�s style, not to ment�on that �t looks l�ke no other style. The �nternat�onal style that came out of Germany �n the 1930s produced, and


st�ll produces, houses that were, l�ke Art Moderne houses, not part�cularly popular w�th Amer�cans. Called contemporary houses by most people, these rather stark houses (devo�d of per�od decorat�on and consc�ously nonh�stor�-cal) opened spaces and celebrated pure structure. To many Amer�cans, they looked l�ke sculptures or museums, rather than comfortable homes.

Amer�cans’ concepts of trad�t�onal homes have changed w�th new fam�ly and soc�al c�rcumstances and the�r �ncreas�ng des�re for b�gger, better, and more �nnovat�ve spaces as hous�ng pr�ces have r�sen. They want more than a ser�es of boxy rooms �n a boxy house la�d out on a boxy gr�d, and they want the�r dwell�ngs to meet the�r personal needs. The U.s. hous�ng stock has therefore become more d�verse to serve the needs of s�ngles and older people who do not want yard work or extra bedrooms for ch�ldren. owner-occup�ed condom�n�ums f�t that b�ll. Condom�n�ums and townhouses began tak�ng new shapes. even though attached l�ke row houses, stagger�ng the un�ts or bu�ld�ng them to d�ffer�ng elevat�ons gave each un�t a def�n�t�on, as �f �t were a detached house. As w�th detached houses, decks and small backyards took act�v�ty to the rear of the house. whole ret�rement commun�t�es have sprung up, such as sun C�ty and �ts progeny �n Ar�zona and the V�llages �n Flor�da, along w�th many others, that prom�se to make ret�rement soc�ally act�ve �n smaller but trad�t�onal houses surrounded by shuffleboard courts and golf courses. Attract�ve ass�sted l�v�ng complexes have been bu�lt w�th central amen�t�es—l�brar�es, d�n�ng fac�l�t�es, soc�al areas, courtyards—�n wh�ch res�-dents have the�r own l�v�ng quarters.

Before world war II, the s�ngle-fam�ly detached house was the rule out-s�de of urban row houses. Long and rather narrow hous�ng lots were set on r�gorous gr�ds. Houses sported front porches that promoted communal wel-com�ng, w�th detached garages, �f any, �n the rear at the end of dr�veways along the s�de of the lot that led �nto them. After world war II, Amer�cans began to want open �nter�or spaces, as �f the fa�led pra�r�e school had actually succeeded �n gett�ng at least th�s po�nt across. wh�le k�tchens were opened to eat�ng areas, sta�rways were no longer enclosed, skyl�ghts began to be used, and sloped, elevated ce�l�ngs became popular, Amer�cans st�ll wanted �nter�or spac�ousness, w�th a trad�t�onal exter�or look.

By the 1960s, however, the ent�re or�entat�on of houses had changed. Front porches went out of style, and garages were attached to the house, w�th front or s�de entrances and shorter dr�veways �n favor of opened backyard pat�os and decks. The front yards became more formal sett�ngs for the houses, whereas backyards became places for enterta�nment, relaxat�on, sw�ng sets, pools, and, of course, cookouts. Lots were now be�ng drawn �nto more square than rectangular plots to accommodate larger backyards. Ins�de, master bedrooms and baths were enlarged and cons�derably fanc�ed up to prov�de


parents of teenage baby boomers a resp�te and some pr�vacy. A new add�-t�on, often at the expense of formal l�v�ng rooms, was added to the Amer�can home: the fam�ly room. The gathered fam�ly had always been a cher�shed Amer�can �deal, but �n the 1960s, any pretense of formal�ty �n home l�fe was gone for good.

There were also other forces help�ng to change Amer�can hous�ng. The growth of planned un�t developments allowed flex�b�l�ty for developers to break away from gr�ds and aggregate d�ffer�ng k�nds of hous�ng �n large devel-opments w�th open spaces. These k�nds of developments prol�ferated all over the country and resulted �n new sett�ngs for homes on cul-de-sacs, w�nd�ng roads, loops, and c�rcles. It would be unusual today to f�nd a large suburb la�d out on a square gr�d. As land su�table for bu�ld�ng has become scarce and more expens�ve, however, the preservat�on, renovat�on, and restorat�on of some of Amer�ca’s older structures for use as hous�ng has occurred. old warehouses, schools, factor�es, apartment bu�ld�ngs, and s�ngle homes have been preserved and rehab�l�tated as new hous�ng. The Un�ted states was slow to recogn�ze the value of �ts older and h�stor�cal bu�ld�ngs, but the hope to preserve one of Amer�ca’s class�c homes helped to get the ball roll�ng. The Mount Vernon Lad�es’ Assoc�at�on, founded �n 1853, �s often g�ven cred�t for begett�ng a new

A b�rd’s eye v�ew of Amer�can subur-b�a. Getty Images/Photod�sc.


awareness of Amer�ca’s h�stor�c arch�tecture. The secondary effect of hav�ng federal grants ava�lable for h�stor�c preservat�on was the reb�rth of craftsman-sh�p long lost to modern construct�on.

Amer�can res�dent�al bu�ld�ng of the twenty-f�rst century, largely the prov�nce of real estate developers, has taken a new tw�st. As already noted, houses have, as a matter of fact, become b�gger, and they are made to look b�gger by expanded art�culat�on and, �n large two-story houses, by a severe vert�cal�ty. w�ndow extens�ons and dormers abound—they add value and spac�ousness. New mater�als have often replaced trad�t�onal wood and br�ck façades. V�nyl and alum�num s�d�ngs and br�ck veneers attached to wooden studs g�ve the appearance of sol�d�ty. even contemporary exter�ors that ap-pear from a d�stance to be stucco are often veneers that, when gently pressed aga�nst, g�ve way. More �nterest�ngly, however, many new houses are �mpos-s�ble to place �nto the h�stor�cal spectrum. There are suggest�ons of known styles—Pallad�an w�ndows frequently are used �n structures anyth�ng but class�cal. suggest�ons of Greek rev�val port�coes may be found on one-story ranch houses. An oddly placed round w�ndow h�nts of colon�al rev�val. so con-fused �s res�dent�al arch�tecture that developers do not call the�r houses Geor-g�an, Tudor, or Ital�anate, but rather names l�ke the Pearl, M�llstone, Avalon, Chestnut, and Prescott—names that r�ghtly evoke no arch�tectural style at all.

It �s a sad fact that secur�ty has become an �mportant element �n the des�gn of new commun�t�es of homes. H�gh-end homes can now be found �n gated developments and even on l�m�ted-access �slands. entrances to hous�ng de-velopments have long been def�ned by the suggest�on of entry gates, but there was open access to the streets �ns�de. Today, the gates are operat�ve and l�m�t access to res�dents and those they perm�t to enter. Protected �nner courts �n mult�un�t bu�ld�ngs allow safety out of doors for the�r res�dents. Playgrounds have been des�gned on the roofs of schools for the safety of the ch�ldren.

In fact, however, a home, no matter �ts value or locat�on, means own-�ng a real p�ece of Amer�ca. Homeowners—property owners—pay taxes and protect the�r �nvestment. They are good c�t�zens l�v�ng the Amer�can dream. In turn, the government guarantees the pr�nc�ple that personal property �s sacrosanct. The Found�ng Fathers understood th�s well, allow�ng only male property owners to vote �n federal elect�ons. wh�le th�s, of course, changed w�th t�me, the federal government has rema�ned �nstrumental �n expand�ng home ownersh�p through governmental agenc�es l�ke the Federal Hous�ng Adm�n�strat�on and quas�-governmental organ�zat�ons l�ke the Federal Na-t�onal Mortgage Assoc�at�on, wh�ch creates a secondary mortgage market. The Government Nat�onal Mortgage Assoc�at�on guarantees prompt payment of hous�ng loans �ssued by government agenc�es l�ke the Federal Hous�ng Ad-m�n�strat�on, the rural Hous�ng serv�ce, the Veterans Adm�n�strat�on, and


the off�ce of Publ�c and Ind�an Hous�ng. Federal bankruptcy law excludes $125,000 of the value of a home, wh�le the states of Texas and Flor�da have unl�m�ted exclus�ons. Home ownersh�p �s an elemental Amer�can value.

notes

1. U.s. department of Labor, Bureau of Labor stat�st�cs, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–2007 ed., http://www.bls.gov. Note that these data do not �nclude f�ne and craft art�sts who may be pract�c�ng the�r art �n the�r le�sure t�me but mak�ng the�r l�v�ngs by other means.

2. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2006, http://www.census.gov. 3. Cory Arcangel, “Cory’s web Log,” http://www.be�gerecords.com. 4. John wetenhall, “A Br�ef H�story of Percent-for-Art �n Amer�ca,” Public Art

Review 9 (1993), http://www.publ�cartrev�ew.org. 5. see the WaterFire web s�te at http://www.waterf�re.org. 6. Nat�onal endowment for the Arts, “2004 Annual report,” http://www.nea.

gov. 7. F�rst Amendment Center, “Case summary for Nat�onal endowment for the

Arts vs. F�nley,” http://www.f�rstamendmentcenter.org. 8. sm�thson�an Amer�can Art Museum, “About the Museum,” http://amer�can-

art.s�.edu; Nat�onal Gallery of Art, “About the Nat�onal Gallery of Art,” http://www.nga.gov.

9. sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on, “H�story of the Galler�es: Freer and sackler Gallery,” http://www.as�a.s�.edu.

10. sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on, “The H�rshhorn story,” http://h�rshhorn.s�.edu.11. MoCA, “exh�b�t�ons,” http://www.mocacleveland.org.12. Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, “exh�b�ts,” http://www.camh.org.13. Contemporary Art Center of V�rg�n�a, “exh�b�t�ons,” http://www.cacv.org;

The Butler Inst�tute of Amer�can Art, “Current exh�b�t�ons,” http://www.butlerart.com; san Franc�sco Museum of Modern Art, “exh�b�t�on overv�ew: Matthew Bar-ney,” http://www.sfmoma.org.

14. Nat�onal endowment for the Arts, research d�v�s�on, “Arts Part�c�pat�on by reg�on, state, and Metropol�tan Area,” note no. 72, January 1999, http://www.nea.gov.

15. Amer�can Assoc�at�on of Museums, “Museums FAQ,” http://www.aam-us. org.

16. see “wh�tney B�enn�al: day for N�ght,” http://www.wh�tneyb�enn�al.org.17. U.s. department of state, ArT �n embass�es Program, “M�ss�on,” http://a�ep.

state.gov.18. U.s. department of state, Bureau of Internat�onal Informat�on Programs,

“Art on the edge: 17 Contemporary Amer�can Art�sts: Preface,” http://us�nfo.state.gov.

19. Ib�d.


20. The Mennello Museum of Amer�can Art, “earl Cunn�ngham,” http://www.mennellomuseum.org.

21. see r�chard Longstreth, The Buildings of Main Street: A Guide to American Commercial Architecture, updated ed. (New york: Alta M�ra Press, 2000).

22. Congress for the New Urban�sm, “Charter of the New Urban�sm,” http://cnu.org.23. Carter w�seman, Shaping a Nation (New york: w. w. Norton, 1998), 22–24.24. Ib�d., 36–37.25. see Henry russell H�tchcock and Ph�l�p Johnson, The International Style: Ar-

chitecture Since 1922 (New york: w. w. Norton, 1932).26. Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze, “Ph�l�p Johnson: Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze Lau-

reate, 1979,” http://www.pr�tzkerpr�ze.com.27. Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze, “robert Ventur�: Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze Lau-

reate, 1991,” http://www.pr�tzkerpr�ze.com.28. Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze, “Frank Gehry: Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze Laure-

ate, 1989,” http://www.pr�tzkerpr�ze.com.29. Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze, “Cal�forn�a Arch�tect Thom Mayne Becomes the

2005 Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze Laureate,” http://www.pr�tzkerpr�ze.com.30. U.s. Census Bureau, “Amer�can Hous�ng survey for the Un�ted states: 2001,”

http://www.census.gov.31. Ib�d.32. U.s. department of Hous�ng and Urban development, “Homes & Commu-

n�t�es: HUd’s Publ�c Hous�ng Program,” http://www.hud.gov.33. Nat�onal Assoc�at�on of Home Bu�lders, “Ind�anapol�s rema�ns Nat�on’s Most

Affordable Major Hous�ng Market for Th�rd Consecut�ve Quarter,” May 17, 2006, http://www.nahb.org.

34. NAHB Publ�c Affa�rs and NAHB econom�cs, “Hous�ng Facts, F�gures and Trends,” March 2006, http://www.nahb.org.

35. Ib�d.

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AARP Bulletin, 298Abbot and Costello, 307ABC. See Amer�can Broadcast�ng

CompanyABC News, 266ABC’s Wide World of Sports!, 289Abercromb�e & F�tch, 223Abort�on, 78, 120Abramoff, Jack, 62Academy Awards (oscars), 295Acconc�, V�to, 346Acoustic Guitar, 296Adams, samuel, 269Adler, dankmar, 364Adopt�on, 135–38Adopt�on and safe Fam�l�es Act

of 1997, 136Adulthood, age of, 134 –35Aerosm�th, 326Afghan�stan, 60Afr�can Amer�can churches, 72Afr�can Amer�can Method�st

Churches, 85Afr�can Amer�cans, 38Afr�ka Bambaataa, 326Agnew, sp�ro, 55

Agu�lera, Chr�st�na, 327A�ley, Alv�n, 317, 318A�r qual�ty, 5A Is for Alibi (Grafton), 255Alaska, 2, 23, 38Albee, edward F., 307– 8Albom, M�tch, 260Alcohol�c beverages, 201Alexander, James, 269Allen, Grac�e, 285Allen, woody, 293All in the Family, 287All the Pretty Horses (McCarthy), 251All-you-can-eat restaurants, 196Amazing Stories, 255Ambrose, stephen, 259Amer�can Angl�can Counc�l, 95Amer�can Assoc�at�on

of Museums, 356Amer�can Bapt�st Churches UsA, 82Amer�can Broadcast�ng Company

(ABC), 283Amer�can C�v�l war l�terature, 259Amer�can cook�ng, 196Amer�can dance Theatre, 318Amer�can eagle outf�tters, 223

Index

383

384 INdex

Amer�can Folk Art Museum, 360American Idol, 278, 289, 300Amer�can Ind�an pol�cy, 39 – 41American Magazine, 296Amer�can Negro Ballet, 318Amer�can repertory Theatre, 311Amer�can revolut�on, 269Am�sh, 107Amusement parks, 179 – 80Anderson, dawolu Jabar�, 357Andou�lle sausage, 206Angelou, Maya, 261Angl�can Commun�on Network, 95Angl�can Un�on, 94The An�mals, 323An�mat�on, 292 –93Anthony, susan B., 46, 118, 281Ant�-saloon League, 46 – 47Anton�, Jan�ne, 347Aon Centre (Ch�cago, IL), 364AP. See Assoc�ated PressAppalach�an reg�on, 26Apple Bottoms, 226Apple p�e, 194Arcangel, Cory, 348Arch�tects, arch�tecture, 363 – 69Argent, Ph�ll�p, 358Ar�zona, 24 –25Arm�st�ce day, 161Arnold, eddy, 323Art, 343 – 60Art as Idea, 346Art d�rectors, 344Arthur Frommer’s Budget Travel, 296Arthur M. sackler Gallery

of As�an Art, 353Art�cles of Confederat�on, 35Art museums, 352 –56As�mov, Isaac, 255–56Assembl�es of God UsA, 92 –93Assoc�ated Press (AP), 275Asta�re, Fred, 321Aston, Anthony, 303Atk�ns, Cholly, 321

Atlanta, GA, 15Atlantic Monthly, 297Atom�c bomb, 51Automob�le �ndustry, 47– 48Autotrader, 299Awake!, 96A Walk in the Woods (Bryson), 261Azr�a, Maz, 222

Baca, Jud�th, 347The Bachelor, 289Backyard cookout, 201–2Badgley, Mark, 222Ballet Negre, 318Ballet san Jose, 319Band of Brothers (Ambrose), 259Bank hol�days, 156Bapt�st B�ble Fellowsh�p Internat�onal

(BBFI), 82 – 83Baquet, George, 323Barber, samuel, 314Bar m�tzvah, 168Barnum, P. T., 305Barrymore, Georg�na drew, 305Baseball, 171–73Basketball, 172 –73Bauhaus, 366BBFI. See Bapt�st B�ble Fellowsh�p

Internat�onalBCBG, 222Beach Boys/Geto Boys, 348Beans, 194The Beatles, 323Beauty and the Beast, 293, 312Beef, 203, 209Beene, Geoffrey, 219Beer, 200, 208Beloved (Morr�son), 249Bengl�s, L�nda, 347Bennett, James Gordon sr., 271, 272Berendt, John, 262Berle, M�lton, 285Berl�n, Irv�ng, 307Berl�n wall, 57

INdex 385

Bernste�n, Carl, 277Berr�es, 213Best-sell�ng books (2006), 231Betamax v�deo cassette, 284Better Homes & Gardens, 298B�erstadt, Albert, 344The Big Bounce (Leonard), 254B�ll of r�ghts, 39B�ngham, George Caleb, 345B�ngo, 180B�n Laden, osama, 60B�rth control p�ll, 119B�rthday part�es, 168The Birth of a Nation, 291B�sque, 206Blackberry, 299Black-eyed pea soup, 205Black Fr�day, 157–58Black Mar�a stud�o, 290Black Musl�ms. See Nat�on of IslamBlake, eub�e, 321Blass, B�ll, 220Blessed Are All the Little Fishes, 352Blogs, 282Blood Meridian (McCarthy), 251Bloomers, Amel�a, 281Blue jeans, 222Blue Latitudes (Horw�tz), 262Blues mus�c, 46, 330 –31Bly, Nell�e, 273 –74Board games, 180Bocher, Ma�n rousseau

(Ma�nbocher), 218The Body (K�ng), 257Bolger, ray, 321Bon Jov�, 326Bonnaroo Mus�c and Arts Fest�val, 333Book of Common Prayer, 94The Book of Discipline, 83The Book of Mormon, 86Booth, edw�n, 305Bootleg albums, 325Boston baked beans, 202Boston brown bread, 202

Boston Gazette, 268Boston, MA, 10Boston News-Letter, 268Boston symphony orchestra, 313, 316Bow & Arrow Hunting, 296Bow�e, dav�d, 325Bowling Alone, 169Bowl�ng, sarah, 104Box�ng, 176Bradford, Andrew, 268, 296Bradford, Mark, 357Bradford, w�ll�am, 268Brady, Mathew, 272, 345Braunt�ch, Troy, 357Bread and Puppet Theatre, 310Breakfast foods, 208The Breast (roth), 250Brewer�es, 200Br�ce, Fanny, 307Brides, 298Br�nkley, dav�d, 285Br�t�sh Invas�on, 323Br�tt Fest�vals, 336 –37Brittle House, 359Broadway theatres, 309Brokaw, Tom, 285Brooks, Terry, 256Brown and Ba�ley C�rcus, 305Brown v. Board of Education

of Topeka, 52Bryson, B�ll, 261Buffalo B�ll, 305Buffalo ch�cken w�ngs, 203Buffet restaurants, 196Bullf�nch, Charles, 363Burden, Chr�s, 346Burd�n, Anthony, 357Burgee, John, 366Burger K�ng, 196Burlesque, 306 –7Burns, George, 285Burr, Aaron, 271–72Burroughs, edgar r�ce, 255Burrows, stephen, 221

386 INdex

Bush, George H. w., 57Bush, George w., 59 – 60, 109, 111Butler Inst�tute of Amer�can Art, 355Butterm�lk b�scu�ts, 204

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, 291Cabin in the Sky, 318Cable News Network (CNN), 284Cable telev�s�on, 283 – 84Cajun cu�s�ne, 204 – 6Calabacitas, 212Calder, Alexander, 348Caldwell, Graham, 358Cal�forn�a, 2, 20 –22Callas, Mar�a, 314Calv�n, John, 89 –90Cambod�a, 277Camp, Lauren, 358Can Barnacles, 356Candid Camera, 289Canon, the, 246 –50Cantor, edd�e, 307Capote, Truman, 278Capra, Frank, 293Card games, 180CareerBu�lder, 300Carolina Moon (roberts), 253Carreras, Jose, 315Carrie (K�ng), 257Carr�er p�geons, 272Carter, J�mmy, 55Carter, shawn, 225Caruso, enr�co, 314Cash�n, Bonn�e, 219Casseroles, 207Casual d�n�ng cha�ns, 196Casual style (fash�on), 216Catcher in the Rye (sal�nger), 249Catch 22 (Heller), 250Cathol�c Char�t�es, 110Cathol�c Leg�on of decency, 295Catholic Worker, 281Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, 309Cats, 312

Cat’s Cradle (Vonnegut), 256CBN. See Chr�st�an Broadcast�ng

NetworkCBs. See Columb�a Broadcast�ng

systemCell phone, 299Cell phone cameras, 266Censorsh�p, 119, 294 –95Central Conference of Amer�can

rabb�s, 98Central Park, 179C. F. Ba�ley & Company’s Famous

Menager�e, 305Chado ralph rucc�, 222Cha�k�n, Joseph, 310Chandler, raymond, 254Charter schools, 143Chautauqua c�rcu�t, 308Chautauqua Inst�tut�on, 328Cheers, 288Cheese, 209Cheese fr�es, 204Chez Pan�sse, 212Chicago, 293, 312Ch�cago Academy of F�ne Arts, 354Ch�cago, IL, 18–19Ch�cago Lyr�c opera, 313Ch�cago-style p�zza, 206Ch�cago symphony orchestra, 313Chicos, 212Ch�ld abuse, 76 –77Ch�ld labor, 134Ch�ld Protect�ve serv�ces, 135Ch�le peppers, 211–12Ch�nese food, 197, 213Ch�nese New year, 155, 164Ch�tterl�ngs, 205Chr�st�an Broadcast�ng Network

(CBN), 103Chr�st�ans, 33 –34Chr�stmas, 158– 60Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt

(r�ce), 257Chr�sty, edw�n P., 306

INdex 387

Chrysler Bu�ld�ng, 364Church, Freder�c, 344Churches of Chr�st, 95–96Church of Chr�st, sc�ent�st, 108Church of england, 94Church of God �n Chr�st, 88 – 89Church of Jesus Chr�st of Latter-day

sa�nts (Lds), 85– 88C�nc�nnat� ch�l�, 209C�nco de Mayo, 163 – 64C�nema, 290 –302C�rque du sole�l, 336City of Falling Angels (Berendt), 262C�v�l�an Conservat�on Corps, 48C�v�l r�ghts, 52C�v�l r�ghts Act (1964), 53 –54, 123The Civil War: A Narrative

(Foote), 259C�v�l un�ons, 129C�v�l war, 37Clambake, 202The Clansman, 291Clemens, samuel, 247– 48Cleveland orchestra, 313Cl�mate, 4 –5Cl�nton, w�ll�am Jefferson,

57–58, 128Cloth�ng, 214 –26. See also Fash�onClue, 180CNN. See Cable News NetworkCod f�sh, 202Cohen, N�cole, 359Cold war, 51–53, 56 –57Cole, Kenneth, 222Cole, Thomas, 344Colen, dan, 357Coles, Hon�, 321Collard greens, 205College, 146 – 49The Color Purple (walker), 249Columb�a Broadcast�ng

system (CBs), 283Columb�ne H�gh school, 144Columbus, Chr�stopher, 33

Columbus day, 163Combs, sean, 226Come to Me, 359Common Sense, 270Commun�sm, 52, 55–56, 71Conan doyle, s�r Arthur, 253Cond�ments, 202Coney Island hotdogs, 202, 209Conf�rmat�on, 168Congress for the New Urban�sm, 362Const�tut�on, 13, 35, 39Contemporary Arts Museum, 355Contras, 57Cook, Capta�n James, 262Cookbooks, 258Cooking Light, 298Cookout, 201–2Cool wh�p, 207Cooper, Al�ce, 325Cooper, James Fen�more, 249 –50Copeland, Kenneth and Glor�a, 104Copland. Aaron, 314Corcoran, w�ll�am w�lson, 353Corcoran Gallery of Art, 353Cor�o, Ann, 307Corn Belt, 19Corn bread, 204Cortazar, esteban, 222The Cosby Show, 288Cotton, w�ll, 359Coulter, Cather�ne, 253County fa�rs, 155–56Cour�c, Kat�e, 285Covered br�dges, 9fCowboy boots, 217Cowboy hat, 217Cowboy poetry, 334Crab Norfolk, 205Crabs, 204Cra�g’s L�st, 299Crawf�sh bo�l, 206Creat�on�sm, 142Creole cu�s�ne, 204 – 6Creole orchestra, 323

388 INdex

Crewdson, Gregory, 358Cronk�te, walter, 285Crosby, B�ng, 276Crosby, st�lls, Nash, and young, 324Crouch, Paul and Jan, 104Cru�se, Tom, 293Crying Doll, 348The Crying of Lot 49 (Pynchon), 251Cucullu, sant�ago, 359Cu�s�ne, 193 –214Cunn�ngham, earl, 359 – 60Cunn�ngham, Merce, 317Cunn�ngham, randy, 61Current Events, 358Cushman, Charlotte, 305Cw network, 283Cyrus, Jamal, 357

daché, L�lly, 217–18Dallas, 288dallas, Tx, 17–18dance, 316 –22dance Theatre of Harlem, 318dan�sh coffee cakes, pastr�es, 208darger, Henry, 360dartmouth, Thomas, 320dav�s, Paul�na wr�ght, 281dawes Act, 40day, Benjam�n, 271day, dor�s, 293day, dorothy, 281day care, 133 –34declarat�on of sent�ments, 118defense of Marr�age Act, 128def�c�t reduct�on Act of 2005, 111deg�ul�o, Lucas, 356de Koon�ng, w�llem, 345, 351de la renta, oscar, 220de Lavallade, Carmen, 318deL�llo, don, 251dem�anchuk, Valer�e, 359de M�lle, Agnes, 317democrat�c Convent�on (1968), 54dempsey, Jack, 276

den�shawn school, 317department of Ch�ldren and Fam�ly

serv�ces, 135des�gner jeans, 222des�gner of the year award, 226des�gners, fash�on, 217–21dessert, 202, 207dev�led eggs, 207dew�tt, John L., 49día de la raza, 163día de los Muertos, 166d�agh�lev, serge�, 317d�amond, Jack, 320d�g�tal v�deo d�sks (dVds), 284, 294d�rty r�ce, 204d� sant’Angelo, G�org�o, 219d�sney, walt, 292 –93d�sneyland, 179 – 80d�sneyworld, 179 – 80d�st�lled sp�r�ts, 200 –201d�vorce, 127d�x�e beer, 206dKNy, 221Doctrine and Covenants, 87dog and Pony, 305dollar, Kreflo, 104dom�ngo, Plac�do, 315donnelly, Tr�sha, 356douglas, dav�d, 304douglass, Freder�ck, 281dow Jones, 279The Dowling Street Martyr Brigade,

“Towards a Walk in the Sun,” 357dramat�c f�ct�on, 243 – 46Dream Girls, 312Dreamgirls, 293dress codes, school, 144drew, John, 305“dubb�ng,” 326Duck Soup, 311duncan, Isadora, 317dungeons and dragons, 180dunham, Kather�ne, 318dunham school of dance, 320

INdex 389

dust Bowl, 43dutch explorers, 34dVd. See d�g�tal v�deo d�sksdylan, Bob, 326

eak�ns, Thomas, 353easter, 167– 68eat�ng on the go, 198eBay, 299ebsen, Buddy, 321ecko, Marc, 225eddy, Mary Baker, 108ed�son, Thomas A., 290educat�on, 138 –50edwards, Benjam�n, 359eeoC. See equal employment

opportun�ty Comm�ss�onEinstein: His Life and Universe

(Isaacson), 260eLCA. See evangel�cal Lutheran

Church �n Amer�caElizabeth’s Tears, 358ell�s, Perry, 220ell�s Island, 42embarcadero Center, 363em�nem, 226emp�re state Bu�ld�ng, 364employment, 132 –33ench�ladas, 211Endless Vacation, 298engl�sh as a second language, 149engl�sh colon�es and terr�tor�es, 34enterta�nment and sports

Programm�ng Network (esPN), 284

Entertainment Tonight, 278ep�scopal Church, 94 –95equal employment opportun�ty

Comm�ss�on (eeoC), 123equal�ty, 131–32equal r�ghts Amendment (erA),

56, 119 –20esPN. See enterta�nment and sports

Programm�ng Network

estefan, Glor�a, 327Étouffée, 206european explorat�on, 33 –35evangel�cal Lutheran Church

�n Amer�ca (eLCA), 90 –92evangel�cal Protestants, 72 –73evangel�cal Un�ted Brethren

Church, 84evans, Barnaby, 349 –50evans, Kenya A., 357Everyman (roth), 250Extra!, 278Extreme Makeover, 289Eye in the Sky, 348

Fa�r employment Board, 51Fa�r Labor standards Act, 48Falchook, Jason, 359Fam�ly, 130 –38Family Circle, 298Fantasy f�ct�on, 256 –57Fard, wallace d., 100 –101Farrakhan, Lou�s, 100 –101Fash�on, 214 –26. See also Cloth�ngFash�on walk of Fame, 217Fast food franch�ses, 196The Fat Boys, 326Fatburger, 213Father’s day, 165Fat Tuesday, 167FCC. See Federal Commun�cat�ons

Comm�ss�onFederal Commun�cat�ons

Comm�ss�on (FCC), 283Federal emergency rel�ef

Adm�n�strat�on, 48Federal hol�days, 154The Federalist Papers, 270Federal Marr�age Amendment, 130Federal reserve bank�ng system, 43Fem�n�sm, 119 –20Fest�vals, 154Fest�vus, 160F�elds, w. C., 307

390 INdex

F�ne art�sts, 344F�nley, Karen, 351Fire, 310FirstFire, 350F�rst Internat�onal exh�b�t�on of

Modern Art, 309First Negro Dance Recital

in America, 318F�sh bo�l, 209 –10F�tzgerald, F. scott, 250The Five People You Meet in Heaven

(Albom), 260Flag for the Moon: Die Nigger Black

Light #10, 347The Flag Is Bleeding, 346Flamingo, 348Flanpond, 359Flat screen TVs, 284Fleck, John, 352Floradora sextet, 321Flor�da, 2Flor�da key l�me p�e, 204Folk art, 359 – 60Food consumpt�on per cap�ta, 195Football, 169 –72Foote, shelby, 259Ford, Gerald, 55Ford, Harr�son, 293Ford, Henry, 47Ford, John, 293For Carl Andre, 347For One More Day (Albom), 260Forrest, edw�n, 304, 305Fortune, 297Foster care, 135Fox Broadcast�ng, 283Fox News, 278Foxwoods, 180Frankl�n, Benjam�n, 268, 296Frankl�n, James, 268Frederick Douglass Self-Defense Manual

Series, Infinite Step Escape Technique #1: Hand Seeks Cotton, 357

Fred Ott’s Sneeze, 290

Freedmen’s Bureau, 37–38Freedom’s Journal, 280Freer, Charles Lang, 353Freer Gallery, 353Fr�ck Collect�on, 354Fr�ed ch�cken, 204, 205Fr�ed f�sh, 205Fr�ed pork chops, 205Friends, 288From Russia with Love, 295Frow�ck, roy, 219Frozen food, 198 –99Fuentes, da�sy, 224Fuller, Lo�e, 317Full-serv�ce restaurants, 196Fundamental�st Protestants, 72 –73Fund�ng, 310

Gable, Clark, 293, 295Galanos, James, 218Game shows, 288Gannett w�re, 279Gap, the, 223Garc�a, Jerry, 325Garrison, William Lloyd, 280Ged. See General educat�onal

development cert�f�cateGehry, Frank, 368Gender, 118–25, 131–32Gender �dent�ty d�sorder, 125General educat�onal development

(Ged) cert�f�cate, 140General Magazine, 296Genes�s, 326Genius of Universal Emancipation, 280German sausage, 208Gernre�ch, rud�, 219Gernsback, Hugo, 255Gershw�n, George, 314Get Shorty (Leonard), 254Getty Center, 354GI B�ll, 51G�lbert, Cass, 363 – 64G�ngr�ch, Newt, 58

INdex 391

The Girlfriend, 321Gleason, Jack�e, 307Gober, robert, 347Godey, Lou�s, 297Godey’s Lady’s Book, 297Golf, 176 –77Gone with the Wind, 292, 295Goodbye Columbus (roth), 250Good Housekeeping, 298Goodman Theatre, 311Goodw�n, dor�s Kearns, 260 – 61Gorbachev, M�kha�l, 57Gore, Al, 59Gorman, r. C., 347Grafton, sue, 255Graham, Martha, 317Graham, reverend B�lly, 103Grand Canyon, 25Grandma Moses, 359Grandmaster Flash, 326Grand ole opry, 331Grand Theft Auto (GTA) ser�es, 181Grand Travel�ng Museum, Menager�e,

Caravan and C�rcus, 305Grant, Cary, 293, 295Grapes of Wrath (ste�nbeck), 248The Grateful dead, 324, 325Gravity’s Rainbow (Pynchon), 251Grease, 295Great Awaken�ng, 79Great depress�on, 48, 118Great Lakes, 2Great overland, 305The Great Gatsby (F�tzgerald), 250The Great Railway Bazaar

(Theroux), 262The Great Train Robbery, 291Great Wall of Los Angeles, 347Greeley, Horace, 271, 272The Green Mile (K�ng), 257Greenwich Village Follies, 317Gr�ff�th, d.w., 291Gr�nders, 203Grocery store, 198

Grogan, John, 260Grop�us, walter, 366Grotjahn, Mark, 357GTA. See Grand Theft Auto ser�esGuggenhe�m Museum, 354, 365Guiding Light, 288Gulf Coast, 17Gullah r�ce, 205Gumbel, Bryant, 285Gumbo, 206Gunsmoke, 288Guns N’ roses, 326Guthr�e, s�r Tyrone, 311Guthr�e Theatre, 311Guy, edna, 317, 318

Haggard, Jack, 61Ha�ght-Ashbury, 325Hairspray, 311Hale, sarah, 297Hallan, Lew�s sr., 304Hallmark hol�days, 156Halloween, 166Halston, 219Hamburger Helper, 198Hamburgers, 196 –97, 213Ham�lton, Alexander, 270, 271–72Ham�lton, Andrew, 269Hamlet, 311Hammett, dash�ell, 254Hancock, Trenton doyle, 359Hanks, Tom, 293Hanukah, 159Harlow, Jean, 295Harper’s Monthly, 297Havens, r�ch�e, 324Hawa��, 22, 38–39Hawthorne, Nathan�el, 247, 298Haynes, Cornell, 226Hays, w�ll�am H., 295Hays Code, 295HdTV. See H�gh–def�n�t�on TVsHealth clubs, 177–78Hearst, w�ll�am randolph, 273 –74

392 INdex

Heart Garfunkel, 348Heath Anthology, 247He�nz Poll summer dance

Fest�val, 319Held, Anna, 307Heller, Joseph, 250Hendr�x, J�m�, 323Henr�, robert, 345Herman’s Herm�ts, 323Heron, Mat�lda, 305H�ckey, Mar�lyn, 104H�cks, edward, 360H�gh-def�n�t�on TVs (HdTVs), 284H�gher educat�on, 146 – 49High School Musical, 312H�gh schools, 140Hijab, 216H�lf�ger, Andy, 226H�lf�ger, Tommy, 221H�ll, An�ta, 123H�nes, Gregory, 320H�nes, Maur�ce, 320H�nn, Benny, 104H�p hop, 326 –27H�rosh�ma, Japan, 51H�rshhorn, Joseph, 353H�rshhorn Museum and sculpture

Garden of the sm�thson�an Inst�tut�on, 353

The Historian (Kostova), 257–58H�stor�cal costume dramas, 305H�tchcock, Alfred, 293Hoag�es, 203Hobb�es, 182 – 83Hol�days, 154 – 69Holmes, sherlock, 253Holt, Nancy, 347Hombre (Leonard), 254Home school�ng, 145– 46Homosexual�ty, 78, 80, 85, 90, 92,

95, 98, 128Hope, Bob, 308Hopper, edward, 345Horror f�ct�on, 257–58

Horw�tz, Tony, 261– 62Hous�ng, 369 –79Houston, Tx, 17–18Howard, w�ll�e, 307Huckleberry F�nn, 247– 48Hudson, rock, 293Hughes, Holly, 351–52Humphrey, dor�s, 317Humphrey, Hubert H., 54Hungry Hungry H�ppos, 180Huntley, Chet, 285Huntley-Brinkley Report, 285Hurr�cane Katr�na, 61Hush pupp�es, 204Husse�n, saddam, 57, 59, 60

Idaho, 20Ids Center, 366I. F. Stone’s Weekly, 281I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

(Angelou), 261I Love Lucy, 287Imm�grant populat�ons (1900), 41Imm�grat�on, 41– 43In Cold Blood, 278Income, 132Independence day, 156Ind�an Gam�ng regulatory Act, 180Ind�an removal Act (1830), 40Ind�an reorgan�zat�on Act. See

wheeler-Howard ActInd�an reservat�ons, 25Ind�an Terr�tory, 40Indian with a Beer Can, 347Inge, w�ll�am, 309“In God we Trust,” 71Inner Harbor, 363Innocents Abroad (Twa�n), 261In-N-out Burger, 213In Old California, 291The Insider, 278Intell�gent des�gn, 142Interior Scroll, 346Internat�onal News serv�ce, 275

INdex 393

Internat�onal style, 366Internet, 282Internment camps, 49 –50Interview with a Vampire (r�ce), 257IPod, 299Iran, 55–57Iraq, 57, 60 – 61Isaacson, walter, 260Islam, 99 –102Ital�an cu�s�ne, 197It�nerant preachers, 102 –3It’s a Wonderful Life, 293IUd, 119

Jackson, Andrew, 43Jacobs, Marc, 221Jacob’s P�llow, 318James, Charles, 218Jam�son, Jud�th, 318Japanese-Amer�cans, 49 –50Jaws, 293Jay-Z (Carter, shawn), 225Jazz Aspen snowmass, 334Jazz mus�c, 46The Jazz Singer, 292J.C. Penny stores, 223Jefferson, Thomas, 35, 270Jefferson A�rplane, 324, 325Jehovah’s w�tnesses, 96 –97Jeopardy!, 288Jersey Boys, 312J�m Crow laws, 38Joffrey, robert, 317John, elton, 323John Adams (McCullough), 259John Hancock Center, 364Johns, Jasper, 346, 351Johnson, Andrew, 38Johnson, Betsey, 220 –21Johnson, B�ll, 323Johnson, James, 318Johnson, Joshua, 360Johnson, Lyndon B., 53 –54Johnson, Ph�ll�p, 366

The Johnstown Flood (McCullough), 258

Jolson, Al, 276, 308Jopl�n, Jan�s, 323, 324Jordan, robert, 256 –57J. Paul Getty Museum, 354Juda�sm, 97–99

Kamal�, Norma, 220Kansas C�ty barbeque, 209Kaprow, Allen, 346Karan, donna, 221Kean, Thomas, 304Ke�th, Benjam�n Frankl�n, 307– 8Kellogg, Harvey, 201Kelly, Gene, 321Kennedy, John F., 53Kennedy, robert, 54Kennedy assass�nat�on, 277Kent state, 54, 277Keppard, Fredd�e, 323Kesey, Ken, 325K�mbell Art Museum, 354K�ndergarten, 139K�ng, Mart�n Luther, Jr., 52 –54K�ng, stephen, 257K�ng George III, 35The K�nks, 323K�ss, 325The Kiss, 290Kle�n, Anne, 219, 221Kle�n, Calv�n, 219 –20K-Mart stores, 223, 224Kn�ghts of Columbus, 77Kn�ghts of Peter Claver

and Lad�es Aux�l�ary, 77Knox, John, 89Kohl’s stores, 224Kojak, 288Kornfeld, Art�e, 324Kors, M�chael, 222Kostova, el�zabeth, 257–58Kosuth, Joseph, 346Krasner, Lee, 345

394 INdex

Krystal hamburgers, 205Kwanzaa, 159 – 60

Labor day, 161Labor un�ons, 45Ladies’ Home Journal, 298Lady’s Book, 297Lakes, s�zes of, 2L.A.M.B., 226Land, 2 –3Lane, w�ll�am, 320Lang, M�chael, 324, 325Lang, Pearl, 317Lap�nsk�, L�sa, 356Larner, L�z, 358The Last of the Mohicans (Cooper), 250Latina Magazine, 224Lat�nas, 224Latrobe, Benjam�n, 363Lauren, ralph, 219Law & Order, 288Lawrence v. Texas, 128Lds. See Church of Jesus Chr�st of

Latter-day sa�ntsLee, Gypsy rose, 307Lee, Harper, 248– 49Lee, sp�ke, 293The Left Hand of Darkness (Le Gu�n),

255Legally Blonde, 311Legos�, Bela, 295Le Gu�n, Ursula K., 255Legumes, 201Le�sure, 169 –92Lent, 167Leonard, elmore, 254Lerner and Loewe, 309Lev� strauss (jeans), 222Levy, stacy, 359Lew�nsky, Mon�ca, 58The Liberation of Aunt Jemima, 346Liberator, 280L�berty Place, 363L�chtenste�n, roy, 346, 351

Life, 297Lily, 281L�ndbergh, Charles, 276L�ne of demarcat�on, 35The Lion King, 293L�teracy rate, 138–39L�terary f�ct�on, 250 –51L�terature, 231– 64L�ttle e�nste�n, 316The Little Tramp, 292The Living Newspaper, 309Lombard, Carol, 293London Company of Comed�ans, 304Look, 297Lopez, Jenn�fer, 226, 327The Lord of the Rings (Tolk�en), 256Los Angeles, CA, 21Louisiana Hayride, 323Lou�s�ana Purchase, 35Lou�s�ana red beans and r�ce, 204Loving v. Virginia, 126Lowe, Uncle J�m, 320Luau, 214Luca Luca, 222Lucas, George, 293Luks, George, 345Lunchtime, the Best of Times, 359Lundy, Benjam�n, 280Lutef�sk, 208–9Lutheran Church-M�ssour� synod, 92Lutherans, 90 –92

Macdonald, ross, 254Mad�son, James, 270Magaz�ne Publ�shers of Amer�ca, 296Magaz�nes, 296 –301Magnet schools, 141Mahler, Gustav, 313Ma�d-r�te restaurants, 210Ma�nbocher, 218Ma�ne lobster, 202Malcolm x, 100The Maltese Falcon (Hammett), 254Manhattan clam chowder, 202

INdex 395

Manumission Intelligencer, 280Marcus Welby, M.D., 288Mard� Gras, 155, 167, 332 –33Mar�on�, dante, 359Marley and Me (Grogan), 260Marr�age, 125–30Marshall, Carm�a, 221Marshall, Penny, 293Mart�n, Agnes, 345, 351Mart�n, r�cky, 327Mart�n Luther K�ng day, 162Marx Brothers, 295, 311Maryland, 12Maryland crab cakes, 203Matlock, 288Mayne, Thom, 367McCall’s, 298McCardell, Cla�re, 218McCarthy, Cormac, 251McCarthy, Joseph, 52McCartney, Paul, 326McClure’s, 297McClure, samuel, 297McCullough, dav�d, 258–59Mcdonald’s, 196Med�a, 265–90Medical Center, 288Meet the Press, 285Mellon, Andrew w., 352Melodrama, 305Melv�lle, Herman, 250Memor�al day, 161Mennon�tes, 106Men’s cloth�ng, 215Method�sts, 83 – 85Metropol�tan Museum of Art, 353Metropol�tan opera, 313Mex�can, 197Mex�can f�sh taco, 212Mex�can war (1848), 36Meyer, Joyce, 104MGM (mov�e stud�o), 292M�am�, FL, 15–16Miami Herald, 300

M�am� sound Mach�ne, 327M�d-Atlant�c reg�on, 10 –14Midnight in the Garden of Good

and Evil (Berendt), 262M�dwest, 18–19, 330 –31M�es van der rohe, Ludw�g, 366M�grat�on, 41– 43M�ller, Arthur, 309, 311M�ller, T�m, 352M�llhone, K�nsey, 255M�ll�on Fam�ly March, 100M�ll�on Man March, 100M�nsky Brothers, 307M�nstrel shows, 306M�schka, James, 222Miss Innocence, 307M�ss�ss�pp� r�ver, 2M�ssour� r�ver, 2M�xed greens, 205M�zrah�, Issac, 224Mobil Travel Guide f�ve star rat�ng, 196Moby Dick (Melv�lle), 250Moby Grape, 325Mold Garden, 359Monahan, Matthew, 357Monopoly, 180Monroe, James, 39Monster.com, 299Montana, 2, 20Monterey Jazz Fest�val, 333 –34Monterey Pop Internat�onal Pop

Fest�val, 333 –34Montessor� method, 145– 46Mont�cello, 361A Moral Dialogue, 304Morgan, J. P., 44Mormons. See Church of Jesus Chr�st

of Latter-day sa�ntsMorning Journal, 274Morphos�s, 368Morr�son, Ton�, 249Morse, samuel, 271Mosley, walter, 254 –55Mother’s day, 165

396 INdex

Motherwell, robert, 345Mot�on P�cture Assoc�at�on of Amer�ca

rat�ng system, 295Mot�on P�cture Producers and

d�str�butors of Amer�ca, 295Mount Vernon, 361Mr. Interlocutor, 306Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, 293Muckrak�ng, 274Muhammad, el�jah, 100Muhammad, wallace Fard. See Fard,

wallace d.Mult�med�a (20th century), 274 – 80Mult�med�a art�sts, 344“The Murders �n the rue Morgue”

(Poe), 253Murray, walter, 304Murrow, edward r., 285Museum of Contemporary Art, 355Museum of F�ne Arts, 354Mus�c, 312 –16Mus�cals, 304Musl�m head scarf (hijab), 216Musl�ms. See IslamThe Mutation Show, 310Mystery f�ct�on, 253 –55

NAACP. See Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for the Advancement of Colored People

Nagasak�, Japan, 51Nanny 911, 289Nap�er, Mark, 348Narrative history literature, 258NAsCAr. See Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for

stock Car Auto rac�ngNat�onal Assoc�at�on for stock Car

Auto rac�ng (NAsCAr), 174 –76Nat�onal Assoc�at�on for the

Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 52

Nat�onal Assoc�at�on of the Mot�on P�cture Industry, 294 –95

Nat�onal Broadcast�ng Company (NBC), 283

Nat�onal Colleg�ate Athlet�c Assoc�at�on (NCAA), 173

Nat�onal endowment for the Arts (NeA), 350 –52

Nat�onal F�nals rodeo, 176Nat�onal Gallery of Art, 352 –53Nat�onal Inst�tute, 352Nat�onal Labor relat�ons Board

(NLrB), 48Nat�onal M�ss�onary Bapt�st

Convent�on of Amer�ca, 82Nat�onal organ�zat�on for women

(Now), 56Nat�onal parks, 179Nat�onal Poetry Gather�ng, 334Nat�onal woman suffrage

Assoc�at�on, 46Nat�onal youth Adm�n�strat�on, 48Nat�on of Islam (NoI), 100 –102Nat�on of Peace. See Nat�on of Islam

(NoI)Nat�ve Amer�cans, 33 –35, 37, 180 – 81Native Son (wr�ght), 250Natural d�sasters, 5– 6Natural�zat�on, 149 –50NBC. See Nat�onal Broadcast�ng

CompanyNCAA. See Nat�onal Colleg�ate

Athlet�c Assoc�at�onNCLB. See No Ch�ld Left Beh�nd ActNeA. See Nat�onal endowment

for the ArtsNegro dance Company, 318Network telev�s�on, 283Nevada, 25New Amsterdam, 34New deal, 44New england clam chowder, 202New-England Courant, 268New England Journal of Medicine, 299New england reg�on, 8–10New France, 34New Hampsh�re, 2New Jersey, 2

INdex 397

New Mex�co, 24New Mex�co green ch�l�, 212New Playwr�ghts Theater, 310Newport JVC Jazz Fest�val, 329Newport Mus�c Fest�val, 329Newsday, 279Newspapers, 267–74Newsweek, 296The New Yorker, 278New urban�sm, 362New world, d�scovery of, 33 –34New year’s day, 160New York Call, 281New york C�ty Ballet, 318New york C�ty, Ny, 10 –11, 215, 217New York Daily News, 275, 279New York Evening World, 273New York Herald, 271, 272New York Journal, 274New York Morning Chronicle, 272New york Ph�lharmon�c, 313,

314, 315New York Post, 270, 275, 279New York Sun, 271New York Times, 266 – 67, 279New york T�mes News serv�ce, 279New York Tribune, 271, 272New York Weekly Journal, 268Ney, Bob, 61– 62N�cholson, Jack, 294N�ckelback, 326A Night at the Opera, 311Nightstand, 356N�j�nsky, Vaslav, 31719th Amendment, 118N�xon, r�chard, 54 –55, 277–78NLrB. See Nat�onal Labor

relat�ons BoardNo Ch�ld Left Beh�nd (NCLB) Act,

141– 42NoI. See Nat�on of IslamNo Ordinary Time: Franklin and

Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (Goodw�n), 260

Norell, Norman, 218North by Northwest, 293The North Star, 281Northwest ord�nance (1787), 35Norton Anthology, 247Nouvelle cu�s�ne, 196Now. See Nat�onal organ�zat�on for

women

o’donnell, ros�e, 298Of Mice and Men (ste�nbeck), 248oh�o Ballet, 317, 318o’Keefe, Georg�a, 351oklahoma Terr�tory, 40oldenberg, Claes, 346oldenburg, Claes, 351old Globe Theatres, 311old Post off�ce, 363olsen, Mary-Kate and Ashley, 223Omnibus, 314oMo (on My own), 220o’Ne�ll, eugene, 309On the Twentieth Century, 321O, Oprah Magazine, 298opera, 312 –16operat�on desert storm, 57Operation Shylock (roth), 250oprah w�nfrey Book Club, 231–32oregon, 22 –23oregon shakespeare Fest�val, 337orland�, Luca, 222oscar (Academy Award), 295otabenga Jones & Assoc�ates, 356 –57Our Miss Brooks, 287oursler, Tony, 347outcault, r�chard, 274outdoor amph�theaters, 326Overseer, 357ozarks, 26

Pac�f�c Northwest reg�on, 22 –23Pac-Man, 181Pa�ne, Thomas, 270Palao, James, 323

398 INdex

Pan�cs, 44Paralymp�cs, 178Paramount (mov�e stud�o), 292Parents, 298Parker, Colonel Tom, 323Paroch�al schools, 144 – 45Passover, 167Pauley, Jane, 285Pavarott�, Luc�ano, 315Pawnee B�ll, 305P. d�ddy (Combs, sean), 226Peanut butter and jelly sandw�ch

(PB&J), 201Peanuts, 201Pearl Harbor, 48– 49Pearl Jam, 325Pearl of Great Price, 87Pe�, Ieoh M�ng, 367Pennsylvania Gazette, 268Pennsylvan�a Museum and school of

Industr�al Art, 353Pentagon Papers, 54 –55Penzo�l Place, 366People (U.s.), 26 –33People Weekly, 278Pere�ra, w�ll�am, 367Perform�ng arts, 303 –39The Perils of Pauline, 292Perry, r�ck, 121Perry Mason, 288Personal computer, 299Person to Person, 285Phantom of the opera, 312Phat Farm Fash�ons, 225Ph�ladelph�a, PA, 11–12, 203Ph�ladelph�a Museum of Art, 353Ph�ladelph�a orchestra, 313Philanthropist, 280Ph�ll�ps, Amm�, 360Ph�ll�ps Collect�on, 354Ph�lly cheesesteak, 203Phoen�x, AZ, 25Photography, 272P�gs �n a blanket, 207

Pilgrim’s Progress, 274P�ng, Mary, 222Pinocchio, 293P�per, Adr�an, 347Pirates of the Caribbean, 294Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s

Chest, 294P�t barbeque, 204P�zza, 197P�zza Hut, 196Playstat�on, 299Po’boy sandw�ch, 205Poe, edgar Allen, 253, 298Poetry, 232 – 43Po�, 214Poker, 180The Pol�ce (band), 323Poll, He�nz, 317, 318Pollock, Jackson, 345Pong, 181Popular f�ct�on, 251–58. See also

L�teraturePopular mus�c, 322 –30. See also Mus�cPopular nonf�ct�on, 258– 62. See also

L�teraturePopulat�on, 27–28, 35, 41Portnoy’s Complaint (roth), 250Posen, Zac, 222Post-Industr�al revolut�on, 118Potato salad, 208Potluck d�nner, 206Power, 309Praise the Lord, 104Predest�nat�on, 89Presbyter�an Church, 89 –90Preschool, 139Preservat�on Hall, 333Pres�dents’ day, 162Presley, elv�s, 323Pretzels, 208The Price is Right, 288Pr�mary schools, 139Pr�tzker Arch�tecture Pr�ze, 367Pr�vate schools, 138, 144 – 45

INdex 399

Proctor & Gamble, 276Progress�ve Nat�onal Bapt�st

Convent�on, 82Proh�b�t�on, 46 – 47Pro-Keds sneakers, 225Protestant churches, 72 –73Prov�ncetown wharf Theatre, 309Pru�tt, robert A., 357Publ�c art, 348–50Publ�c educat�on system, 29Publick Occurrences Both Foreign

and Domestick, 267Publ�c schools, 138Pul�tzer, Joseph, 273 –74Pumpern�ckel bread, 208Pumpk�n p�e, 202Pur�tan�sm, 247“The Purlo�ned Letter,” 253Purpose Driven Church, 105Purpose Driven Life, 105Putnam, robert, 169Pynchon, Thomas, 250 –51

Quahog clams, 202Quakers. See rel�g�ous soc�ety of

Fr�endsQu�cks�lver Messenger serv�ce, 325Quinceañera, 168

rac�al d�scr�m�nat�on, 51rac�sm, rel�g�on and, 72rad�o, 276Raiders of the Lost Ark, 293ra�lroads, 43rap, 326 –27rauschenberg, robert, 346, 351rea, ol�ver, 311Reader’s Digest, 298–99ready-to-wear (rTw), 215reagan, ronald, 56 –57real�ty telev�s�on, 289The Real World, 289Rear Window, 293reconstruct�on, 38

Redbook, 298red scares, 46reeves, Keanu, 293regatta, 224reg�onal cu�s�ne, 202 –14reg�onal performances, 327–38;

M�dwest, 330 –31; North, 327–30; Northwest, 336 –38; south, 331–33; west, 333 –36

reg�ons, 6 –26; Appalach�ans, 26; Cal�forn�a, 20 –22; Hawa��, 22; M�d–Atlant�c, 10 –14; M�dwest, 18–19; New england, 8–10; ozarks, 26; Pac�f�c Northwest, 22 –23; south, 14 –18; southwest, 23 –26; west, 19 –20

rel�g�on, 69 –112rel�g�ous r�ght, 103, 109, 111rel�g�ous soc�ety of Fr�ends, 106republ�cbank Center, 366requ�red read�ng, 246 –50restaurant revenues, 195restaurant spend�ng, 195reuters, 279Revolution, 281revolut�onary war, 35rhode Island Johnny Cakes, 202r�ce, 204, 208r�ce, Anne, 257r�gney, James, 256 –57r�nggold, Fa�th, 346r�ngl�ng Bros. and Barnum & Ba�ley

C�rcus, 305– 6r�o Grande r�ver, 2, 23 –24Riot, 348r�sk, 180Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank

Redemption (K�ng), 257The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du

Printemps), 317rKo (mov�e stud�o), 292roar�ng Twent�es, 46robb, J. d., 252roberts, John, 324

400 INdex

roberts, Nora, 252 –53robertson, Pat, 103rob�nson, B�ll, 321rob�nson, edward, 295rocawear, 225rockwell, Norman, 345rodeo, 176, 335–36rodr�guez, dav�d, 221–22rogers and Hammerste�n, 309rogers, G�nger, 321rogers, w�ll, 307Rolling Stone, 282The roll�ng stones, 326roman Cathol�c Church, 74 –78romance novels, 252 –53roosevelt, Frankl�n, 44, 48Rosemary’s Baby, 295rosenman, Joel, 324rosenqu�st, James, 346rosh Hashanah, 159Rosie, 298roth, Ph�ll�p, 250rothko, Mark, 345Royal American Magazine, 296rTw. See ready–to–wearrubenste�n, Arthur, 314rucc�, ralph, 222run d.M.C., 327rush, 325russell, Charles, 345russell, Morgan, 345russ�a, 51–53, 57ruth, Babe, 276

saar, Betye, 346saddleback Church, 104 –5st. den�s, ruth, 317st. Lawrence r�ver, 2St. Louis Post–Dispatch, 273st. N�cholas (st. N�ck), 158st. Patr�ck’s day, 163st. Valent�ne’s day, 165– 66sal�nger, J. d., 249salle, dav�d, 347

salsa, 327salt-cured V�rg�n�a country

ham, 204salt ’N’ Pepa, 327same-sex couples, 129 –30san Anton�o, Tx, 17–18sand�n�sta reg�me, 57san Franc�sco, CA, 21–22San Francisco Examiner, 274san Franc�sco Museum

of Modern Art, 355san Franc�sco symphony

orchestra, 316santa, Carlos, 327santa Claus, 158, 159santana, 324sarnoff, dav�d, 283satell�te rad�o, 299Saturday Evening Post, 296 –97sauerkraut, 208savages, 33savannah red r�ce, 204The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne), 247Schindler’s List, 293schnabel, Jul�an, 347schneemann, Carolee, 346scholder, Fr�tz, 346school safety, 144Science and Health with Key to the

Scripture, 108sc�ence f�ct�on, 255–56sCLC. See southern Chr�st�an

Leadersh�p Conferencescopes, John, 143scopes Monkey tr�al, 275scorsese, Mart�n, 293scrabble, 180scrapbook�ng, 183seafood, 213seagram Bu�ld�ng, 363 – 69sears, roebuck and Co., 215, 224sears Tower, 364seas�de, FL, 362secondary schools, 139 – 40

INdex 401

SecondFire, 350second Great Awaken�ng, 96second L�fe, 182secur�t�es and exchange

Comm�ss�on, 48See It Now, 285segregat�on, 140 – 41Seinfeld, 287select�ve serv�ce Act, 45selena, 327self-help books, 258sennett, Mack, 292separat�on of church and state, 69 –70september 11, 2001, 60serra, r�chard, 349700 Club, 103Seven Sisters, 2981776 (McCullough), 259seventh Avenue, 217sexual harassment, 123sexual�ty, 119, 125sexually transm�tted �nfect�ons

(sTIs), 120 –21shabazz, 100shady, Ltd., 226shawn, Ted, 317sherman, C�ndy, 346Shirts2, 357shoofly p�e, 204shook, Karel, 318s�dek�ck, 299s�lvers, Ph�l, 307s�m C�ty, 181s�mmons, russell, 225The Simpsons, 287s�ms, The, 181– 82Singin’ in the Rain, 293s�ngle parenthood, 136s�ssle, Noble, 321s�stahs Harlem New york, 221s�tcoms, 287– 88The $64,000 Question, 288skateboard�ng, 177skelton, Thomas, 317, 318

Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut), 256slavery, 37Sleeping Beauty, 293slyders, 210sm�th, Anna N�cole, 278sm�th, Howard K., 285sm�th, Joseph, 85– 86sm�th, K�k�, 347sm�th, w�ll�, 220sm�thson, robert, 347sm�thson�an Amer�can Art Museum,

352 –53sm�thson�an Castle, 352snowboard�ng, 177Snow Crash, 182snow, dash, 357snow, Hank, 323Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, 292soap operas, 276, 288soc�al creed, 84 – 85soc�al secur�ty Act, 43soc�ety of st. V�ncent de Paul, 77sod�, Thal�a, 224sokolow, Ann, 318solomon, Gus, 318Some Golden States, 352A Song Flung Up to Heaven

(Angelou), 261sony Bu�ld�ng, 366The Sopranos, 283sorel, Fel�c�a, 318soul food, 204, 205The Sound of Music, 293The south, 14 –18south Coast repertory, 311southern Bapt�st Convent�on, 78– 80southern Chr�st�an Leadersh�p

Conference (sCLC), 52 –53Southern Living, 298south street seaport, 363The southwest, 23 –26southwest Lou�s�ana Zydeco Mus�c

Fest�val, 333sov�et Un�on, 51–53, 57

402 INdex

Space Invader, 348span�sh-Amer�can war, 45span�sh explorers, 33 –34spec�al olymp�cs, 178–79spec�al supplemental Nutr�t�on

Program for women, Infants, and Ch�ldren (wIC), 135

sp�elberg, steven, 293sp�llane, M�ckey, 254The Spiral Jetty, 347sports, 288– 89Sports Illustrated, 297standard�zed test�ng, 147stanton, el�zabeth Cady, 46, 118, 281Starbucks, Seattle: Compression, 359Star Wars, 293state fa�rs, 155–56state parks, 179Stations, 347statutory rape, 124 –25steam press, 270 –71steel, dan�elle, 253steel, H�llary, 358stefan�, Gwen, 226steffens, L�ncoln, 297ste�nbeck, John, 248stella, Frank, 345stephenson, Neal, 182stewart, J�mmy, 293stewart, Martha, 183sTI. See sexually transm�tted �nfect�onsstock market crash, 44, 48stone, I.F., 281stone, ol�ver, 293storyv�lle, 331stowe, Harr�et Beecher, 298strasshe�m, Angela, 357strateg�c defense In�t�at�ve, 57A Streetcar Named Desire, 309Stretch Marks, 352stuart, G�lbert, 344submar�ne sandw�ch, 205sull�van, Lou�s, 364summer stock, 308

Sunset Boulevard, 311Sun Tunnels, 347super Bowl, 170 –71super Bowl xLI (2007), 289Super Mario Clouds—2005

Rewrite, 348supermarket, 198supreme Court, 123 –24Survivor, 290sweetface Fash�on, 226The Sword of Shannara (Brooks), 256szell, George, 314

Tacos, 211Tal�ban, 60Tampa, FL, 16 –17Tap danc�ng, 320 –22Tarant�no, Quent�n, 293Tarbell, Ida, 297Target stores, 224Tarzan, 293Tasso sausage, 206Taylor, James, 315TBN. See Tr�n�ty Broadcast�ng

NetworkT. B. walker Foundat�on, 311Team of Rival: The Political Genius of

Abraham Lincoln (Goodw�n), 261Ted Mack Amateur Hour, 289Tejano, 327Telegraph, 271Televangel�sts, 103 – 6Telev�s�on, 277–78, 282 –90Temple, sh�rley, 321Tennessee Valley Author�ty, 48Tenn�s, 176 –77Terra Firma (Dry Land), 359Texaco Star Theatre, 285Texas, 2, 36, 212Tex-Mex, 212, 327Thanksg�v�ng, 154, 156 –57Theatre, 303 –12Theatre Un�on, 310Theroux, Paul, 262

INdex 403

The Thirty-nine Steps, 293This Do in Remembrance of Me, 357Thomas, Clarence, 123The Three Tenors, 315Through the Night Softly, 346T�ffany & Co., 225Tilted Arc, 349T�mberlake, Just�n, 226Time, 296T�tle VII, C�v�l r�ghts Act

of 1964, 123T�vo, 299The Today Show, 285To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee), 248– 49Tolk�en, J.r.r., 256Torah, 99Track and f�eld, 173 –74Trademarks, 346Transamer�ca Pyram�d, 367Traylor, B�ll, 360Treaty of Par�s, 35, 39Tr�gère, Paul�ne, 218Tr�n�ty Broadcast�ng Network

(TBN), 104Tr�v�al Pursu�t, 180Tropics and Le Jazz Hot, 318Truman (McCullough), 259Trumbull, John, 344Tuesdays with Morrie (Albom), 260Tulsa Ph�lharmon�c, 315Tunney, Gene, 276Turtle soup, 203Twa�n, Mark, 247– 48, 26120th Century Fox (mov�e stud�o), 292Twent�eth century, 43 – 62Twenty-one, 288

Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 305Underground newspapers, 281– 82Un�form Monday Hol�day Act of

1968, 161Un�forms, school, 144Un�tar�an Un�versal�st Assoc�at�on, 108Un�ted Book�ng Art�sts, 308

Un�ted Method�st Church, 83 – 85Un�ted Press Internat�onal (UPI),

275, 279Un�ted synagogue of Conservat�ve

Juda�sm, 98–99UPI. See Un�ted Press Internat�onalUp in Honey’s Room (Leonard), 254UPN network, 283Urban, Joseph, 307USA Today, 279U.S. News and World Report, 297Utah, 20

Valent�ne’s day, 165– 66Van Impe, Jack, 104Vaudev�lle, 304, 307– 8Vaudev�lle Manager’s

Assoc�at�on, 308VCr. See V�deo cassette recorderVentur�, robert, 367Vertigo, 293Veterans day, 161VHs v�deo casette, 284V�deo cassette recorder (VCr),

284, 294V�deo games, 181V�etnam war, 54 –55, 277, 286Village Voice, 282V�ola, B�ll, 347Vokal, 226Von Grona, eugene, 318Vonnegut, Kurt Jr., 256Vot�ng r�ghts Act of 1965, 54Voucher systems, 143

wAAC. See women’s Aux�l�ary Army Corps

wahoo’s, 212 –13wa�nwr�ght Bu�ld�ng, 364waldorf schools, 145– 46walken, Chr�stopher, 321walker, Al�ce, 249walker, Kelley, 357wallace, dew�tt, 298–99

404 INdex

Wall Street Journal, 279wal-Mart stores, 223 –24walters, Barbara, 285warhol, Andy, 346warner Brothers (mov�e stud�o), 292war relocat�on Author�ty (wrA), 50warren, r�ck, 105– 6wash�ngton (state), 22 –23wash�ngton, dC, 12 –13wash�ngton, George, 35Washington Post, 277–78wash�ngton’s B�rthday, 162Watch Tower, 96WaterFire, 349watergate, 277water qual�ty, 5waters, Al�ce, 212water Tower Place, 363wayne, John, 293wB (warner Brothers) network, 283wCTU. See woman’s Chr�st�an

Temperance Un�onwebber, Carmen, 221weber, Max, 345weblogs, 282web s�tes, 299 –300wedd�ngs, 168we�dman, Charles, 317We Keep Our Victims Ready, 351wendy’s, 196wesselmann, Tom, 346The west, 19 –20west, Benjam�n, 344western style (fash�on), 217West Side Story, 309wheeler-Howard Act, 40Wheel of Fortune, 288White Butterfly, 357wh�te Castle, 210wh�te House off�ce of Fa�th-based

and Commun�ty In�t�at�ves, 111White Noise (deL�llo), 251whoop�e p�e, 204The who, 326

Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, 288wIC. See spec�al supplemental

Nutr�t�on Program for women, Infants, and Ch�ldren

Wife Swap, 289The Wild Blue (Ambrose), 259w�ld r�ce, 208w�ld west, 217, 305w�ll�am rast, 226w�ll�ams, dudley, 318w�ll�ams, Tennessee, 309w�ll�ams, w�lson, 318w�ll�wear, 220w�lson, woodrow, 45Window Drop #1, 358w�ne, 199 –200, 213w�nf�eld, Hemsley, 318w�nfrey, oprah, 231–32The Wiz, 311The Wizard of Oz, 292wNBA. See woman’s Nat�onal

Basketball Assoc�at�onwoman’s Chr�st�an Temperance

Un�on (wCTU), 46woman’s cloth�ng s�zes, 215Woman’s Day, 298Woman’s Journal, 281woman’s Nat�onal Basketball

Assoc�at�on (wNBA), 174women �n pol�t�cs, 124women’s Aux�l�ary Army Corps

(wAAC), 50women’s r�ghts, 36, 46woodstock, 324woodward, Bob, 277woolworth Bu�ld�ng, 364workers drama League, 310workers’ Theater, 310works Progress Adm�n�strat�on

(wPA), 48world ser�es, 171world ser�es of Poker, 180world war I, 45world war II, 48– 49

INdex 405

World without End, 352wPA. See works Progress

Adm�n�strat�onwrA. See war relocat�on Author�tywrestl�ng, 176wr�ght, Frank Lloyd, 365wr�ght, r�chard, 250wyom�ng, 20

The X-Factor, 325

yasgur, Max, 324Yellow journalism, 274yellowstone Park, 179yom K�ppur, 159

Young People’s Concerts, 314youTube, 266yo-yo Ma, 315yukon r�ver, 2

Ze�sler, Peter, 311Zenger, John Peter, 268Z�egfeld, Florenz, 307Z�egfeld Foll�es, 307Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders

from Mars, 325The Zomb�es, 323The Zulu Nat�on, 326Zw�eback, 208Zworyk�n, Vlad�m�r, 282

BeNJAMIN F. sHeArer rece�ved h�s Phd �n the h�story of �deas from st. Lou�s Un�vers�ty and h�s MsLs from the Un�vers�ty of Ill�no�s at Urbana-Champa�gn. He has wr�tten and ed�ted several reference books, �nclud�ng Home Front Heroes (Greenwood Press, 2007), The Uniting States (Green-wood Press, 2004), and State Names, Seals, Flags and Symbols (3rd ed., Green-wood Press, 2002).

eLLeN BAIer �s an �ndependent scholar and wr�ter who �s act�ve �n the-ater and nat�onal tour product�ons. In 2004, Frankl�n & Marshall College awarded her �ts w�ll�amson Medal. she �s also a major contr�butor to Home Front Heroes: A Biographical Dictionary of Americans during Wartime (Green-wood Press, 2007).

weNde VyBorNey FeLLer, Phd, �s a corporate consultant and free-lance wr�ter. A graduate of the Un�vers�ty of M�nnesota, she has taught at a var�ety of un�vers�t�es, �nclud�ng, most recently, �n the execut�ve MBA pro-gram at the College of st. Mary �n Moraga, Cal�forn�a. Among her academ�c presentat�ons are papers �n Japanese and Amer�can war rhetor�c at the con-clus�on of world war II. she l�ves �n Phoen�x, Ar�zona, and �s work�ng on her f�rst novel.

AGNes HooPer GoTTLIeB �s the dean of Freshman stud�es and spe-c�al Academ�c Programs at seton Hall Un�vers�ty. she also holds the rank of

About the ed�tor and Contr�butors

407

408 ABoUT THe edITor ANd CoNTrIBUTors

professor �n the Commun�cat�on department. she �s the coauthor of 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium and the author of Women Journalists and the Municipal Housekeeping Move-ment, 1868–1914, from the edw�n Mellen Press. she has wr�tten dozens of art�cles and book chapters on journal�sm h�story. she also wr�tes a monthly adv�ce column for the parents of seton Hall Un�vers�ty students.

PAMeLA Lee GrAy �s an �ndependent scholar who holds a Phd �n Amer�-can h�story from the Un�vers�ty of southern Cal�forn�a. Her wr�tten work �ncludes over 100 academ�c art�cles and several books on local h�story. Her curr�culum des�gn work teaches h�story us�ng ethnography and h�stor�cal v�-sual �mages.

wILLIAM P. ToTH teaches wr�t�ng at He�delberg College and has been publ�shed �n both the Un�ted states and england. H�s h�stor�cal and l�terary wr�t�ng has appeared �n African American National Biography, Back Home in Kentucky, Bend in the River, Chronicles of the Old West, Encyclopedia of African American History, SuperReal: The British Journal of Surrealism, and others.

Culture and Customs of the United States

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