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CULTURAL LAW: INTERNATIONAL, COMPARATIVE, AND INDIGENOUS
Cultural law is a new and exciting field of study and practice. The core themes oflinguistic and other cultural rights, cultural identity and differentiation, culturalheritage, traditional knowledge, sports, and religion are of fundamental impor-tance to people around the world, engaging them at the grassroots level and oftencommanding their daily attention. The related legal processes are both significantand complex.
This unique collection of materials and commentary on cultural law covers abroad range of themes. Opening chapters explore critical issues involving culturalactivities, artifacts, and status, as well as the fundamental concepts of culture andlaw. Subsequent chapters examine the dynamic interplay of law and culture withrespect to each of the core themes.
The materials demonstrate the reality and efficacy of international, comparative,and indigenous law and legal practices in the dynamic context of culture-relatedissues. Throughout the book, the issues are presented at international, national,subnational, tribal, and strictly cultural levels of authority.
James A. R. Nafziger is Thomas B. Stoel Professor of Law and Director of Inter-national Programs at the Willamette University College of Law. A former admin-istrative director of the American Society of International Law and President ofthe American Branch of the International Law Association (ILA), he serves as Chairof the ILA’s Cultural Heritage Law Committee. Professor Nafziger is the authorof International Sports Law and coeditor of The Cultural Heritage of Mankind andCultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization and Commerce.
Robert Kirkwood Paterson is a Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law at theUniversity of British Columbia. He is an editor of the International Journal ofCultural Property and rapporteur of the Cultural Heritage Law Committee of theInternational Law Association, of which he is a Canadian board member. He haswritten widely on cultural property and international trade law, most recently ascoeditor of Protection of First Nations Cultural Heritage: Laws, Policy, and Reform.
Alison Dundes Renteln is a Professor of Political Science and Anthropology atthe University of Southern California. She is an expert on cultural rights, havingauthored The Cultural Defense and co-edited Folk Law: Essays on the Theory andPractice of Lex Non Scripta. She has also served on the California State Bar Commis-sion on Access to Justice and the California Judicial Council Access and FairnessAdvisory Committee.
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Cultural Law
INTERNATIONAL, COMPARATIVE,AND INDIGENOUS
James A. R. NafzigerThomas B. Stoel Professor of Law
Willamette University
Robert Kirkwood PatersonProfessor of Law
University of British Columbia
Alison Dundes RentelnProfessor of Political Science and Anthropology
University of Southern California
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It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
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© James A. R. Nafziger, Robert Kirkwood Paterson, and Alison Dundes Renteln 2010
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2010Reprinted 2013First paperback edition 2014
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A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication dataNafziger, James A. R.Cultural law : international, comparative, and indigenous / James A.R.Nafziger, Robert K. Paterson, Alison Dundes Renteln. p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-0-521-86550-0 (hardback)1. Culture and law. 2. Cultural property – Protection – Law and legislation.3. Multiculturalism – Law and legislation. I. Paterson, Robert K., 1946–II. Renteln, Alison Dundes. III. Title.k487.c8n34 2010344´.09 – dc22 2009047137
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Contents
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
1. Cultural Law: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. The Cultural Dimension of the Legal Process 1
1. Dispute Resolution amid Cultural Diversity 1
Yahoo!, Inc. v. La Ligue Contre Le Racisme et L’Antisemitisme 1
Notes and Questions 7
David J. Przeracki, “Working It Out”: A Japanese Alternative toFighting It Out, 37 Clev. St. L. Rev. 149 (1989) 9
Notes and Questions 11
2. Legal Discourse 12
a. International Business Transactions 12
Daniel C.K. Chow & Thomas J. Schoenbaum, InternationalBusiness Transactions: Problems, Cases, and Materials11–13 (2005) 12
Richard W. Downing, Comment, The Continuing Power of CulturalTradition and Socialist Ideology: Cross-Cultural NegotiationsInvolving Chinese, Korean, and American Negotiators, 1992 J. Disp.Resol. 105, 125–29 14
Notes and Questions 17
b. Diplomacy 18
Raymond Cohen, Negotiating across Cultures:International Communication in an InterdependentWorld 215–18, 222–26 (1997) 19
Notes and Questions 23
3. Cultural Identity Paradigms 24
Jacinta O’Hagan, Conflict, Convergence, or Coexistence? TheRelevance of Culture in Reframing World Order, in Reframing theInternational: Law, Culture, Politics 187–88, 198–210(Richard Falk, Lester Edwin J. Ruiz & R.B. Walker eds., 2002) 24
Notes 35
v
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vi Contents
B. Cultural-Legal Interaction 36
1. Legal Protection of Cultural Values 36
Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association 36
Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. and Ernesto Pichardo v. Cityof Hialeah 43
Notes and Questions 48
2. Cultural Relativism and Universalism in the Legal Process 49
Jacqueline Nolan-Haley, Harold Abramson & Pat K. Chew,International Conflict Resolution: Consensual ADRProcesses 78–82 (2005) 49
Notes 53
3. The Cultural Defense 54
Notes and Questions 61
4. Separate Legal Systems 61
Note 62
5. Globalization of Mass Culture 62
Siva Vaidhyanathan, Open Source as Culture – Culture as OpenSource, in Open Source Annual 346 (2007) 63
C. Cultural Law 64
1. A Working Definition 64
2. Culture-Related Terminology 64
3. Culture as a Human Right 66
a. Applicable Law 66
b. Claims 69
(i) Food 69
David Haldane, Culture Clash or Animal Cruelty? Two CambodianRefugees Face Trial after Killing Dog for Food, L.A. Times, Mar. 13,1989, at 1 70
Cavel International, Inc. v. Madigan 71
Notes and Questions 73
(ii) The Environment 74Memorandum on Distribution of Eagle Feathers for NativeAmerican Religious Purposes, Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 30 (17)(Apr. 29, 1994), at 935–37 75
(iii) Disabilities 77Questions 78
(iv) Family Life and Marriage 78
City of Westminster Social & Community Services Department v. IC 78
Aleem v. Aleem 79
Notes and Questions 85
4. Coda: Examples of Cultural Law from the World of Music 88
a. Law Embodies Culture and Formalizes Its Norms 88
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Contents vii
b. Law Promotes, Protects, Conditions, and Limits Cultural Attributesand Expressions 89
Johnlee Scelba Curtis, Culture and the Digital Copyright Chimera:Assessing the International Regulatory System of the Music Industryin Relation to Cultural Diversity, 13 Int’l J. Cultural Prop.59–60, 63–64, 66–69, 77, 80, 81, 84–85 (2006) 89
c. Law Harmonizes Cross-Cultural Differences, Establishes InternationalStandards, and Confirms Cultural Rights 94
Jerry L. Weinstein, Musical Pitch and International Agreement, 46Am. J. Int’l L. 341 (1952) 94
Notes and Questions 96
d. Culture Reinforces Legal Rules 96
e. Culture Conditions and Constrains the Adoption, Interpretation, andVitality of Legal Rules 96
Steve Jones, Music That Moves: Popular Music, Distribution andNetwork Technologies, 16 Cultural Stud., no. 2, at 213, 221–22(2002) 96
f. Cultural Expressions and Symbols Promote Legal Relationships 97
Daniel J. Wakin, North Koreans Welcome Symphonic Diplomacy,N.Y. Times, Feb. 27, 2008, at A10 97
Elisabetta Povoledo, China Orchestra Plays for Pope for First Time,Hinting at Thaw, N.Y. Times, May 8, 2008, at A6 98
Notes 98
2. Culture and the Law: The Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A. Culture 100
1. The Issues 100
Clyde Kluckhohn & William H. Kelly, The Concept of Culture,in The Science of Man in the World Crisis 78–106(Ralph Linton ed., 1980) 100
2. Relativism and Incommensurability 123
Peter Winch, Understanding a Primitive Society, 1 Am. Phil. Q. 1,307, 315 (1964) 124
3. Anthropological Definitions and Concepts 125
a. Early Definitions 125
Bronislaw Malinowski, Culture, in Encyclopaedia of the SocialSciences 621, 645 (Edwin R.A. Seligman ed., 1937) 125
b. Later Definitions: The Influence of Relativism 126
c. Postmodern Theory and Cultural Studies 127
d. The Contemporary Defense of the Concept of Culture 129
Richard A. Shweder, Culture: Contemporary Views, in5 International Encyclopedia of the Social & BehavioralSciences 3151, 3157 (Neil Smelser & Paul Baltes eds., 2001) 130
Notes and Questions 131
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viii Contents
4. Enculturation: How Culture Affects Perception and Behavior 131
What’s A-O.K. in the U.S.A. Is Lewd and Worthless Beyond, N.Y.Times, Aug. 18, 1996, at E7 132
B. Law 134
1. Jurisprudential Foundations 134
a. Natural Law and Legal Positivism 135
Michael H. Hoeflich, Natural Law Theory, in The OxfordCompanion to American Law 587 (Kermit L. Hall ed., 2002) 135
Streletz, Kessler and Krenz v. Germany; K.-H. W. v. Germany 138
Notes and Questions 145
b. Other Schools of Jurisprudence 145
Note 146
2. International Law 147
a. Introduction 147
b. Sources 148
3. Comparative Law 151
a. Introduction 151
b. The Common Law Tradition 152
John V. Orth, Common Law, in The Oxford Companion toAmerican Law 125 (Kermit L. Hall ed., 2002) 152
c. The Civil Law Tradition 156
d. Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions 157
e. The Judicial Use of Foreign Law 158
Roper v. Simmons 158
David G. Savage, Scalia to Congress: Butt Out of Court’s Use ofForeign Law, L.A. Times, May 19, 2006, at 1 164
Notes and Questions 165
f. Customary Law 166
Gordon R. Woodman, Customary Legal Norms, in Encyclopediaof Law & Society 379, 380, 381 (David S. Clark ed., 2007) 166
T.W. Bennett, Comparative Law and African Customary Law, inThe Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law 641 (MathiasReimann & Reinhard Zimmerman eds., 2006) 167
Max Gluckman, The Judicial Process among the Barotse ofNorthern Rhodesia 134–41 (1955) 170
Notes and Questions 172
4. Indigenous Law 173
Daniel P. Strouthes, Legal Systems of Aboriginal and IndigenousPeoples, in 1 Encyclopedia of Law & Society 1, 2 (David S. Clarked., 2007) 174
Notes 175
Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname 176
Notes and Questions 198
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Contents ix
5. Legal Pluralism 200
Werner Menski, Comparative Law in a Global Perspective:The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa 173–74, 183–84(2d ed. 2006) 200
Question 202
Leopold J. Pospisil, The Ethnology of Law 30–31, 43–44, 46,48, 109–11 (2d ed. 1978) 202
3. Cultural Heritage Law: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
A. The Definitional Framework 206
Lyndel V. Prott & Patrick J. O’Keefe, “Cultural Heritage” or“Cultural Property”?, 1 Int’l J. Cult. Prop. 307, 309, 310–11 (1992) 207
Note 208
B. Individual and Nongovernmental Organization Actors 208
1. Private Dealers, Auction Houses, and Collectors 208
Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus v. Goldberg 209
Notes and Questions 215
2. Museums and Art Galleries 220
3. Anthropologists and Archaeologists 221
4. Indigenous and Minority Ethnic Groups 221
5. Artists 222
6. Historic Preservationists, Archivists, and Art Historians 222
7. Criminals and Criminal Organizations 223
a. Forgers, Fakers, and Defrauders 223
Trial of the Century, Archaeology, Mar.–Apr. 2005, at 14 223
College Art Association, A Code of Ethics for ArtHistorians and Guidelines for the Professional Practiceof Art History (1995) 224
Note 226
b. Thieves 226
Note 227
Bumper Development Corp. v. Commissioner of Police for theMetropolis 227
Mullick v. Mullick 236
Notes and Questions 237
c. Grave Robbers and Other Illegal Excavators 241
d. Smugglers (Illegal Export and Import) 242
William H. Honan, Rare Pre-Columbian Relics, at Any Cost, N.Y.Times, July 31, 1995, at 1 242
Notes 247
e. War Criminals 248
C. The International Legal Framework: A Summary 248
Note 251
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x Contents
4. Cultural Material: Protection and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
A. Protection 252
1. Threats to Cultural Resources 252
a. Archaeological 252
Ricardo J. Elia, Looting, Collecting, and the Destruction ofArchaeological Resources, 6 Nonrenewable Resources, no. 2,at 85–86, 88–89, 91, 93, 95 (1997) 252
Notes and Questions 257
b. Artistic 258
Carter v. Helmsley-Spear, Inc. 258
Notes and Question 267
Short Guide to the European Convention on HumanRights 112–13 (Donna Gomien ed., 2005) 268
Note 268
c. Architectural 269
Notes and Questions 270
d. Archival 271
Jutta Reed-Scott, Preserving Research Collections 4–6(1999) 271
Notes and Questions 272
2. General Protections of the Cultural Heritage 273
a. United States Law 273
(i) Federal Law 274United States v. Gerber 274
(ii) State Law 281Whitacre v. Indiana 281
b. Canadian Law 284
Notes and Questions 287
c. Swiss Law 287
d. International Law 288
(i) The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property inthe Event of Armed Conflict (1954) 289
(ii) The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing theIllicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of CulturalProperty (1970) 289
(iii) The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage (1972) 290
Notes and Questions 290
(iv) The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater CulturalHeritage (2001) 291
(v) The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible CulturalHeritage (2003) 292
(vi) The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversityof Cultural Expression (2005) 292
Notes and Questions 293
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Contents xi
3. Protection of the Cultural Patrimony and Export Controls 297
a. Cultural Patrimony 297
b. Export Controls 299
(i) International Law 299
(ii) Regional Law 300
(iii) Practical Problems of Implementation 300
Notes and Questions 301
Problem 302
(iv) The Canadian Model 302
Cultural Property Export and Import Act 302
(v) The Enforcement of Export Controls 305
(a) The Common Law of England and the United States 305
Attorney-General of New Zealand v. Ortiz 306
Notes 310
(b) Enforcement under the 1970 UNESCO Convention 312
David Walden, Canada’s Cultural Property Export and Import Act:The Experience of Protecting Cultural Property, 203, 208–10, U. B.C.L. Rev. (Special Issue)(1995) 313
Notes and Questions 315
4. Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 316
R.M.S. Titanic v. Haver 319
Notes and Questions 338
Problems 344
5. Protection of Cultural Heritage in Preparation for, during, and afterArmed Conflict 345
The Stela of Matara 345
a. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 347
b. The Geneva Convention IV of 1949 and Protocol I to the Convention 348
c. The 1954 Hague Convention 349
Protocol I for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event ofArmed Conflict 351
d. Customary Humanitarian Law 351
e. The International War Crimes Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, theInternational Criminal Court, and Crises in Afghanistan and Iraq 352
Notes 353
B. Cooperation 357
1. Amicable Settlements and Partnerships 358
a. Indigenous Peoples and Museums 359
(i) Canada 359
Turning the Page: Forging New Partnerships between Museumsand First Peoples: A Report Jointly Sponsored by the Assembly ofFirst Nations and the Canadian Museums Association (1991) 359
(ii) New Zealand 361
(iii) United States 362
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xii Contents
b. Holocaust-Related Claimants and Possessors 363
M.J. Bazyler, Holocaust Justice: The Battle forRestitution in America’s Courts 202–14, 249–62 (2003) 363
Washington Conference on Holocaust-Era Assets,Principles with Respect to Nazi-Confiscated Art (1998) 371
Martha Lufkin, The Increasing Role of the Market in Settling Claims,Art Newspaper, December 2008, at 8 372
Vineberg v. Bissonnette 375
Notes and Questions 379
2. International Agreements 379
Agreement between the United States and Italy 381
Jane C. Waldbaum, Opportunity Knocks, Archaeology, Nov.–Dec.2003, at 6 385
Notes and Questions 386
5. Cultural Material: Rectification, Criminal Justice,and Dispute Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
A. Rectification 389
1. International Return and Restitution 389
a. Introduction 389
Note 390
b. The Adversarial Model (Internationalism versus Nationalism) and theCommon Heritage Alternative 391
Shareen Blair Brysac, The Parthenon Marbles Custody Case,Archaeology, May–June 1999, at 74–76 393
John Henry Merryman, Thinking about the Elgin Marbles, 83Mich. L. Rev. 1881 (1985) 395
Notes and Questions 401
c. The UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventingthe Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of CulturalProperty (1970) 405
Étienne Clement, The Aims of the 1970 UNESCO Convention on theMeans of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export andTransfer of Ownership of Cultural Property and Action Being Takenby UNESCO to Assist in Its Implementation, in Antiquities Tradeor Betrayed: Legal, Ethical and Conservation Issues 38(K.W. Tubb ed., 1995) 406
d. The UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported CulturalObjects 410
Notes and Questions 411
Problems 415
e. UNESCO, UN, and ICOM Resolutions 416
Note and Questions 417
f. Codes of Ethics 417
Ellen Herscher, Tarnished Reputations, Archaeology, Sept.–Oct.1998, at 66, 68, 75 417
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Contents xiii
Archaeological Institute of America, Code of Ethics (1997) 419
Sharon Flescher, AAMD Revises Guidelines for Acquisition ofAntiquities – Again, 10 IFAR J., no. 1, at 4 (2008) 419
Patrick J. O’Keefe, Codes of Ethics: Form and Function in CulturalHeritage Management, 7 Int’l J. Cultural Prop. 32 (1998) 421
Notes and Questions 424
2. Indigenous Heritage 425
a. Introduction 425
Notes and Questions 426
b. United States Law 427
(i) Federal Law: The Native American Graves Protection andRepatriation Act (NAGPRA) 427
(a) Summary of Provisions 427
(b) Origins 429
(c) Legal Foundations 431
(d) Benefits 432Fergus M. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian172–74 (1996) 434
Tessie Naranjo, Thoughts on Two Worldviews, Fed. Archaeology,Fall–Winter 1995, at 8 436
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 25 U.S. §3001 et seq. 437Notes and Questions 439
Bonnichsen v. United States 443
Notes and Questions 454
(ii) State Law 456Christopher A. Amato, Digging Sacred Ground: Burial SiteDisturbances and the Loss of New York’s Native American Heritage,27 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 1 (2002) 456
State Commissioner of Transportation v. Medicine Bird Black BearWhite Eagle 460
c. Other Approaches: South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada 464
Ryan M. Seidemann, Bones of Contention: A ComparativeExamination of Law Governing Human Remains fromArchaeological Contexts in Former Colonial Countries, 64 La. L.Rev. 545 (2004) 464
World Archaeological Congress, The Vermillion Accordon Human Remains (1989) 472
Notes and Questions 473
B. Criminal Justice 473
United States v. Ligon 473
Questions 477
United States v. McClain 483
One Lucite Ball Containing Lunar Material 490
United States v. Schultz 500
Notes and Questions 509
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xiv Contents
Ruth Redmond-Cooper, Quedlinburg Indictment Comes Too Late,Art Antiquity & L., Sept. 1998, at 307 509
Note 513
Problem 514
C. Dispute Resolution 514
1. Litigation: The Core Issues 514
a. Standing 515
Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Republicof Cyprus v. Goldberg 515
b. Jurisdiction 516
H.R.H. Maharanee Seethadevi Gaekwar of Baroda v. Wildenstein 516
Questions 518
c. Choice of Law 519
(i) Alternative Approaches 519
Winkworth v. Christie Manson and Woods Ltd. 519
Notes 525
Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Republicof Cyprus v. Goldberg 525
Notes and Questions 535
(ii) The Lex Rei Extra Commercium in the Civil Law 536
B. Pelletier, The Case of the Treasures of L’Ange Gardien: AnOverview, 2 Int’l J. Cultural Prop. 371 (1993) 537
Notes and Questions 542
d. Statutes of Limitation 543
Lawrence M. Kaye, The Statute of Limitations in Art Recovery Cases:An Overview, 1 IFAR J., Autumn 1998, at 22 543
(i) The Demand and Refusal Rule 548
Guggenheim v. Lubell 548
Notes and Questions 553
(ii) The Discovery Rule and the Doctrine of Fraudulent Concealment 553
Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Republicof Cyprus v. Goldberg 554
Note 557
Erisoty v. Rizik 557
Notes 563
(iii) Characterization: Procedural or Substantive? 564
Orkin v. Taylor 565
Notes 569
e. The Doctrine of Laches 570
Sanchez v. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania 570
f. The Doctrine of Repose 572
Questions 573
Problem 573
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Contents xv
g. Foreign Sovereign Immunity 573
Republic of Austria v. Altmann 574
Malewicz v. City of Amsterdam 585
Notes 598
h. Remedies 600
Hoelzer v. City of Stamford 600
Note 603
2. Alternative Dispute Resolution 603
a. Background 603
b. Advantages of Collaboration 604
Quentin Byrne-Sutton, Resolution Methods for Art-RelatedDisputes, 7 Int’l. J. Cultural Prop. 249, 250–55 (1998) 605
c. The Principles for Cooperation in the Mutual Protection and Transferof Cultural Material 610
Notes 611
6. Intangible Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
A. Introduction 614
B. Traditional Knowledge 615
Daniel J. Gervais, Spiritual but Not Intellectual? The Protection ofSacred Intangible Traditional Knowledge, 11 Cardozo J. Int’l &Comp. Law 467, 471–72 (2003) 615
Christoph Antons, Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual PropertyRights in Australia and Southeast Asia, in New Frontiers ofIntellectual Property Law 37, 40–41 (Christopher Heath &Anselm Kamperman eds., 2008) 616
Questions 617
C. International Regimes 618
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity 618
Graham Dutfield, Intellectual Property Rights, Tradeand Diversity 35–37 (2000) 619
2. The WTO Agreement on TRIPs 620
Olufunmilayo B. Arewa, TRIPs and Traditional Knowledge: LocalCommunities, Local Knowledge, and Global Intellectual PropertyFrameworks, 10 Marq. Intel. Prop. L. Rev., 155, 164–80 (2006) 620
Note and Question 627
3. The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible CulturalHeritage 628
D. The Limits of Intellectual Property Laws 629
1. Introduction 629
2. Problems Resulting from the Failure to Protect Indigenous CulturalHeritage 629
3. Indigenous Cultural Heritage and IPRs 630
a. Copyright 630
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xvi Contents
b. Moral Rights 632
c. Patent Law 632
4. Appropriateness of IPR Protection 632
a. Contract, Privacy, Trade Secret, and Trademark Law 635
(i) Contract Law 635
(ii) Privacy and Trade Secret 637
(iii) Trademark 637
b. Cultural Heritage Rights in Domestic Law 638
Notes and Questions 639
E. Sui Generis Protection 640
F. Comparative Approaches to Protection 642
1. United States: Nonregistrable Subject Matter under the LanhamTrademark Act 642
Harjo v. Pro-Football, Inc. 642
Notes 649
2. New Zealand: The Regulation of Offensive Marks under the Trade MarksAct 2002 650
3. Canada: The Recognition of Aboriginal Custom in Constitutional Law 651
Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 651
4. Australia: Constraints on Appropriation of Aboriginal Culture 657
Milpurrurru v. Indofurn Pty. Ltd. 658
Notes and Questions 666
Barbara T. Hoffman, Exploring and Establishing Links for aBalanced Art and Cultural Heritage Policy, in Art and CulturalHeritage: Law, Policy, and Practice 1, 8–9 (Barbara T.Hoffman ed., 2006) 667
5. Taiwan: Act for the Protection of the Traditional Intellectual Creations ofIndigenous Peoples 668
Notes and Questions 671
7. Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
A. Introduction 674
Notes and Questions 675
B. The Museum Culture through History 676
1. General Observations 676
Alan Ullberg, Patricia Ullberg, Ann Hofstra Grogg & Robert Lind,A Short History of the Museum, in Art and Museum Law: Casesand Materials 425–31 (Robert C. Lind, Robert M. Jarvis &Marilyn E. Phelan eds., 2002) 676
Notes 683
2. The Ritual of the Secular 683
Carol Duncan, Art Museums and the Ritual of Citizenship, inExhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of MuseumDisplay 90–92 (Ivan Karp & Steven D. Lavine eds., 1991) 683
Notes 685
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3. The Culture of Collecting 687
Susan Sontag, the Volcano Lover 25, 144, 201 (1992) 687
Hermione Waterfield & J.C.H. King, Provenance: TwelveCollectors of Ethnographic Art in England 1760–1990, 111et seq. (2007) 688
Elizabeth A. Sackler, The Ethics/ of Collecting, 7 Int’l J. CulturalProp. 132, 134–40 (1998) 690
Notes and Questions 695
4. The Global Museum 695
James Cuno, View from the Universal Museum, in Imperialism,Art and Restitution 18–21 (John Henry Merryman ed., 2006) 696
International Council of Museums, Declaration on the Importanceand Value of Universal Museums, ICOM News, no. 1, at 4 (2004) 697
Hector Feliciano, The Lost Museum: The Nazi Conspiracyto Steal the World’s Greatest Works of Art 16, 21 (1997) 698
Jonathan Petropoulos, Art as Politics in the Third Reich245, 248 (1996) 699
Notes and Questions 699
5. Biculturalism and Museums 700
a. Introduction 700
b. New Zealand Museums 700
c. Canadian Museums 701
Notes and Questions 703
C. Museum Organization and Governance 704
1. Introduction 704
In Re Pinion 705
Notes 707
In Re Barnes Foundation 708
2. The Fiduciary Duties of Museum Managers 710
a. Deaccessioning: Selling the Family Silver 713
Patricia Ainslie, The Deaccessioning Strategy at Glenbow, 1992–97,15 Museum Mgmt. & Curatorship 21 (1996) 715
Attorney General v. Trustees of the British Museum 719
Notes and Questions 723
b. Conservation of Cultural Material and the Duty of Care 726
Sarah E. Botha, Art Conservation: Problems Encountered in anUnregulated Industry, 26 Colum. J. L. & Arts 251, 259–60 (2003) 728
Marie C. Malaro, A Legal Primer on Managing MuseumCollections 412–13 (2d ed., 1998) 729
Catherine Sease, Codes of Ethics for Conservation, 7 Int’l J.Cultural Prop. 98, at 106–08 (1998) 729
Miriam Clavir, Preserving What Is Valued: Museums,Conservation and First Nations 119–20, 125–26, 135–37, 139(2002) 731
Notes and Questions 734
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xviii Contents
3. Ethical Constraints 735
Rosenberg v. Seattle Art Museum 736
Notes and Questions 737
8. Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
A. Characteristics 740
David Parlett, The Arts of Contest, in Asian Games: The Art ofContest 23–24, 27 (Asia Society 2004) 740
Jerry L. Anderson, Comparative Perspectives on Property Rights: TheRight to Exclude, 56 J. Legal Ed. 539, 544–48 (2006) 743
Timothy R. Pauketat, America’s First Pastime, Archaeology,Sept./Oct. 2009, at 20–21, 22, 23, 25 744
Notes and Questions 746
René Lefort & Jean Harvey, What’s in a Game? UNESCO Courier,Apr. 1999, at 19 748
James H. Frey & D. Stanley Eitzen, Sport and Society, 17 Ann. Rev.Soc. 503, 508–10 (1991) 749
Barbara Ehrenreich, Where the Wild Things Are: A Defense ofCheeseheads, the Chop, and Ecstatic Religion in the Stands,Civilization, June–July 2000, at 84, 86 751
Notes 754
James H. Frey & D. Stanley Eitzen, Sport and Society, 17 Ann. Rev.Soc. 503, 511–12 (1991) 755
Stephen Weatherill, Sport as Culture in EC Law, in Culture andEuropean Union Law 113, 145 (Rachael Craufurd Smith ed.,2004) 756
Notes and Questions 757
B. Legal Framework 759
1. An Overview 759
2. National Litigation 761
a. Doping 761
Reynolds v. International Amateur Athletic Federation 761
Walton-Floyd v. U.S. Olympic Committee 774
Notes and Questions 780
Problem 783
b. Discrimination 784
Kuketz v. Petronelli 784
Akiyama v. U.S. Judo, Inc. 787
Notes and Questions 793
3. The Process of International Sports Law 795
Notes and Questions 798
4. European (EC) Law 799
Union Royale Belge des Societes de Football Association v. Bosman 800
Meca-Medina & Majcen v. Comm’n 805
Notes and Questions 811
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Contents xix
5. The Court of Arbitration for Sport 814
A. v. Federation Internationale des Luttes Associées (FILA) 816
Edita Daniute v. International Dancesport Federation 822
Notes and Questions 828
Problem 829
6. The Lex Sportiva 830
9. Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
A. The Setting: Globalization of Religion 831
Toby Lester, Oh, Gods! The Atlantic Monthly, February 2002,at 37 831
Pauletta Otis, Religion and War in the Twenty-First Century, inReligion and Security: The New Nexus in InternationalRelations 11, 15–16 (Robert A. Seiple & Dennis R. Hoover eds.,2004) 832
Mark W. Janis, Introduction, in Religion and InternationalLaw xi (Mark W. Janis & Carolyn Evans eds., 1999) 833
Binoy Kampmark, The Cartoon Riots: A New Cultural Diplomacy, 7Whitehead J. Dipl. & int’l Rel., Summer–Fall 2006, at 69–72, 76 834
Martin E. Marty, Fundamentalism and the Scholars, Key Rep.,Spring 1993, at 1, 3–4, 6 837
Notes and Questions 838
B. The Definitional Problem 839
Welsh v. United States 839
W. Cole Durham Jr., Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Beliefthrough Religious Association Laws, in Facilitating Freedom ofReligion or Belief: A Deskbook 352–55 (Tore Lindholm,W. Cole Durham Jr. & Bahia G. Tahzib-Lie eds., 2004) 840
Notes and Questions 842
James M. Donovan, God Is as God Does: Law, Anthropology, and theDefinition of “Religion,” 6 Const. L.J. 23, 98 (1995) 844
John Steinbeck, The Log from the SEA OF CORTEZ 216–17(Viking Press ed., 1962) 844
Shankar Vedantam, Are Religious Experiences Just a Side Effect ofBrain Chemistry? Int’l Herald Trib., June 18, 2001, at 1, 4 845
Richard Madsen, China’s Confounding Religious Revival, CurrentHist., Sept. 2007, at 288–91 846
Seval Yildirim, Expanding Secularism’s Scope: An Indian Case Study,52 Am. J. Comp. L. 901, 910–12 (2004) 850
Notes and Questions 851
C. Functions of Religion in the International System 856
1. Creative 857
a. Institutions 857
b. Doctrine 857
2. Aspirational 858
3. Didactic 858
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4. Custodial 858
5. Mediative 859
6. Summary 859
D. Governmental Establishment of Religion 860
Dinah Shelton & Alexandre Kiss, A Draft Model Law on Freedom ofReligion with Commentary, in Religious Human Rights inGlobal Perspective 572 (Johan van der Vyver & J. Witte eds.,1996) 860
Alan Wolfe, And the Winner Is . . . , Atlantic, Mar. 2008, at 56,60–61 861
Remarks of Moshe Halbertal, in Religion and State 12–14(Harvard Law School Human Rights Program, 2004) 862
Remarks of Mordechai Kremnitzer, in Religion and State 14(Harvard Law School Human Rights Program, 2004) 864
Notes and Questions 864
Abdulmumini Adebayo Oba, The Sharia Court of Appeal inNorthern Nigeria: The Continuing Crisis of Jurisdiction, 52 Am. J.Comp. L. 859–61, 892–93, 896–97 (2004) 866
Ann Black, Survival or Extinction? Animistic Dispute Resolution inthe Sultanate of Brunei, 13 Willamette J. Int’l L. & Disp. Resol.1, 8–11 (2005) 869
Notes and Questions 871
E. Freedom of Religion 872
1. National Laws 872
Gonzalez v. O Centro Espı́rita Beneficiente União do Vegetal 872
Notes and Questions 880
Pitman B. Potter, Governance of China’s Periphery: Balancing LocalAutonomy and National Unity, 19 Colum. J. Asian L. 293, 305–07(2005) 881
Notes and Questions 882
2. International Law 883
Peter G. Danchin, The Emergence and Structure of ReligiousFreedom in International Law Reconsidered, 23 J. L. & Relig. 455,522–26 (2007–08) 883
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A, at 71. U.N.GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948) 885
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966,993 U.N.T.S. 171 885
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination Based on Religion or Belief, G.A. Res. 36/55, U.N.GAOR, 36th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 171, U.N. Doc. A/36/51 (Nov.25, 1981) 886
Katarina Tomaševski, Rights of Women: From Prohibition toElimination of Discrimination, Int’l Soc. Sci. J., no. 158, at 84, 87,93, 94 (1998) 887
Notes and Questions 887
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3. Regional Law 888
Organization of American States, American Declaration of theRights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. Res. XXX, O.A.S. Off. Rec.OEA/Ser.L/V/I.4 Rev. (Mar. 30–May 2, 1948) 888
Organization of American States, American Convention onHuman Rights, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123 888
Organization of African Unity, African Charter on Human andPeoples’ Rights, June 26, 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5,21 I.L.M. 59 (1982) 889
Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213U.N.T.S. 221 889
Şahin v. Turkey 889
Notes and Questions 902
4. Comparative Law 904
Cooper v. Eugene School District No. 4J 904
Notes and Questions 908
F. Concluding Observations 909
Martin E. Marty, The One and the Many: America’sStruggle for the Common Good 90–91 (1997) 909
Note and Questions 910
Brian Cox & Daniel Philpott, Faith-Based Diplomacy: An AncientIdea Newly Emergent, 1 Brandywine Rev. Faith & Int’l Aff.,Fall 2003, at 31, 34 910
Raymond Cohen, Diplomacy in the Holy Sepulchre(unpublished manuscript in preparation for his book Saving theHoly Sepulchre: How Rival Christians Came Together toRescue Their Holiest Shrine (2008)) 911
John Updike, The Future of Faith, New Yorker, Nov. 29, 1999, at83, 91 913
10. Language and Linguistic Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
A. The Relationship between Language and Cultural Identity 915
Stephen May, Language and Culture, in Language andMinority Rights: Ethnicity, Nationalism and the Politicsof Language 132–35 (2008) 915
Notes and Questions 918
B. Responses of the State to Multilingualism 919
Dario Castiglione, The Challenges of Multilingualism, in TheLanguage Question in Europe and Diverse Societies:Political, Legal, and Social Perspectives 5–11 (DarioCastiglione & Chris Longman eds., 2007) 919
Bruno De Witte, A Legal Perspective, in Ethnic Groups andLanguage Rights 303–13 (Sergij Vilfan ed., 1993) 921
F. Niyi Akinnaso, Linguistic Unification and Language Rights, 12Applied Linguistics 139–60 (1994) 931
Notes and Questions 938
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xxii Contents
C. Linguistic Human Rights 939
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res 217A, at 71, U.N.GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg. U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948) 939
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966,993 U.N.T.S. 171 939
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National orEthnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, GA Res. 135, UNGAOR, 47th Sess., Supp. 49 at 210, U.N. Doc. A/RES/47/135(Dec. 18, 1992), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 991 (1993) 940
Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213U.N.T.S. 221 940
Case Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use of Languagesin Education in Belgium 941
Notes and Questions 943
Fernand de Varennes, Language and Freedom of Expression inInternational Law, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 163–86 (1993) 944
The Rights of Minorities in Europe 3–4 (Mark Weller ed.,2005) 950
D. Dying Languages 951
Jack Hitt, Say No More, N.Y. Times, Feb. 29, 2004, at 52, 54, 56,57–58 951
Notes and Questions 955
E. Affirmative Measures to Implement Linguistic Rights 955
Notes and Questions 956
F. Restrictions of Linguistic Rights 958
Paul Finkelman, The War on German Language and Culture,1917–1925, in Confrontation and Cooperation: Germanyand the United States in the Era of World War I,1900–1924 at 177–96 (Hans-Jurgen Schroder ed., 1993) 958
Notes and Questions 962
G. Accent Discrimination and Linguistic Profiling 963
1. Accent Discrimination 963
Gerrit B. Smith, Note, I Want to Speak like Native Speaker: The Casefor Lowering the Plaintiff ’s Proof in Title VII Accent DiscriminationCases, 66 Ohio St. L.J. 231 (2005) 963
Notes and Questions 971
2. Linguistic Profiling 972
Clifford v. Commonwealth 972
Notes and Questions 978
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
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Preface
The inspiration for this book has several sources. The core themes of linguistic andother cultural rights, cultural identity and differentiation, cultural heritage, traditionalknowledge, sports, and religion are of fundamental importance to humankind. Theyare matters that truly engage people at the grass roots, often commanding their dailyattention. The related legal processes are both significant and complex. It is thereforenot surprising that a vast legal literature has blossomed concerning themes of culturalactivity and artifacts. And yet this intellectual development remains on the fringe of legaland social science education. Courses on issues of cultural law or culture and law are fewand far between. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive coursebookcovering a broad range of these issues.
A first source of inspiration for this book, then, is the need we have perceived tobring cultural law more into the mainstream of legal and social science education. Asecond, related source of inspiration is the opportunity to offer a more integrated,coherent framework for studying the diverse themes of cultural law. Clearly, there arecommon threads running through these themes and the related legal processes. Certainrules of tort, contract, constitutional, and administrative law, as well as methods andprocedures of dispute resolution, recur throughout the book, regardless of the specificcultural theme. Likewise, we consider the role of international law – both customary andconventional – throughout the book. Although the specific topics of “art law,” “sportslaw,” “law and religion,” “cultural rights,” “traditional knowledge,” and so on, serveimportant organizational and analytical purposes, they also minimize the reality of acommon framework of cultural law. These discrete rubrics are also misleading insofaras students and practitioners alike may fail to appreciate the possibilities of broaderprofessional specialization in cultural law.
Our effort to develop a suitable framework of cultural law is still a work in progress,but, as a first step, Chapter 1 offers a working definition of cultural law in terms of a set ofsix relationships between culture and law within which the issues considered in this bookcould be categorized, although we have not done so. Each of these relationships maybe fairly criticized for its breadth, but we believe that, taken together to define culturallaw, they offer a constructive and coherent substitute for the vague conjunction, “cultureand law.” We also think that this set of six relationships highlights a particularly excitingfeature of cultural law, namely the dynamic, evolving development of both culture andlaw under their mutual influence.
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xxiv Preface
Of course, the very concepts of culture and law have been notoriously ambiguousand unstable over time. We are well aware of the definitional dilemmas. We neverthelessare convinced of the importance and efficacy of acquainting law students and lawyers,on the one hand, and cultural specialists, on the other hand, with the definitionalissues and characteristics of each other’s discipline. Lawyers and cultural specialists mustwork together. A third source of inspiration for this book, therefore, is the challenge ofenhancing interdisciplinary understanding and collaboration, for example, by devotingall of Chapter 2 to the contours of meaning associated with the terms “culture” and “law.”To the extent that students and other readers are already familiar with this material, theymay wish to skip either Chapter 2 as a whole or parts of it.
A fourth source of inspiration for this book is the importance of demonstratingto students the reality and efficacy of comparative, international, and indigenous lawand practices in the real-life context of cultural activity and artifacts. Too often thesedisciplines otherwise appear arcane or far removed from the immediacy of everydayexperience.
A fifth and final source of inspiration for this book is its potential to serve as botha university coursebook and a reference work. We do not claim that the cases, authors’commentary, and other materials in this book are in any way definitive. We have selectedthe contents, however, with both classroom instruction and ongoing reference needs inmind. Many of the cases and readings are classics, but some are deliberately outside thebox, so to speak, to stimulate further inquiry. We also believe that the index at the end ofthis book will be useful in the classroom, the professional office, and the library.
We have sought to cover as many cultural themes of legal significance to people aroundthe world as possible without running the risk of superficiality. Inevitably, however, spacelimitations have required us to limit the scope of a few themes (e.g., music and pop cul-ture) and largely to bypass other possible themes (e.g., theater, dance, and cinema) thatare already addressed by regimes of general application, such as those that govern intel-lectual property and constitutional issues – although specific cultural law is beginning toaddress those themes as well. We have also relied heavily on English-language materialsand comparative and indigenous examples from the English-speaking world.
As in any coauthored work, readers may detect variations of style, but we have done ourbest to establish a uniform structure and style. In doing so, we have generally adheredto conventional legal formatting, such as by the use of footnotes rather than in-textcitations or endnotes, and The Bluebook system of citation. In keeping with the normalpublishing practice, we have eliminated most footnotes within the excerpted materials.Those that we have retained, as well as the authors’ own clarifications and explanations,are numbered consecutively within each chapter. Footnote numbers therefore do notnecessarily correspond to those in the excerpted sources. Also in keeping with normalpublishing practice, we have provided citations to cases, legislation, treaties, and otherprimary materials only as they become the objects of specific commentary or analysis inthis book rather than as they may appear summarily or in lists of examples.
We hope that this volume will inspire others to consider the importance of culturalactivities and artifacts in legal processes. We also want to encourage interdisciplinaryapproaches to the study of law and legal phenomena. Last but not least, we have tried tohighlight the significance of analyzing legal processes at all levels: international, national,subnational, tribal, and strictly cultural. Cultural issues are ubiquitous, and the related
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Preface xxv
law is of growing significance. As time goes on, we trust that students and practitionersalike will help expand the range of issues and our understanding of the alternatives forresolving them.
James A. R. NafzigerSalem, Oregon
Robert Kirkwood PatersonVancouver, British Columbia
Alison Dundes RentelnLos Angeles, California
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Acknowledgments
The authors are especially grateful to Andrea Whalen for carrying the burden of process-ing and formatting the manuscript for this book and for bringing typographical errorsand other glitches to the attention of the authors. We also thank Marlowe Caldwell andKathy Marbut for their skillful computer processing, as well as Roger Clark, MiriamClavir, Mark Janis, Dennis Karjala, Roberta Kremer, and Jorge A. Sánchez Cordero fortheir substantive assistance and other support of this project. Students in consecutiveyearly seminars at the Willamette University College of Law provided many helpfulsuggestions as well.
The Hague Academy of International Law and its Centre for Studies and Researchgraciously granted permission to reprint excerpts appearing in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 thatwere drawn from pages 145–247 of The Cultural Heritage of Mankind (Tullio Scovazzi &James A.R. Nafziger eds. 2008). More broadly, having taken care to obtain permission toreproduce all previously published material, we appreciate the cooperation of publishersand authors who have enabled us to include excerpts of their work in this book. We trustthat no previously published material has escaped our attention. Finally, we thank JohnBerger of Cambridge University Press and Larry Fox and Brigitte Coulton of Aptara forhelping steer this book through the production process.
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