Cultural Transformations:Religion & Science1450-1750Ways of the World Chapter 15

Cultural Trends The Early Modern Era gave birth to two intersecting

cultural trends: Spread of Christianity to Asians, Africans, & Native

Americans Emergence of a modern scientific outlook that sharply

challenged Christianity These trends connected distant peoples Christianity became a worldwide religion

Firmly est. in the Americas & Philippines Modestly est. in Siberia, China, Japan, India Not at all est. in the Islamic world

Science became a new and competing worldview

Cultural Trends Though Europeans were the crucial

player in these two trends, they were not acting alone: Asians, Africans, & Native Americans

determined the success of Christianity in new cultural environments

Science emerged in a worldwide context Cultural interactions were a two way

street

Globalization of Christianity At the beginning of the Early Modern Era

Christianity was mainly limited to Europe Christianity was seriously divided:

Roman Catholics in Western & Central Europe Eastern Orthodox in Eastern Europe & Russia

Christianity was on the defensive against the spread of Islam: Muslims controlled the Holy Land by 1300 Ottoman Empire seized Constantinople in

1453

Protestant Reformation Began in 1517 when

German priest Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses

Led to debate about abuses within the Roman Catholic Church Luxurious life of the

pope Corruption & immorality

of some of the clergy Selling indulgences

Protestant Reformation Revolutionary for challenging the

authority of the Roman Catholic Church & for Luther’s differing view on how to achieve salvation Luther believed in salvation by faith alone Neither good works nor sacraments effect

eternal destiny The source of belief & religious authority

was the Bible itself interpreted by the individual

Protestant Reformation Luther’s ideas led to a massive schism in the

world of Catholicism: Some kings & princes find this is justification for

independence from the Church; also to gain land & tax money previously held by the church

Middle-class urban dwellers found social legitimacy in the Reformation’s idea of equal merit of all vocations

Lower class saw the Reformation’s challenge to authority as their opportunity to express their opposition to the established social structure

The Reformation and Women A large number of women were drawn to

Protestantism, but did not have a greater role in the church compared to Catholicism: End to the veneration of Mary & female saints Closed convents

Protestant stress on the importance of reading the Bible for yourself stimulated education & literacy for women

Protestantism also emphasized the role of women as wives & mothers Women had little opportunity to use their newfound

literacy & skills outside of the home

Protestant Reformation Spread quickly within & beyond

Germany largely due to the printing press

Continued to split into distinctive sects as it spread through France, Switzerland, & England None had allegiance to the pope

Protestant Reformation Divided societies + fractured political systems +

religious differences = violence! 1562-1598: France was torn apart by violence b/t

Catholics & Protestant Huguenots Edict of Nantes: guaranteed religious toleration for

French Protestants 1618-1648: 30 Years’ War engulfed most of Europe &

was massively destructive to property & populations Peace of Westphalia: ended the conflict, redrew some

state boundaries, each European state was sovereign & had the authority to control religious affairs in its territory

Counter Reformation 1545-1563: Council of Trent

Catholic Church reaffirmed its unique doctrines & practices Authority of the pope Priestly celibacy Monastic life Veneration of saints & relics Importance of good works

Corrected abuses & corruption Cracked down on dissidents Renewed focus on individual spirituality & piety Creation of new religious orders like the Jesuits

A brotherhood of priests committed to the renewal & extension of the church & its beliefs

Protestant Reformation Though the Reformation was religious in

nature, it encouraged a skeptical attitude towards authority & tradition throughout Europe.

Skepticism & independent thought led to questioning all conventional religion & opened space for new directions in European intellectual life Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment

Christianity: Outward Bound Christianity both motivated & benefited

from European political & economic expansion

Globalization of Christianity was supported by the creation of empires Settlers & traders brought their faith with

them Attempted to replicate it in their new

homes

Spread of Christianity Protestants in North America

Emphasis was on education, moral purity, & civic responsibility

No tolerance for competing faiths

Little interest in converting natives – just pushing them off of their ancestral homelands

Catholics Mainly responsible for

spreading the Christian message beyond Europe through organized monastic orders, trade, & conquest: Dominicans, Franciscans,

Jesuits & Portuguese in Asia & Africa

Spanish & French in the Americas

Eastern Orthodox in Siberia & the Russian Empire

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Europeans saw their military & economic

success in the Americas as a demonstration of the power & superiority of their God Native Americans mostly agreed

Conquering people like the Aztecs & Incas had always imposed their gods on defeated peoples, so this imposition of Christianity was not a new practice

Millions accepted baptism Europeans claimed to have exclusive religious

truth & sought to destroy local gods, shrines, temples, etc.

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America High cost of conversion for native

women: Women who were previously shamans,

priests, or other religious figures in their native religion had no role in the Catholic Church

Convent life was reserved for Spanish women in the Americas

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Some resistance to Christianity was seen,

but was quickly crushed by the colonial powers

More common were efforts to blend native traditions with Christian beliefs

Through these efforts, distinct forms Andean & Mexican Christianity emerged Interpretation of Christian beliefs within the

framework & patterns of local culture Not a copy of Spanish Christianity

Christianity in China China encountered Christianity during

the powerful Ming and Qing Dynasties Unlike the Americas, China’s political

independence & cultural integrity were never threatened by European missionaries & traders

Missionaries in China needed permission to be there & sought to convert the elites, not the masses

Christianity in China Initially emphasized exchanging ideas & learning

from Chinese culture Learning Chinese Thoroughly digesting Confucian works Dressing like the Chinese

Carried the secular knowledge of Europe with them to an audience of curious Chinese scholars Science Technology Geography Mapmaking

Christianity in China A modest number of Chinese scholars

converted to Christianity Attracted by the lives of the missionaries

& an interest in Western knowledge Missionaries initially found favor in the

Emperor’s court Knowledge & skills considered useful

Christianity in China Missionaries had limited success overall

200k-300k converts from 1550-1800 from a population of roughly 300 million .06% - 0.1% of the population

Christianity offered little the Chinese needed

“all or nothing faith” meant converts would have to abandon many aspects of traditional Chinese culture

Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries lost favor with the emperor

when the pope claimed authority over Chinese Christians Forbade ancestor worship & sacrifices to

Confucius These declarations were a challenge to

the emperor’s authority over his own people & an insult to Chinese culture

Further Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries were willing to work with the

Qing Viewed by scholars & the elite as uncivilized

figures whose rule over China was illigitimate “miracle worker” reputation damaged their

scholarly/scientific credibility Communion = cannibalism Miracles & supernatural beliefs were fit only

for the uneducated masses Maybe they were spies & revolutionaries

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Scientific Revolution was a vast intellectual &

cultural transformation in Europe from the mid16th – early 18th cent

No longer reliant on the Bible, the church, ancient philosophers, or the wisdom of cultural traditions for knowledge about the natural world

Knowledge acquired through careful observation, controlled experiments, & the formulation of general laws expressed in mathematical terms

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Europe’s rebirth & development as a

fragmented society gave rise to unique conditions favorable to science Legal systems guaranteed some independence

for a variety of institutions Autonomy of universities gave scholars the

freedom to pursue their studies w/o interference from the church or state

Most major figures of the Sci. Revolution had been trained in & affiliated with these universtities

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Western Europe was in a in unique position to

draw on knowledge of other cultures Islamic World

Medicine Mathematics Astronomy Translation of ancient Greek classic works

16th century Globalization Massive exchange of information through a new

awareness of the wider world Land, people, animals, plants, etc.

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Skepticism about established views

rooted in the Reformation contributed too Challenges to authority Encouragement of mass literacy Value of secular professions

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Prior to the Sci. Revolution, the

European worldview was derived mainly from Aristotle & Ptolemy

Sci. Revolution fundamentally challenged this view of the universe

Initial breakthrough came from Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 Heliocentric universe

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Culmination of the Sci. Revolution came from Sir

Isaac Newton Laws of motion & mechanics

Radical view that the heavens & earth obeyed natural laws

Universe functions according to scientific principles that can be defined mathematically

Knowledge is obtained through human reason Observation Deduction Experimentation

A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Mostly male scientists – women excluded from

universities A few aristocratic women were able to contribute

through their male relatives Catholic Church strongly opposed to developments of

the Sci. Revolution Opposed their teachings Seen as another attack on their authority

None of the early scientists rejected Christianity Galileo proclaimed their compatibility Newton was a serious Biblical scholar who saw no

contradiction b/t science & Christianity

Science & Enlightenment Sci. Revolution spread to a wider

European audience in the 1700s Printing techniques/printing press Popular press (newspapers, magazines) Growing literacy Scientific societies

Science & Enlightenment Guiding principles of the Sci. Revolution led to

the Enlightenment Knowledge is rooted in human reason, is skeptical

of authority, & is expressed in natural laws These principles could be applied to human affairs

“Enlightenment” was to discover ways in which humans could govern themselves more effectively

Philosophers of the Enlightenment shared a belief in the power of knowledge to transform societies

Science & Enlightenment Enlightenment philosophy aimed at:

Divine right of kings Aristocratic privilege Superstition, ignorance, corruption of

established religion John Locke

Natural rights Principles of constitutional government

Voltaire Religious tolerance

Women & Enlightenment