Cultural Influences on Chinese Students' Asynchronous ... · Cultural Influences on Chinese...

JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONREVUE DE L’ÉDUCATION À DISTANCE

2008VOL. 22, No. 2, 59-80

Cultural Influences on Chinese Students' Asynchronous OnlineLearning in a Canadian University

Naxin Zhao and Douglas McDougall

Abstract

This study explored six Chinese graduate students' asynchronous online learningin a large urban Canadian university. Individual interviews in Mandarin elicitedtheir perceptions of online learning, their participation in it, and the culturalfactors that influenced their experiences.

In general, the participants had a positive attitude towards online courses. Theyperceived that online learning had both advantages and disadvantages for theirstudies in Canada. The study revealed some features of their participation inonline courses, particularly the factors that affected their contribution of messagesand their personal experiences. The study also identified six cultural factors thataffected their online learning. These findings prompted some suggestions forWestern instructors in online courses.

Résumé

Cette étude explore l'apprentissage en ligne asynchrone de six étudiants graduéschinois dans une grande université urbaine canadienne. Des entre v u e sindividuelles en mandarin rendent leurs perceptions de l'apprentissage en ligne,leur participation à ces cours et les facteurs culturels qui ont influencé leursexpériences. En général, les participants avaient une attitude positive envers lescours en ligne. Ils considéraient que l'apprentissage en ligne avait des avantageset des inconvénients pour leurs études au Canada. L'étude a révélé certainescaractéristiques de leur participation dans les cours en ligne, particulièrement lesfacteurs qui affectent leur contribution en messages et leurs expériencespersonnelles. L'étude a aussi permis d'identifier six facteurs culturels qui affectentl'apprentissage en ligne. Ces résultats suggèrent des recommandations pour lesformateurs en ligne occidentaux.

IntroductionThis study explores Chinese students' asynchronous online learning andhow cultural factors influence it. The study investigates Chinese graduatestudents at a large urban graduate school in Canada in order to discover:1) how Chinese students perceive asynchronous online learning; 2) howChinese students participate in asynchronous online learning; and 3) the

cultural factors that affect their participation in asynchronous onlinelearning.

The research literature reveals that cultural differences between Chinaand the West can affect Chinese students' learning and their success inWestern universities (Flowerdew & Miller, 1995; Kirby, Woodhouse, &Ma, 1999). First, Chinese students' approaches to learning and theirunderstanding of academic values often differ from those in the Westernnations. Second, Chinese students are often not familiar with the localculture of Western countries in which they are studying. Third, the cultureof academic disciplines in Western universities often differs from that inChina. The learning environments, curriculum theories, teachingpractices and evaluation systems infused in Western universitiesencourage the development of Western educational values; this is alsotrue of the design of Western online learning systems. We can thereforehypothesize that Chinese students taking online courses in Westernuniversities will face challenges in adapting to these new learningenvironments.

A small number of studies have explored Chinese students' onlinelearning in Western universities. However, these investigations have beenneither numerous nor thorough enough to provide practical insights intoChinese students' perceptions of and participation in asynchro n o u sonline learning in Western universities and into the cultural influences onthat learning. This study will help to bridge this gap by exploring thedynamics of Chinese students' online learning (Mason, 2001).

Theoretical FrameworkThree perspectives underlie the theoretical framework of this study:Western students' perceptions of and participation in online learning,Chinese students' online learning in Western countries, and the culturalinfluences on Chinese students studying in the West.

Western Students' Perceptions of and Participation in Asynchronous OnlineLearning

Western students are generally satisfied with their online learningexperiences and have a positive attitude towards online learning(Howland & Moore, 2002; Wyatt, 2005). These positive attitudes arereflected in their perceptions of the advantages of online learning, such asincreased interaction and participation (McAlpine, Lockerbie, Ramsay, &Beaman, 2002; Vonderwell, 2003), flexibility and convenience of learning(Gabriel, 2004; Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004), more effective learningcompared to face-to-face learning (Gabriel, 2004; McAlpine et al., 2002),easy access to various knowledge and support bases (Ali, Hodson-

60 CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Carlton, & Ryan, 2004; Daugherty & Funke, 1998), self-directed learning(Gabriel, 2004; Howland & Moore, 2002), multiple perspectives (Gabriel,2004; Jin, 2005), democratic learning (Ali et al., 2004), self-confidencegained in learning (Gabriel, 2004), increased motivation for participation,improved technical skills (Daugherty & Funke, 1998) and others.

Although they enjoy its positive aspects, online learners also sufferfrom the various challenges of online learning, such as coursework andinformation overload (Gabriel, 2004; Wyatt, 2005), lack of immediateresponse (Jin, 2005; Vonderwell, 2003), missing visual cues (Howland &Moore, 2002; McAlpine et al., 2002), time-consuming (Howland & Moore,2002; Gabriel, 2004), technical difficulties (Jin, 2005; Gabriel, 2004), lack ofhuman interaction (Vonderwell, 2003; Wyatt, 2005), lack of community(Song et al., 2004; Vonderwell, 2003), difficulty in understandinginstructional goals (Howland & Moore, 2002; Song et al., 2004), inabilityto think and prepare messages while online (Gabriel, 2004), loss ofmotivation to contribute (McAlpine et al., 2002) and others.

Studies about students' participation in asynchronous online learningin the West have examined necessary learning skills, peer behaviours andthe quantitative data on students' participation. For example, Burge(1994) identified three types of online learning skills: operational,information-processing, and stress-management. She also identified fourtypes of peer behaviours for online learning: participation, response,providing affective feedback, and forwarding short, focused messages.Poole (2000) investigated the number of messages her students postedand found that they each posted 73 messages every person on average in15 weeks. Individual students in Gabriel's (2004) study posted 67messages on average (ranging from 49 to 91) in one term.

Chinese Students' Online Learning in Western universities

Chinese Students' Perceptions of Online Learning. Ku and Lohr (2003)studied Chinese students' perceptions of their first online learningexperiences in an American university. Student attitude survey dataindicated that the Chinese students generally had a positive attitudetowards the online course. They liked online courses because they wereconvenient, flexible, and self-regulated. The Chinese students thoughtthat the advantages of online learning were “real” participation withpeers, focused interactions, fewer language barriers, possibility ofarranging personal meetings with group members, ability to work ontheir own projects and ideas, and increased intellectual interaction withtheir American peers (Ku & Lohr, 2003). The Chinese students in Cifuentsand Shih's (2001) study believed that online learning could provideauthentic language learning and opportunities for cultural exchange.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES 61

Cinfuents and Shih's (2001) and Tu's (2001) studies both found thatChinese students perceived the limitations of online learning were therestrictions of text-based communication, the frustration of slow ormissing responses from their partner, and the time consumed in learning.The Chinese students also reported difficulty in understanding the tutor'sexpectations because of a sense of detachment, time issues related to thedifferent time zones (Cinfuents & Shih, 2001), difficulty in following thetrain of thought, and the absence of non-verbal cues (Tu, 2001). Ku andLohr ( 2003) discovered that Chinese students disliked online coursesbecause of the isolation and loneliness of online learning, unconstructivefeedback provided by some peers, temporary disappearance of team-mates, and a lack of language and cultural exchange.

Chinese Students' Participation in Online Learning. R e s e a rch aboutChinese students' participation in online learning in Western universitiesrevealed that they were inactive and were not motivated to participate inonline discussion (Shih & Cifuentes, 2003). They felt uncomfortableexpressing their ideas in a public area because they did not know thereaders of their messages and were afraid of losing face or voicingopinions that they thought would be less valuable (Shih & Cifuentes,2003; Tu, 2001). The Chinese students in Tu's (2001) study thought thatreading and writing messages were an exhaustive process. In addition,Ku and Lohr (2003) reported that Chinese students felt uneasy when thecourse content was nonlinear and the quality of feedback by their peerswas uncertain. They liked to work in small groups, but did not like towork on group projects. They felt confident and assertive incircumstances where they could reflect thoroughly before they postedtheir messages.

Cultural Issues of Chinese Students' Online Learning in the We s t .Cifuentes and Shih conducted two studies (Cifuents & Shih, 2001; Shih &Cifuents, 2003), using Chinese university students in Taiwan paired withpre-service students in the U.S. so the Americans could tutor the Chinesestudents to improve their English writing skills. They identified someintercultural issues and phenomena in one-on-one email exchanges: theneed for visual images, bewilderment of the Taiwanese students,excessive expressions of gratitude by Taiwanese students, disparateexpectations, direct versus indirect writing, misinterpretations, andChinese students' consideration of their online tutors as knowledgeableauthorities, whereas many of the American students refused to take onthis role and preferred to correspond in the role as a friend.

In addition, Tu (2001) also identified a few cultural factors that couldaffect Chinese students' perceptions of CMC, such as: the text color usedby the instructor, social relationships with the instructor and peers, face-saving and selective image, anxiety over unexpected chatting invitations


(especially from the instructor), and paralanguage techniques such asemoticons and acronyms.

From the review of these few studies of Chinese students' onlinelearning in Western universities, we can find that, although there are afew studies about Chinese students' perceptions of online learning inWestern universities, research about Chinese students' participation inonline learning and the cultural factors that affect their online learning inthe West is still lacking. Additionally, in the two studies conducted byCifuentes and Shih, one-on-one email exchange was the maincommunication method and the discussion forums in the second studywere not fully used by Chinese students. Thus, these two studies couldnot investigate the Chinese students' participation in online gro u pdiscussions. Also, the Chinese students participated in online learningfrom their home university in Taiwan, and the numbers of Chinese andAmerican students were equal. Therefore, Western cultural influenceswere less obvious than Chinese cultural influences. As a result, thesestudies failed to identify cultural factors that might affect Chinesestudents' participation in online learning where Western culturedominates.

Cultural Influences on Chinese Students in Western Universities

Chinese students' online learning is greatly influenced by theircultural experiences in education, which in China often differ from thoseassumed by Western academic culture and conventions (Kirby, et al.,1999). Chinese students' experiences of teaching and learning in theChinese system influence their studies in Western universities throughthree aspects of culture: approaches to teaching and learning, localculture, and disciplinary culture.

Influences of Chinese approaches to learning and teaching. Chinese teachingphilosophy demands that students respect and obey their teachers (Liu,1986). The relationship between students and teachers is stro n g l yh i e r a rchical: teachers have absolute authority and students are notencouraged to question or challenge a teacher's knowledge (Biggs &Watkins, 1999; Chan, 1999; Salili, 2001). Chinese students are oftenconsidered reluctant to present opinions or ask questions, even wheninvited to, because they generally play a passive, compliant role in class(Flowerdew & Miller, 1995). Giving lectures is the dominant teachingmethod in Chinese classes (Chan, 1999), which are marked by one-waycommunication from teacher to students; students interact andparticipate less in Chinese classes than in Western ones (Chan, 1999;Flowerdew & Miller, 1995).

Chinese students are thought to be lacking in critical and creativethinking (Flowerdew & Miller, 1995), which are highly valued in Western


educational systems. For Chinese, knowledge is something that should beconserved and reproduced rather than needing to be developed andrethought as Westerners believe (Ballard & Clanchy, 1991). Hence,Chinese students prefer to uncritically accept and memorize the“standard” textbook content, and often replicate the instructor's lecture orthe facts in a textbook instead of presenting their own thoughts inassignments and examinations (Flowerdew & Miller, 1995; Watkins &Biggs, 2001). Nevertheless, Biggs and Watkins (1999) argued that Chinesestudents were not deficient in critical thinking at all but preferred torespond closely to the instructor's question. As a result, their responsesmay not go beyond the instructor's expectations and thus sounduncritical, even when they differ from the textbook.

Chinese students have a higher motivation for achievement thanmany other ethnic groups. Studies in the United States (Chen, Stevenson,Hayward, & Burgess, 1995) and Great Britain (Salili, 1996; Woodrow &Sham, 2001) suggested that Chinese students had a stronger achievementmotivation than African-American, Hispanic, and Anglo-Saxon students.Chinese students studying in Australia were more fearful of failure thanwere Australian students (Smith & Smith, 1999).

Influences of Western Local Culture. By local culture, we refer to theassumptions governing interactions and daily life with others thatmembers of the host society have internalized and no longer consciouslythink about. In contrast, these assumptions are alien to foreign students(Flowerdew & Miller, 1995). Local culture may include such aspects ofdaily life as social activities and events, TV programs and movies, sports,religious events, holidays, and all forms of personal interaction, includinginteractions within the teaching and learning environment. Local culturemanifests its importance when it is referenced to explain certain concepts(Flowerdew & Miller, 1995).

Flowerdew and Miller (1995) found that Chinese students in a HongKong university misunderstood the illustrative examples provided byWestern lecturers because they did not know the examples or could notrecognize their English names, even though they knew the Chinesenames or phonology. This also holds true for Chinese students studyingoverseas. Chinese students studying in the U.S. often think they do nothave the same interests as their American colleagues; thus, the twogroups have difficulty understanding each other (Feng, 1991). Chinesestudents studying social sciences in America need a better understandingof American culture, values, and social systems than those studyingnatural sciences and engineering (Feng, 1991). Further, Chinese studentsmay understand only the literal but not the figurative meaning of anEnglish idiom (Ladd & Ruby, 1999) and may not understand the humorof Western society (Feng, 1991; Flowerdew & Miller, 1995).


Influences of Disciplinary Culture. Chinese students may not know “thetheories, concepts, norms, terms, and so on of a particular academicdiscipline” (Flowerdew & Miller, 1995, p. 366) that they are studying inWestern schools. Becher (1981, 1987) declared that the forms of languageand the central terminologies of various disciplines differed betweenChinese and English. International students sometimes have beenperceived as poor academic writers because their rhetorical styles andpatterns of argument were inconsistent with the instructor's expectations(Kaplan, 1966, 1972). González, Chen and Sanchez (2001) found thatChinese students tended to adopt an indirect or circular pattern ofexpression which is not favored in Western rhetoric; thus, Chinesestudents' writing often lacks unity and coherence when viewed inWestern terms. The authors further discovered that some metaphors usedin Chinese students' writing were hard for American readers tounderstand, because a Chinese metaphor “is not readily used as a culturalconvention among English speakers” (p. 644). In addition, thedevelopment of some disciplines differs among cultures (Flowerdew &Miller, 1995). For example, the research objectives, research methods, andphilosophical rationales underpinning certain disciplines in China differfrom those in Western countries.

Research MethodsThis study aims to generate a theory about Chinese students'(individuals) perceptions, interaction, actions, and engagement in theprocess of asynchronous online learning (a phenomenon) that relate tothe particular context of a Western university (a particular situation).Therefore, we took a grounded theory approach to our research (Chentiz& Swanson, 1986; Creswell, 1998). When we analyzed the data, we had noparticular theory in our mind about Chinese students' online learning inthe West; instead, we tried to inductively construct a theory about it. Allthe themes we found emerged from the data analysis through thorough,repeated, line-by-line reading of the interview transcripts (Bogdan &Biklen, 1992).

Six women Chinese graduate students, studying in three differentprograms at the Education department of a large urban graduate schoolin Canada, participated in the research. All six participants were fromMainland China and Mandarin was their mother language. Each hadacquired a Bachelor's or Master's degree. Five of them had worked asEnglish teachers in China. They had not previously studied in anyWestern institute for more than one year and had no online learningexperience before they started their studies at their current graduateschool. This last criterion was important, because English as Second


Language students may change their learning styles as they gainexposure to the Western culture and educational system (Reid, 1987;Smith & Smith, 1999). The six participants took online courses to attaincredits for their on-campus programs at either Master's or Doctoral level.However, no more specific information will be provided in this paper,because it could be used to identify each participant easily. Table 1displays information about the six participants' educational backgroundsand the status of their studies when the research was conducted.

We collected data through individual, face-to-face interviews, eachabout 30 minutes. We primarily used 10 pre-set, open-ended interviewquestions in order to ensure that the respondents would produce thet a rget data (see appendix for interview questions). However, thequestions asked during the interviews were not restricted to the pre-setquestions. We asked participants supplementary follow-up questions inorder to clarify or elicit details (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Because theirEnglish could have restricted their answering freely (Lin, 2002), weinterviewed the participants in Mandarin to ensure accurate expressionand deep reflection. All interviews were tape-re c o rded, transcribedverbatim and analyzed by the first author with the support of the secondauthor.

For this study, we defined perceptions as students' awareness andunderstanding of the advantages and disadvantages of asynchronousonline learning. We also defined participation as activities or learningstrategies that students carried out in their online learning, specificallycomposition of online discussion messages, engagement in online groupwork, and preferences for online assignments.

Table 1Participants' Educational Backgrounds and Status of Studies

Participants Elle Lydia Min Nina Pearl Sofia

Last degree earned in China Bach. Mast. Mast. Mast. Bach. Bach.

Subject studied in China Engl. Engl. Engl. Engl. Engl. Engl.

First term took online course 2 1 1 3 3 1

Total online course(s)taken beforeinterview 1 2 1 1 5 1

Online course(s) taking when interviewed 0 1 1 0 0 0


FindingsThree major themes emerged from the interviews with participants: theChinese students' perceptions of asynchronous online learning, theirparticipation in asynchronous online learning, and the cultural factorsthat affected their online learning.

Chinese Students' Perceptions of Asynchronous Online Learning

The Chinese students had a positive attitude towards asynchronousonline learning. They declared that they liked online courses, althoughnot everyone's experience was positive. One participant said “I graduallybegan to like [on-line learning]. I did not like it at the beginning. I felt veryodd at the beginning.” They enjoyed taking asynchronous online coursesbecause these courses had some advantages for their studies in Canada.

Fewer language barriers. The Chinese students believed that they facedfewer language barriers when taking asynchronous online courses thanwhen taking face-to-face courses:

I think that face-to-face courses are not as profitable as on-line courses forme in the short term. [On-line courses are] advantageous to learnknowledge and to communicate [with others]. At least, on-line courses canhelp me overcome the psychological pressure that my language abilitiesare not as good as the native speakers'. (Elle)

Two major reasons contribute to this belief. First, asynchronous,delayed communication gives the students more time to re a d ,understand, and write a response. Second, the text-based onlinediscussion required only English reading and writing skills; listening andspeaking skills are more difficult to master. However, some of theparticipants found online communication very formal and lacking invisual cues, thus demanding higher English writing proficiency tocompensate for this lack.

More participation than in face-to-face courses. The participants believedthat they joined in online class discussions more than in face-to-facesetting for two reasons: First, they had more time to think and morechances to express their ideas; and second, the online situation allowedthem to modify their personal characteristics and mitigated the effects oftheir traditional approaches to learning. Traditionally, Chinese studentsare reserved and very careful about “saving face”; the avoidance of face-to-face meetings in asynchronous online learning allowed them to feelthat they could write without inhibition about anything.

Multiple perspectives. Some participants believed that online discussionand group work could provide multiple perspectives on learning topics,


which would help them learn effectively or could enrich their learningexperience. One participant stated “reading notes is just like listening toothers' speech. I heard different voices, different perspectives of viewingthe same thing”. (Lydia)

More effective learning than in face-to-face situations. The participantsthought that they could learn more and reflect more deeply on coursecontent in asynchronous online learning than in face-to-face learning.They reported that fewer language barriers, the presence of multipleperspectives, writing- and reading-based communication, lessinterference from distractions, constantly available transcripts of thecommunication, time-delayed communication, and the ability to use timemore effectively all led to the belief that they had learned more effectivelyin asynchronous online courses.

In addition to these four major advantages, the participants alsobelieved that a flexible learning schedule and place-independence werethe advantages of asynchronous online learning. One participant evenclaimed that it was easier to get good grades in asynchronous onlinecourses because all the learner's efforts were clearly displayed to theinstructor:

I think that it is easier to get a good grade in online learning than in theclassroom. This is because if you have spent enough time and if you haveworked hard, your efforts are displayed there. It is easier for the teacher toobserve what you have been doing. The instructor can see all the effortsyou have made. (Min)

However, the participants also believed that asynchronous onlinelearning had disadvantages, which made them uneasy about takingonline courses or even prevented them from taking these courses.

Online courses consume more time than face-to-face courses. Four of the sixparticipants believed that online courses consumed more time than face-to-face courses; one even thought that the time spent on online courseswas at least twice as much as the time spent on face-to-face courses. Thetime spent on online courses varied, depending on the specific situationfor each online course. Familiarity with the course content, the number ofstudents participating in the online course, and whether peers were activein an online course affected the time they spent.

Lack of immediate communication. The participants agreed that thecommunication in asynchronous online learning is not as immediate as inface-to-face learning. The lack of an immediate response from theinstructor made them feel less direct connection with the instructor andinhibited clarifying uncertainties quickly. Thus, they felt that it wasdifficult to take online courses.


Missing non-verbal clues in communication. The participants believedthat online communication was very restrictive, being only text-based.One could not use body gestures or other non-verbal means forcommunication. They felt that this single channel was not conducive tocommunicating and expressing their ideas. Depending exclusively onwritten language made one participant feel a stronger demand forEnglish writing abilities than in face-to-face learning. The participantsalso declared that the online learning environment might lose some non-verbal clues that sometimes were constructive for illustrating a point.They experienced difficulties when conducting group work because ofthis lack of face-to-face communication. One student developed a strategyto use visual communication such as a webcam to overcome thisinadequacy.

Further, online learning could not help Chinese students improve theiroral English communication pro f i c i e n c y, because it lacked personalcontact. The time-flexibility feature sometimes allowed them toprocrastinate about participating in discussion so long that they lost thethread of their ideas.

Chinese Students' Participation in Asynchronous Online Learning

Writing and contributing of discussion messages. The number of messagesthe Chinese students contributed varied, depending on how active eachasynchronous online course was. The participants generally posted fouror five messages each week (range from one to more than ten). Theyobtained their ideas for what to write from four main sources: coursereading materials, messages from other course participants, re l a t e dmaterials from other courses or resources, and personal experiences.

Factors that affected contributing of messages. First, interest in thediscussion topics or the reading materials affected the number ofmessages the participants posted. Second, their messaging depended onwhether other students responded. Third, unfamiliarity with thedisciplinary culture, including the subject matter and the Canadianeducational system, affected their posting of messages. Each participant'spersonal life also affected contribution. If they could not finish reading thecourse materials or if the materials were hard to understand, then theymight post fewer notes. One participant stated that she would post moremessages when she was moderating the course discussion or when otherstudents participated actively.

Preference for contributing new messages. Four of the Chinese studentspreferred starting new discussion threads rather than building on otherparticipants' messages. They considered new messages as their ownreflections on the learning. They also had more topics available to writeabout if they started a new thread, especially if they started it early in a


week. They built on other students' messages only if they were interestedin the topic, if they disagreed with the other person's opinions, if therewere many people building on the thread, or if they had thoughtthoroughly about others' opinions:

I like to write new notes. New posts are my own reflections. … I seldompost add-on notes. I may add on some notes only when a topic is discussedby more and more people, or when I really do not agree with the opinionin a note. I generally post very few add-on notes. (Nina)

Learned more through writing messages. Many of the participantsdeclared that they learned more by writing messages than by readingmessages. They believed that only writing messages could bring aboutreal understanding of a topic. They thought that writing required carefulthought and reading, and often involved a search for additional learningmaterials. They considered writing notes as real participation in thecourse:

I learned more by writing [notes]. I think, before you write, you certainlyneed to think carefully, and then search for more materials thoroughly, andthen you are able to write. Therefore, I think, through this searching andthinking, the note is completely my own stuff. I really learned. Whenreading others' notes, I sometimes just read casually, sometimes just forgotor neglected [those notes]. Reading [notes] cannot yield meaningfulthinking like writing [notes]. (Sofia)

Two of the participants declared that they learned equally in bothways. They stated that reading messages provided multiple perspectivesand produced new ideas, whereas writing messages demanded profoundreflection:

I think it is half and half. ... Reading others' notes is just like listening toothers speaking. What I heard is another voice, another perspective toview the same thing. If I write on my own, I need to understand; … I needto think; thus, I can really have some ideas. Writing my own notes can giveme deeper insights. (Lydia)

Involvement in online group work. Opinions about online group workvaried. Some participants enjoyed online group work, even though therewere some awkward situations. They claimed that group projects helpedthem observe things from multiple perspectives, learn by indire c texperience and learn Canadian culture. Some others stated that it washard to say whether they enjoyed group work or not. They believed thatthe group members' qualifications affected the final result of group work.One participant asserted unhesitatingly that she did not like group work,despite having had no asynchronous online group-work experience; she


assumed that it was challenging to reach a consensus in online group-work situations.

The participants preferred to work with native English-speakingstudents in online group work, because they could practice their Englishskills and could better attain multiple perspectives. Some others assertedthat native English speakers were more knowledgeable and had bettercomprehension of the course content and could thus help to resolveproblems raised by language barriers.

Preference about online assignments. Some of the students preferred to doa single big assignment at the end of a term, whereas others preferred todo several small assignments during the term in addition to a finalassignment. The latter group believed that small assignments could helplearners track their on-going learning outcomes. They felt that this wasvery important for online learning, which lacked means to verify theirlearning progress in comparison to a face-to-face learning. They alsostated that the final assignment could reflect their mastery of the overallcourse content. Those who favoured a single big assignment thought thatthis provided more control over choosing their topic and that writingseveral small assignments consumed too much time.

Cultural Factors Affecting Chinese students' Asynchronous Online Learning

Unfamiliarity with the disciplinary culture. The participants' unfamiliaritywith the disciplinary cultures of education in Canada most obviouslyaffected their participation in asynchronous online learning. Educationaltheory and practice have developed differently in China than in Canada.Thus, Chinese students studying in the field of education in Canada maynot understand the K-12 and provincial educational systems that arefamiliar to Canadian students. In addition, lack of knowledge about thefield of education in Canada and unfamiliarity with its specializedvocabulary affected the Chinese students' participation in asynchronousonline learning. The participants believed that, because of theirunfamiliarity with the disciplinary culture, they participated less inonline discussions, posted fewer messages in online courses,comprehended course content less well, spent more time on learning, oreven conflicted with others during online discussions.

Ignorance of Western social life. Chinese students studying in Westernuniversities, whether they are studying online or face-to-face, allencounter problems caused by their not understanding or evenmisunderstanding Western social life. The participants' ignorance ofCanadian social life influenced their engagement in asynchronous onlinelearning in two ways. First, in the field of education one cannot avoidtalking about local social life. Because of their deficiency in the facts ofCanadian social life, the Chinese students misconstrued some discussion


messages, did not know when it was appropriate to “cut in” during adiscussion, and could not understand metaphors drawn from local sociallife. Consequently, they believed that they wrote fewer messages to thediscussion board than they would have if they had understood Canadianculture better. The second effect of the participants' ignorance of Westernsocial life was indirect. Sometimes, online discussions involving topics orevents of Canadian social life did not prevent the Chinese students fromacquiring disciplinary knowledge but still affected their perceptions ofsocial presence, making them feel detached from their learningcommunity.

The participants apparently had not developed effective strategies tosolve the problems triggered by their ignorance of Canadian social life.They believed that it took time to learn Canadian social life fully. Theythought that, in online courses, it was inappropriate to ask their peers toexplain anything not directly related to the subject matter.

Chinese cultural personality. The participants' cultural personality hadinteresting effects on their asynchronous online learning. On the onehand, the participants' typically conservative, modest, face-savingChinese personality reduced their participation in online discussions.Several hesitated to ask questions and some even gave up on a discussionor contributed fewer messages when their opinions conflicted with thoseof other participants. On the other hand, because online learning involvedno face-to-face meetings, some of the participants modified theirpersonality characteristics and behaved differently online. They becamemore active and “talked more” (posted more messages) in online coursesthan in face-to-face courses. This personality modification also affectedthe participants' actions in conflicts that arose during discussions. Most ofthem declared that they might insist on and argue for their own opinionsin online learning more than they would have in face-to-face learning.

Attitudes towards presenting opinions in public. The participants' feelingsabout “nonsense notes” in online contributions reflect Chinese students'reluctance to present opinions. Half of the participants stated that Chinesestudents, unlike some native English-speaking students, would notcontribute messages without any purpose or concrete content. Theythemselves contributed no messages that did not directly aid thedevelopment of opinions; they only wrote messages that were absolutelyaimed at the discussion topics. They thought that this approach increasedthe time they spent on the online courses and reduced their number ofmessages.

High achievement motivation. The Chinese students' high level ofachievement motivation and strong desire to excel increased theirparticipation in online courses. They spent plenty of time writingassignments as they strove for perfection. Some of them took grammar


and spelling errors in their messages very seriously, believing that theinstructors might consider them careless students.

Instructor's authoritative image. Chinese students consider instructors asknowledge authorities more seriously than their Western counterparts do.Therefore, one participant thought that the Chinese students would beless involved than Canadians in discussions that diverged from theinstructor's opinion. Some participants believed that the authoritativeimage of instructor might limit the range of their thinking and preventthem from writing messages that refuted the instructor. However, one ofthem also felt that they might present more contradictory opinions online,since the online environment reduced the instructor's apparent authority:

As you cannot see each other, some issues can be spoken about withoutany inhibition. Say anything you want to say. This is advantageous for thedevelopment of opinion. Otherwise, in a face-to-face situation, sometimes,when the teacher says something, you may feel embarrassed to refute theteacher. The Westerners do not have this problem; Chinese have thisproblem. ... Online, you can speak without any inhibition, no matter whohe is; you can disagree with him. ... In a face-to-face situation, it is not easyto do so. (Pearl)

The authoritative image of the instructor also led one participant tobelieve that instructors who made grammar and spelling errors indiscussion messages were not serious about their teaching.

DiscussionLike the students in many other studies (e.g., Ku & Lohr, 2003, Wyatt,

2005), the Chinese student participants in this study had a positiveattitude towards asynchronous online learning. Most of their perceptionsof its strengths and weaknesses were similar to those of other students.Like the Chinese students in Ku and Lohr's (2003) study, some of theparticipants perceived fewer language barriers in asynchronous onlinelearning. However, unlike the participants in other studies, one of ourparticipants reported she could attain better grades in asynchronousonline courses than in face-to-face courses. A reduction of languagebarriers may enhance Chinese students' understanding of discussiontopics, encourage them to express their own thoughts better andstimulate them to participate more in online courses. As a result, they mayattain better grades.

The Chinese students in this study contributed an average of four tofive messages per person per week to online discussions, a little fewerthan the six to ten messages reported in Harasim's (1989) study ofWestern students, but similar to the numbers in Poole's (2000) andGabriel's (2004) studies of Western students. However, the numbers in our


study are self-reported rather than actual quantitative statistics, and wedid not obtain comparable statistics for non-Chinese students in the samecourses. One should therefore be careful about concluding that Chinesestudents normally post as many messages as non-Chinese students onaverage.

This study also reveals many features of Chinese students'participation in asynchronous online learning, such as the sources fromwhich they obtained their ideas of what to contribute, various factors thataffected their contribution of messages, their preferences to start newdiscussion topics, their understanding of the roles of writing messagesand reading notes in online learning, and their opinions about onlinegroup work and assignments.

The major cultural factors influencing the Chinese students'participation in asynchronous online learning included unfamiliaritywith the disciplinary culture, ignorance of Western social life, the Chinesecultural personality, attitudes towards presenting opinions in public, highlevels of achievement motivation, and their image of the instructor asauthoritative. In other words, the cultural factors that affect Chinesestudents' face-to-face learning in Western universities also influence theironline learning in Western universities. To relieve students' publishingnervousness, Davie (1989) intended to spell words incorrectly in his firstfew messages. However, the present study suggests that instructorsshould use this strategy carefully, because some Chinese students maythink that the instructors are not serious about their teaching tasks if theydo not write well. The present study also supports Cahn's (1985) claimthat the instructor appears less authoritative in computer- m e d i a t e dlearning.

This research has several limitations. The sample size was small andall six participants were women. All came from a single university. Inaddition, all six had similar professional backgrounds: each had studiedEnglish Literature in China and was studying education in Canada. Thus,they do not represent the wider range of Chinese graduate students whoare studying various disciplines in the West. As a consequence, specialcare should be taken when generalizing the conclusions to other similarsituations.

RecommendationsOur study prompted seven suggestions for online instructors of Chinesestudents in Western universities. Readers will find some of them verysimilar to recommendation by other researchers, such as Salmon (2000)and Wilson (2001).

1. Be aware that Chinese students may behave differently than North



American students. They may post fewer messages in onlinediscussions, because they are not accustomed to discussion-basedlearning and hesitate to contradict their peers and instructors in apublic forum. Instructors should tell them that the quantity of theirmessages is also important in their evaluation. Encourage them tocontribute as many thoughts as they have to the discussion board. Ifapplicable, specify a minimum number of messages that all studentsmust contribute each week.

2. Encourage Chinese students to contribute and share their opinions,questions, and learning experiences with the whole online classwithout considering “face-saving”. Tell them that communicatingwith the whole class will not only help them gain knowledge butalso help others improve their studies.

3. As soon as possible, contact any Chinese student in the class whohas not participated during the first week, tell them that theirparticipation is not enough and explain why. Understand that thesestudents often avoid contributing because they do not understandthat such contributions are essential or feel uncomfortableparticipating, not because they do not want to contribute. Thiscontact should be confidential; be prepared to help the studentsovercome any obstacles to participation.

4. Remind the Chinese students that some of their accustomedlearning approaches may not be appropriate in We s t e r nuniversities, and that the evaluation methods and required learningactivities differ from those used in China. They may find onlinelearning easier in some respects, but also need to know that it isdifficult in other respects.

5. Teach the Chinese students to try to think beyond the coursematerials and divergently (i.e., to disagree with instructors) and toconnect the learning materials with their personal experiences.

6. If the course is going to touch upon topics about local social life orlocal disciplinary knowledge, such as the K-12 school system andp rovincial educational policy, provide additional re s o u rces asreferences for the Chinese students.

7. Be aware that Chinese students cannot understand some terms,particularly slang and metaphors, used in the course materials anddiscussions. This is not because of a lack of language ability butrather because of ignorance of local cultural norms.

ConclusionThis study indicates that the key cultural factors that affected Chinesestudents' online learning in Western countries are the same as those that


affected their studies in face-to-face learning environment in Westerncountries. Thus, we believe that it is appropriate to transfer theknowledge already gained about face-to-face to online learningsituations. Further, this study also indicates that the perceptions andparticipation of Chinese online students in Western universities are verysimilar to those of Western students in many aspects. However, it may notbe appropriate to assume the same results in the situation that Chinesestudents learn online in China, because online courses in China are taughtusing approaches different from those in the West.

This study will help both Chinese students and Western onlineinstructors become aware of the reasons for Chinese students' success ordisillusionment in online courses. Such awareness should help both thestudents and their instructors understand and improve their onlinepractices in order to ensure successful online learning. Though they applyonly to the specific situation we examined, our findings may be useful inother similar situations where online educators must cross culturaldivisions. We suggest additional studies to confirm how bro a d l yapplicable our findings are and how well our recommended solutions canmitigate the reported problems.

Finally, we believe that our research method can be used to study howother cultures approach online learning by exploring learners' pre- andpost-online course attitudes and knowledge. Other researchers will needto consider the voices of these learners when similarly investigating theonline experiences of students from different cultures.

ReferencesAli, N. S., Hodson-Carlton, K., & Ryan, M. (2004). Students' perceptions of online learning:

Implications for teaching. Nurse Educator, 29, 111-115.Ballard, B., & Clanchy, J. (1991). Assessment by misconception: Cultural influences and

intellectual traditions. In L. Hamp-Lyons (Ed.), Assessing second language writing inacademic contexts (pp. 19-35). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

Becher, T. (1981). Towards a definition of disciplinary cultures. Studies in Higher Education,6, 109-122.

Becher, T. (1987). Disciplinary discourse. Studies in Higher Education, 12, 261-274.Biggs, J., & Watkins, D. (1999). The Chinese learner in retrospect. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B.

Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 159-182). Hong Kong, China: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of HongKong.

Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction totheory and methods (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Burge, E. J. (1994). Learning in computer conferenced contexts: The learner's perspective.Journal of Distance Education, 9(1), 19-43.

Cahn, D. D. (1985). Information technology and interpersonal behavior: Impact onsupervisor-subordinate and teacher-student relationships. Paper presented at the annualmeeting of the Eastern Communication Association, Providence, RI. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 259413)


Chan, S. (1999). The Chinese learner-a question of style. Education + Training, 41, 294-305.Chen, C., Stevenson, H. W., Hayward, C., & Burgess, S. (1995). Culture and academic

achievement: Ethnic and cross-national differences. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich(Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Vol. 9. Culture, motivation and achievement(pp. 119-151). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Chentiz, W. C., & Swanson, J. M. (1986). Qualitative research using grounded theory. In W.C. Chentiz & J. M. Swanson (Eds.), From practice to grounded theory: Qualitative researchin nursing (pp.3-15). Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Cifuentes, L., & Shih, Y.C. D. (2001). Teaching and learning online: A collaboration betweenU.S. and Taiwanese students. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33, 456-474.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Daugherty, M., & Funke, B. L. (1998). University faculty and student perceptions of Web-based instruction. Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 21-39.

Davie, L. E. (1989). Facilitation techniques for the on-line tutor. In R. Mason, & A. Kaye(Eds.), Mindweave: Communication, computers and distance education (pp. 74-85). Oxford,UK: Pergamon Press

Feng, J. H. (1991). The adaptation of students from the People's Republic of China to an Americanacademic culture. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 329833)

Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (1995). On the notion of culture in L2 lectures. TESOL Quarterly,29, 345-373

Gabriel, M. A. (2004). Learning together: Exploring group interactions online. Journal ofDistance Education, 19(1), 54-72.

González, V., Chen, C.-Y., & Sanchez, C. (2001). Cultural thinking and discourseorganisational patterns influencing writing skills in a Chinese English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) learner. Bilingual Research Journal, 25, 627-652.

Harasim, L. (1989). On-line education: a new domain. In R. Mason, & A. Kaye (Eds.),Mindweave: Communication, computers and distance education (pp. 50-62). Oxford, UK:Pergamon Press.

Howland, J. L., & Moore, J. L. (2002). Student perceptions as distance learners in Internet-based courses. Distance Education, 23, 183-195.

Jin, S. H. (2005). Analyzing student-student and student-instructor interaction throughmultiple communication tools in web-based learning. International Journal ofInstructional Media, 32, 59-67.

Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. LanguageLearning, 16, 1-20.

Kaplan, R. B. (1972). The anatomy of rhetoric: Prolegomena to a functional theory of rhetoric.Philadelphia: Centre of Curriculum Development.

Kirby, J. R., Woodhouse, R. A., & Ma, Y. (1999). Studying in a second language: Theexperiences of Chinese students in Canada. In D. A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), TheChinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 45-67). Hong Kong,China: Comparative Education Research Center, University of Hong Kong.

Ku, H. Y., & Lohr, L. L. (2003). A case study of Chinese students' attitudes toward theirfirst online learning experience. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(3),95-102.

Ladd, P. D., Ruby, R. (1999). Learning style and adjustment issues of internationalstudents. Journal of Education for Business, 74, 363-373.

Lin, L. (2002). The learning experience of Chinese graduate students in American socialsciences program. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Comparative andInternational Education Society, Orlando, FL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 474163)


Liu, L. M. (1986). Chinese cognition. In M.H. Bond (Ed), The psychology of Chinese people(pp. 73-102). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

Mason, R. (2001). Editorial. Distance Education, 22, 4-6. McAlpine, H., Lockerbie, L., Ramsay, D., & Beaman, S. (2002). Evaluating a Web-based

graduate level nursing ethics course: Thumbs up or thumbs down? The Journal ofContinuing Education in Nursing, 33, 12-18.

Poole, D. M. (2000). Student Participation in a discussion oriented online course: A casestudy. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33, 162-177.

Reid, J. M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 12, 87-111.

Salili, F. (1996). Achievement motivation: A cross-cultural comparison of British andChinese students. Educational Psychology, 16, 271-279.

Salili, F. (2001). Teacher-student interaction: Attributional implications and effectiveness ofteachers' evaluative feedback. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chineselearner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 77-98). Hong Kong, China:Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong.

Salmon, G. (2000). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London: KoganPage.

Shih, Y. D., & Cifuentes, L. (2003). Taiwanese intercultural phenomena and issues in aUnited States-Taiwan telecommunications partnership. Educational Technology Researchand Development, 51(3), 82-90.

Smith, P. J., & Smith, S. N. (1999). Differences between Chinese and Australian students:Some implications for distance educators. Distance Education, 20, 64-80.

Song, L., Singleton, E. S., Hill, J. R., & Koh, M. H. (2004). Improving online learning:Student perceptions of useful and challenging characteristics. Internet and HigherEducation, 7, 59-70.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures fordeveloping grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Tu, C. H. (2001). How Chinese perceive social presence: An examination of interaction inonline learning environment. Education Media International, 38, 45-60.

Vonderwell, S. (2003). An examination of asynchronous communication experiences andperspectives of students in an online course: a case study. Internet and Higher Education,6, 77-90.

Wilson, M. S. (2001). Cultural considerations in online instruction and learning. DistanceEducation, 22, 52-64.

Watkins, D.A., & Biggs, J.B. (2001). The paradox of the Chinese learner and beyond. In D.A. Watkins, & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogicalperspectives (pp. 115-34). Hong Kong, China: Comparative Education Research Center,University of Hong Kong.

Woodrow, D., & Sham, S. (2001). Chinese pupils and their learning preferences. RaceEthnicity and Education, 4, 377-394.

Wyatt, G. (2005). Satisfaction, academic rigor and interaction: Perceptions of onlineinstruction. Education, 125, 460-468.

Naxin Zhao is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning ofthe Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto. His currentresearch interests include using Web 2.0 technology in education, online learning and


teaching, and online distance education in international applications. He received aMaster's degree in Educational Technology from South China Normal University and aBachelor's degree in Educational Technology at Northwest Normal University. Previously,he worked in the field of instructional technology for many years. E-mail:[email protected]

Douglas McDougall is an associate professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and LearningDepartment at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto.His research interests include Mathematics education, computers in curriculum, and theuse of technology in middle school mathematics classrooms. E-Mail:[email protected]

AppendixInterview Questions

1. What are the cultural factors that affect your participation in onlinelearning?

2. What are the effects of Chinese students' learning styles on onlinelearning?

3. What are the factors that make you find it difficult to take onlinecourses? What are the factors that make you feel comfortable abouttaking online courses? (Do not include computer skills.)

4. What are the effects of your ability in English on your onlinelearning? Do you think that your ability in English is the biggestbarrier to taking online courses?

5. How often do you post in your online course? What factors makeyou write more posts, and what factors make you write fewer posts?

6. Could you describe your experiences of doing group projects inyour online courses? Do you like to work with Chinese students ornon-Chinese students when doing group projects? Why?

7. How do you figure out what to write in your notes? 8. Do you like to respond to others' notes or to write new notes? Why?9. What makes you learn more, writing notes or reading notes? Why

do you think so?10. What do you do when you disagree with the opinions of another

student in an online course?

Cultural Influences on Chinese Students' Asynchronous ... · Cultural Influences on Chinese...

Documents

Transcript of Cultural Influences on Chinese Students' Asynchronous ... · Cultural Influences on Chinese...