CULTURAL CHALLENGES IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

FROM ENGLISH INTO ARABIC

A THESIS IN TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING

ENGLISH ARABIC ENGLISH

Presented to the faculty of the American University of Sharjah

College of Arts and Sciences

In Partial fulfillment of

The requirements for the degree

MASTERS OF ARTS

BY

SALAM CHAGHARI

BS 1983

Sharjah UAE

October 2008

CULTURAL CHALLENGES IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

FROM ENGLISH INTO ARABIC

Salam Chaghari Candidate for the Master of Arts Degree

American University of Sharjah 2008

ABSTRACT

Museums assert that they can work alongside other cultural institutions such

as schools and universities to contribute to social development In that sense

museums can be considered as educational and cultural platforms which offer

information alongside entertainment It is widely assumed that any one with two

languages is a bilingual and that bilinguals are necessarily bicultural However this

simplistic equation is challenged by the fact that many daunting cultural and

ideological challenges arise during the process of transferring from one language to

another especially in translating for museums This is because different languages

represent different societies different mentalities and different cultures This

sometimes puts the translator in difficult situations particularly when decisions have

to do with cultural sensitivity to social norms religious conventions ethical standards

and other features of language in social life To this end a number of texts taken from

iii

tourist guides and brochures translated from English into Arabic are examined

and analyzed This thesis will focus on the importance of applying the notion of

cultural and ideological shifts (and not only linguistic shifts) in moving from source

text (ST) to target text (TT)

iv

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvi

DEDICATION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip helliphelliphelliphelliphellip1

2 TRANSLATION STUDIES helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip7

3 CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATION FOR

MUSEUMS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

4 TEXT ANALYSIS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip37

5 CONCLUSION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip62

REFERENCE LIST helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip67

Appendix

AUTHORS amp PUBLISHERShelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip74

VITA helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip76

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr Basil Hatim who supervised me this thesis and who

spared no effort to see the present work appear in the best way possible My thanks

also go to him for his remarkable teaching and continuous encouragement throughout

the Master program My debt of gratitude also goes to Dr Said Faiq for his

continuous help and support I am also grateful to Dr Tharwat Al Sakran for his

invaluable help Last but not least I thank Dr Nawar Al Golley for her kindness help

and advice

My Special thanks go to the nice helpful librarians of the American University of

Sharjah and needless to say I have much appreciated the cooperation of my friends

and colleagues at the Sharjah Museums Department

vi

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

CULTURAL CHALLENGES IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

FROM ENGLISH INTO ARABIC

Salam Chaghari Candidate for the Master of Arts Degree

American University of Sharjah 2008

ABSTRACT

Museums assert that they can work alongside other cultural institutions such

as schools and universities to contribute to social development In that sense

museums can be considered as educational and cultural platforms which offer

information alongside entertainment It is widely assumed that any one with two

languages is a bilingual and that bilinguals are necessarily bicultural However this

simplistic equation is challenged by the fact that many daunting cultural and

ideological challenges arise during the process of transferring from one language to

another especially in translating for museums This is because different languages

represent different societies different mentalities and different cultures This

sometimes puts the translator in difficult situations particularly when decisions have

to do with cultural sensitivity to social norms religious conventions ethical standards

and other features of language in social life To this end a number of texts taken from

iii

tourist guides and brochures translated from English into Arabic are examined

and analyzed This thesis will focus on the importance of applying the notion of

cultural and ideological shifts (and not only linguistic shifts) in moving from source

text (ST) to target text (TT)

iv

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvi

DEDICATION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip helliphelliphelliphelliphellip1

2 TRANSLATION STUDIES helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip7

3 CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATION FOR

MUSEUMS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

4 TEXT ANALYSIS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip37

5 CONCLUSION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip62

REFERENCE LIST helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip67

Appendix

AUTHORS amp PUBLISHERShelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip74

VITA helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip76

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr Basil Hatim who supervised me this thesis and who

spared no effort to see the present work appear in the best way possible My thanks

also go to him for his remarkable teaching and continuous encouragement throughout

the Master program My debt of gratitude also goes to Dr Said Faiq for his

continuous help and support I am also grateful to Dr Tharwat Al Sakran for his

invaluable help Last but not least I thank Dr Nawar Al Golley for her kindness help

and advice

My Special thanks go to the nice helpful librarians of the American University of

Sharjah and needless to say I have much appreciated the cooperation of my friends

and colleagues at the Sharjah Museums Department

vi

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

tourist guides and brochures translated from English into Arabic are examined

and analyzed This thesis will focus on the importance of applying the notion of

cultural and ideological shifts (and not only linguistic shifts) in moving from source

text (ST) to target text (TT)

iv

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvi

DEDICATION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip helliphelliphelliphelliphellip1

2 TRANSLATION STUDIES helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip7

3 CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATION FOR

MUSEUMS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

4 TEXT ANALYSIS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip37

5 CONCLUSION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip62

REFERENCE LIST helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip67

Appendix

AUTHORS amp PUBLISHERShelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip74

VITA helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip76

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr Basil Hatim who supervised me this thesis and who

spared no effort to see the present work appear in the best way possible My thanks

also go to him for his remarkable teaching and continuous encouragement throughout

the Master program My debt of gratitude also goes to Dr Said Faiq for his

continuous help and support I am also grateful to Dr Tharwat Al Sakran for his

invaluable help Last but not least I thank Dr Nawar Al Golley for her kindness help

and advice

My Special thanks go to the nice helpful librarians of the American University of

Sharjah and needless to say I have much appreciated the cooperation of my friends

and colleagues at the Sharjah Museums Department

vi

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvi

DEDICATION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellipvii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip helliphelliphelliphelliphellip1

2 TRANSLATION STUDIES helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip7

3 CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATION FOR

MUSEUMS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

4 TEXT ANALYSIS helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip37

5 CONCLUSION helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip62

REFERENCE LIST helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip67

Appendix

AUTHORS amp PUBLISHERShelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip74

VITA helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip76

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr Basil Hatim who supervised me this thesis and who

spared no effort to see the present work appear in the best way possible My thanks

also go to him for his remarkable teaching and continuous encouragement throughout

the Master program My debt of gratitude also goes to Dr Said Faiq for his

continuous help and support I am also grateful to Dr Tharwat Al Sakran for his

invaluable help Last but not least I thank Dr Nawar Al Golley for her kindness help

and advice

My Special thanks go to the nice helpful librarians of the American University of

Sharjah and needless to say I have much appreciated the cooperation of my friends

and colleagues at the Sharjah Museums Department

vi

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly grateful to Dr Basil Hatim who supervised me this thesis and who

spared no effort to see the present work appear in the best way possible My thanks

also go to him for his remarkable teaching and continuous encouragement throughout

the Master program My debt of gratitude also goes to Dr Said Faiq for his

continuous help and support I am also grateful to Dr Tharwat Al Sakran for his

invaluable help Last but not least I thank Dr Nawar Al Golley for her kindness help

and advice

My Special thanks go to the nice helpful librarians of the American University of

Sharjah and needless to say I have much appreciated the cooperation of my friends

and colleagues at the Sharjah Museums Department

vi

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

DEDICATION

To my family

Your love guides my steps

vii

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

11 Overview

At first glance museums seem to be about objects Essentially however they are

about people their languages and their cultures Museums are cultural institutions

which to contribute to social development work hand in hand with other educational

institutions in society such as schools and universities In that sense museums can be

considered not only cultural platforms providing information and entertainment but

also educational forums which transmit knowledge Catering for a dual focus on

culture and education necessarily involves dealing with ideology since what

necessarily comes to the fore are issues of nationhood value and belief systems and

the need to preserve heritage and present it in the best possible light

There is then a close relationship between museums and the communities in which

they happen to be Whether global national or local this bdquopeople‟ dimension is the

fundamental test of whether a museum is truly effective in realizing its ultimate

objectives of interpreting the meanings and values of its holdings to its visitors Thus

it is essential that museums put people first in their planning

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

2

In a museum it is usually not enough to put objects on display and ask people to

look interpretive texts or panels should (and often do) accompany these objects to

give the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the

collections on display Brochures flyers and booklets must thus be available to

encourage and facilitate the visitors access to what museums have to offer

In a multilingual and multicultural society like that of the United Arab Emirates

which consists of a cosmopolitan mix of different people different languages and

different cultures a choice has to be made regarding how these interpretive texts

might best be presented We are here into bdquocompositional‟ strategy This includes

choice of language and choice of style In the context catered for by this dissertation

the decision that they are written in the major languages of the UAE that is Arabic

and English has been both sensible and practical to reach the vast majority of people

As for style this raises issue of text compositional plan and of appropriate genre

matters that will be discussed in greater detail subsequently

11 The Translation Angle

This dissertation is based on the authors experience as a translator in the Sharjah

Museums Department translating into Arabic interpretive texts panels brochures

flyers and booklets written in English about museum‟s holdings The first issue to

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

3

deal with is choice of translation strategy Of course literal translation is the obvious

first option and this works in many (if not the majority of) cases As Fawcett (1997)

rightly points out the bulk of what translators do is literal and it works Indeed this is

seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts which form a huge portion of what we

translate in the Natural History Museum Botanical Museum or the Aquarium

However more problematic are so-called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more

heritage-oriented museums Such texts address issues of culture and religion and are

usually found in such establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of

Islamic Civilization or some of the restored historical houses What compounds the

difficulties is that (at least in the context with which I am familiar) such texts are

fairly highly specialized and tend to be written in English by experts in the various

fields The implications of these practices for translation have to do with the need

carefully to interpret re-interpret and re-construct these texts by the translator to

convey an appropriate message to the Arab visitor or reader whose culture is what is

being discussed and in whose language these texts should have been written in the

first place but were not

The texts may refer to issues that are sensitive for different reasons historical

political religious or cultural As we will see in analysis presented in this dissertation

intercultural challenges (such as discussing the concept of bdquodeath‟ for example)

require the translator to be well informed about both source and target cultures to do

considerable research and to understand the wider implications well enough to be

able to deliver the message in the best way possible

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

4

For this study several texts of the kind described above will be analyzed The issue of

culturally sensitive translation illustrates how museums and their audiences can no

longer afford to take their relationship for granted Particularly in the context covered

by this study museums are reconsidering communication from every angle

intellectual cultural educational political and aesthetic If we accept that the purpose

of museums is to be of service to society then it is crucial that they be responsive to

their social environment in order to remain relevant to changing social goals and

needs

1 3 The Dissertation

Following this Introduction Chapter Two starts with a historical review of translation

theories moving from word-for-word translation to forms of equivalence based on

substituting the message in one language not simply by separate code-units but by

entire messages in some other language Within the early bdquoformal equivalence‟

paradigm JC Catford and his translation shift techniques to achieve formal

correspondence and textual equivalence are discussed Eugene Nidas work on

bdquodynamic equivalence‟ is then considered and Kollers five types of bdquopragmatic

equivalence‟ with the hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation examined

Hatim amp Mason‟s text type theory will then be dealt with to show that each text type

has special characteristics and thus requires a particular translation strategy This

builds on discourse and register analysis originally proposed by Halliday and

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

5

colleagues In addition to discourse and register analysis pragmatics is certainly the

key element in modern theories of translation This will occupy us next when we refer

to Gutt‟s Relevance Theory of translation where relevance in processing language is

seen in terms of the cost-benefit correlation between the effort needed to process a

stimulus and the contextual effects to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991) Chapter 2

ends with a brief consideration of foreignization and domestication within a

framework proposed by Venuti (1995)

Chapter Three focuses on issues and theories of immediate relevance to our study

Since translation for museums is a distinct genre which involves both culture and

ideology the chapter discusses culture from the earelier views of Snell- Hornby and

Goodenough to more recent views by Faiq on beliefs and value systems and finally

to Hatim and Masons distinction between socio-cultural objects and socio-textual

practices all seen within a Hallidayan theory of context Then Venutis domestication

and foreignization theory is examined in greater detail because of its relevance to the

dissertation topic This will take us to the communication in translation with Toury

and Jean Jaque Lecercle The last consideration in Chapter Three is given to ideology

as it is one of the key factors influencing translation for museums

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

6

Chapter Four discusses museums and their importance as cultural institutions The

chapter also considers the specificity of Emirati society regarding cultures and multi-

languages used in daily life The researcher then presents 17 examples taken from

texts written in English for seven museum booklets and translated into Arabic The

examples capture some of the cultural challenges that translators face in working for

cultural institutions which address and host a wide range of readers with different

educational religious and political backgrounds

The examples and their translations will be carefully examined to see how the

translator has managed (or failed) to bridge the gap between the Source Text and the

Target Text Each example is given in English with its Arabic translation followed by

a short commentary to clarify the process of translation

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

7

CHAPTER TWO

TRANSLATION STUDIES

This chapter is a selective review of translation studies presented by issues felt to be

of immediate relevance to the present study ranging from word-for-word (ie literal)

translation to pragmatics and Relevance Theory Some attention is also given to

Hallidayan discourse and genre analysis which is foundational to text-type translation

models developed in recent years by such scholars as Hatim amp Mason The chapter

also sheds light on cultural and ideological aspects of translation opening translation

to the influence of such factors as identity and belief systems

21 Jakobson Linguistics

The distinction between word-for-word (ie literal) and sense-for-sense (ie free)

translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century

CE) and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own

But the study of translation in a practical sense started in the second half of the

twentieth century Roman Jakobson the Russian-born American structuralist

considers the thorny problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

8

languages He points out that there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code

units interlingual translation involves ldquosubstitute[ing] messages in one language not

for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other languagerdquo

(19592000114)

The translator re-codes and transmits a message received from another source Thus

translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes

Jakobsons approach to meaning stipulates that there is no signatum without signum

(1959232) and that both the signifier and the signified are combined together to form

the linguistic sign To deal with such linguistic signs across language boundaries

Jakobson introduces the notion of bdquoequivalence in difference‟ and suggests that there

are three kinds of translation

1 Intralingual translation or rewording which is an

interpretation of a linguistic sign using other signs in a

same language

2 Interlingual translation or translation proper which

is an interpretation of linguistic signs by

equivalent signs of another language

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

9

3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation

which is an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of signs of non-verbal sign system

(19592000114))

Which form of translation is used and when ultimately depends to a

large extent on the nature of the text where the translator has to decide

on the translation strategy to be used

Catford s shifts22

According to Catford (196520) the central problem of translation practice is that of

finding target language translation equivalents with Equivalence defined as The

replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent material in another

language (qtd in Fawcett 199754)

Equivalence is thus one of the most critical concepts in translation theory in fact the

core of translation theory Catford sees Equivalence in terms of two basic types

Formal Equivalence involves conforming closely to the linguistic form of the source

text In other words it is the closest possible match of form and content between

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

10

source text and target text (Hatim amp Mason 19907) This is distinguished from

Textual Equivalence Formal Correspondence can be perceived as a langue related

issue whereas Textual Equivalence is perceived as a parole related issue

Formal Equivalence can be achieved through the replacement of the linguistic form

while the Textual Equivalence can be achieved through four types of translation

shifts structure class unit and intra-system (Catford 1965) Many years later this is

echoed by Shuttleworth amp Cowie (199749) who define equivalence as the nature

and the extent of the relationship which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller

linguistic units Baker (1992) disparagingly points out that the term equivalence is

used for the sake of convenience because most translators are used to it rather than

because it has any theoretical status

Nida Dynamic Equivalence23

For Nida kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its

elaborate surface structures (Nida and Taber 196939) Formal equivalence

according to Nida (1964) focuses attention on the message itself in both form and

content That is with Formal Equivalence one is concerned that the message in the

receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the

source language Dynamic Equivalence on the other hand is based on what Nida

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

11

calls the principle of equivalent effect where the relationship between receptor and

message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original

receptor and the message (Nida 1964 159) Nida explains this further in the

following terms

This receptor- oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar of lexicon and of

culture references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness The TT language

should not show interference from the SL and the foreignness of the ST setting is

minimized (Nida 1964167-8)

Nida argues that except in those cases where we deliberately choose to focus on the

form itself any form-by-form translation is a kind of literalism that rarely works

(Nida1964159) This is simply because at the strictly formal level there can never be

absolute correspondence between languages The issue of correspondence is also an

important consideration in judging extreme forms of dynamic equivalence and the

kind of response it is supposed to elicit Such a response can never be identical with

that which the original has elicited from its readers for no two people ever

understand words in exactly the same manner (Nida 19694)

Translation works well at levels deeper than surface similarities and differences of

structure or behavior Translators working within the framework of dynamic

equivalence would thus be more concerned with the need to conjure up in the reader

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

12

of a translation modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture

(Nida 1964159) The same may be said of the motivated variety of formal

equivalence which in its own peculiar way also focuses on context In either kind of

equivalence there will be much less concern with matching the TL message with the

SL message a procedure typical of most literal translations

Nida considers that the Dynamic Equivalence translation involves a number of

formal adjustments which involves three areas First special literary forms eg

poetry requires higher level of adjustments Second semantically exocentric

expressions may require adjustment from exocentric to endocentric type of

expression especially when the phrase in SL denotes a meaningless phrase in TL if

translated literally Third intraorganismic meaning probably suffers the most in

translation and forms a real challenging limitation as it is deeply rooted in their

culture and totally depends on their cultural context

These ideas have received some serious criticisms over the years Lefevere (1993 7)

feels that equivalence is still overly concerned with word level while Van den Broeck

(197840) and Larose (198978) consider equivalent effect or response to be

impossible (how is the effect to be measured and on whom) Newmark (198138)

departs from Nidas receptor-oriented line feeling that the success of the equivalent

effect is illusory and that the conflict of loyalties the gap between emphasis on

source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation

theory and practice

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

13

To Newmark (198139) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original

Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic

structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original

In communicative as in semantic translation provided that equivalent effect is

secured the literal word-for ndashword translation is not only the best it is the only valid

method of translation

24 Koller Pragmatic Equivalence

German theorist Werner Koller (197989) considers the issue of equivalence from a

pragmatics point of view and recommends maintaining a hierarchy of values to be

followed by a hierarchy of equivalence relations

With every text as a whole and also with every segment of text

the translator who consciously makes such a choice must set up a

hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation from this he

can derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements for the text or

segment in question This in turn must be preceded by a

translationally relevant text analysis It is an urgent task of

translation theory- and one on which no more than some

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

14

preliminary work has so far been done- to develop a

methodology and conceptual apparatus for this kind of text

analysis and to bring together and systemize such analysis in

terms of translationally relevant typologies of textual features

Koller (197989 104)

Koller recognizes five types of equivalence influenced by five factors

1 Denotative equivalence which is influenced by the extralinguistic

content transmitted by a text

2 Connotative equivalence which relates to the connotations transmitted

by lexical choice

3 Text- normative equivalence which relates to text types and language

norms meaning the usage norms for given text types

4 Dynamic equivalence is related to the receiver of the text to whom the

translation is turned

5 Formal equivalence is related to the aesthetics and norms of the source

text and to its stylistic features

(Koller 1979)

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

15

Sometimes translators are compelled to use all five kinds of equivalence because they

would be translating a particular text for a range of different purposes and for

different audiences

This kind of pragmatic input is seen by Bassnett (198091) in terms of translating

involving far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages hellipOnce the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence the

problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin

to emerge

25 Textuality Text type theory

Text type according to Hatim and Mason (1990140) is a conceptual framework

which enables us to identify texts in terms of communicative intentions Building on

this assumption Hatim (2001) argues that the text and not independent words is the

minimal unit of translation

In advocating this position Hatims takes his lead from Katherina Reiss who in her

pioneering studies of text types and translation considers the text not the words or

sentences to be the authentic level of communication

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton

16

Each text type denotes special characteristics and requires a particular

translation strategy The plain communication of facts denotes an

informative text type and involves the transmission of information where

the topic is the main focus and the TT in such a case must transmit the

same content of the ST ie plain prose The creative composition is an

expressive text type where the rhetoric aspect of the language is used and

the translation method should cater for the aesthetic and artistic aspects

of the TT to the ST The operative text type has the appellative function

of persuading the text receiver As such the translator should follow the

adaptive strategy to maintain the same effect on the TT receiver that the

ST has on its receiver Audiomedial texts eg films and visual

advertisements require a supplementary method in translation that is

supplementing written words with visual and audio images

(Reiss 1977 108-9)

This can be seen clearly in translating for the museums of Sharjah A worksheet

written for school children who visit the Natural History Museum about the

characteristic features of rocks for example cannot be approached in the same way as

a text written for the wall panels at the Museum of Islamic Civilization which

discusses the pillars of Islam These texts differ according to purpose and receiver

Similarly a newspaper or television advertisement for the museums requires the use of

17

simple terminology in order to reach as wide an audience as possible whereas an

article written for a museum journal may make use of jargon understood by all

museum professionals but not commonly understood by the general public

But there is always the thorny issue of bdquotext type hybridization‟According to Hatim amp

Mason (1990) any text will display features of more than one type and this is what is

referred to as multifunction Any useful typology of texts has to accommodate to such

diversity

Relevance theory26

Relevance theory may be seen as an attempt to work out in detail one of Grice‟s

central claims namely that an essential feature of most human communication both

verbal and non-verbal is the expression and recognition of intentions (Grice 1989

Essays 1-7 14 18 Retrospective Epilogue) According to Levy (19672000156) the

translator resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum

of effect with a minimum of effort That is to say he or she intuitively resolves for the

so-called MiniMax Strategy (Munday 2001)

Languages differ not only in the patterns of structure employed but also in the values

assigned to what could be a similar pattern (eg repetition) From the perspective of

relevance theory the effect of these structures is seen in terms of the cost-benefit

18

correlation between the effort needed to process a stimulus and the contextual effects

to be expected as a reward (Gutt 1991 140) Gutt explain this phenomenon further

If communication uses a stimulus that manifestly requires more processing effort

than some other stimulus equally available to him the hearer can expect that the

benefits of this stimulus will outweigh the increase in processing cost-otherwise the

communicator would have failed to achieve optimal relevance (Gutt 1991140)

Hatim (2001) summarizes the issue of bdquorelevance‟ in the following terms

The principle of Relevance is derived directly from effort and benefit

principles We choose from context those assumptions that satisfy two

requirements first having the largest contextual effect or benefit and

second requiring minimum processing effort

The notion of relevance connects to the ability of the receiver to interpret

contextual assumptions which are marked by their variable degree of

accessibility Such assumptions might be limited by other factors such

as the function of a particular language item and the incident of using it

However the retrieval of contextual assumptions inevitably requires

19

effort to decode Hence users of language resort to the contextual

assumptions that will lead to the maximum benefit or reward with the

minimal effort

(Hatim 200137)

To narrow down the enormous potentiality of such assumptions we resort to the two

elements of effort and benefit That is narrowing the contextual assumptions to

satisfy two requirements which are maintaining the largest contextual effect by

exerting the least processing effort (Fawcett 1997) According to Hatim (2001) the

translation is marked interpretive when it is viewed in terms of its relation with the

ST And the translation is viewed as descriptive if it stands on its own apart from the

ST With this distinction in mind two types of translation emerge direct and indirect

translations where direct translation relates to the interpretive mode while indirect

translation relates to the descriptive mode (Hatim 2001)

27 Discourse and Register

The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956 and

was brought into general currency in the1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to

distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables

20

such as social background geography sex and age) and variations according to use

in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at

different times (Halliday et al 1964)

Register or context of situation as it is formally termed is the set of meanings the

configuration of semantic patterns that are typically drawn upon under the specific

conditions along with the words and structures that are used in the realization of these

meanings (Halliday 197823)

Register variables are important yardsticks with which to assess how far text identity

is preserved in the translation process Register is concerned with the variables of

field tenor and mode in relation to variations of social context Each of the three

factors relates to what Halliday calls the meta functional aspect of language use

subsuming the ideational interpersonal and textual dimensions The field covers what

the text is about and relates to the ideational meaning realized by patterns of

transitivity The tenor of a text which relates to formality is closely bound up with

interpersonal meanings realized by modality patterns The mode or whether the text

has written-like or spoken-like quality deals with the textual meaning which is

realized by elements of cohesion and ThemeRheme patterns

To Hatimamp Mason (199073) texts are the basic units for semiotic analysishellipTexts

concatenate to form discourse which is perceived with given genres Discourse often

refers to the speech patterns and usage of language dialects and acceptable

21

statements within a community It is a subject of study in peoples who live in

secluded areas and share similar speech conventions

Hatim amp Mason (1997216) represent discourse in its wider sense defined as Modes

of speaking and writing which involve social groups in adopting a particular attitude

towards areas of sociocultural activity (eg racist discourse bureaucratese etc)

Hatim amp Munday ( 2004 303) maintain that Texts genres and discourses are macro-

signs within which we do things with words Words thus become instruments of

power and ideology

2 8 Foreignization and Domestication

According to Shuttleworth amp Cowie (1997) the term foreignization was used by

Venuti who sees its role as being to register the linguistic and cultural differences of

the foreign text thus sending the reader abroad The basic effect of foreignizing is to

provide target language readers with alien reading experience Shuttleworth amp

Cowie (199759) As for Venuti (1995) fluent translation should be capable of

giving the reader access to great thought to what is present in the origin

Venuti according to Munday (2001) talks about two strategies of translation

Domestication and Forignization Domestication to Venuti requires a fluent

translation where the translator is invisible in order to minimize the vague peculiar

elements of the ST and make it as natural in style as the TT So the aim of

domestication is bringing the text to the reader

Foreignization is a translation style where the translator is visible trying to highlight

22

the STs different cultural identity so as not to give up the source culture presence for

the sake of the target culture Thus foreignization is in simple bringing the reader to

the text Foreignization techniques respect the linguistic and cultural differences of the

ST (Venuti 1998)

29 The Pragmatics Turn

We have touched on Pragmatics in our review of Koller above We have also dealt

with Relevance which is a Pragmatics issue But because Pragmatics is the single

most important discipline from which translation theory has derived its impetus this

section contains a closing statement on the matter of intentionality

Fawcett defines pragmatics as the relation between linguistic forms and the

participants in the communicative act(Fawcett 1997123) Pragmatics to Baker

(1992217) is the study of language in use It is the study of meaning not as generated

by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a

communicative situation Baker (1992) points out that as translators we are primarily

concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language To

achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that

meaning

Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language This is

not strictly accurate Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word More

often however it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by

various structures and linguistic devices Baker (1992)

23

CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY IN TRANSLATING FOR MUSEUMS

31 Museums A Universe of Discourse

This study is about the world of museums the objects and artefacts the texts they

generate and the perspectives they convey The world of museums has never been

static Let us first note with Kaplan that the roots of museums are conventionally

traced back to the ancient western world where art was first shown as the booty of

conquest in the splendour of private villas (Kaplan 1983 172-8) But the forms and

functions of museums have changed over the years Nowadays we can define

museums as central institutions of civil society

Museums are no longer taking their relationship with their audiences for granted

They are reconsidering it in every dimension intellectual cultural educational

political and aesthetic Indeed the sources of power are derived from the capacity of

cultural institutions to classify and define peoples and societies This is the power to

represent and to reproduce structures of belief and experience through which cultural

differences are understood

Since museums are above all else concerned with conveying a cultural message to

their audiences culture is necessarily one of the most important aspects of translating

24

for museums and is thus one of the many fields on which to focus in the present

research study

32 Culture

In a museum it is not enough to put objects on display and ask people to look

interpretive texts or panels should accompany these objects to give the visitor an idea

about the origin and the historical background of the collections on display

Brochures flyers and booklets must be made available to encourage and facilitate the

visitors access to the museums We know that there is a certain kind of genre (indeed

a variety of sub-genres) used in writing these booklets and brochures This was

alluded to in Chapter 2 and will be taken up in greater detail in this Chapter and

throughout the analysis Here the focus will be on translating these texts and the

cultural challenges that may face the translator during the translation process

Translation is defined by Toury (1978200) as a kind of activity which inevitably

involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions For Snell-Hornby

culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind

as reflected in the arts but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life

(cf Snell-Hornby 1988 Hymes 1964) On this point Faiq (20041) argues that

culture refers to beliefs and value systems tacitly assumed to be collectively shared

by particular social groups and to the positions taken by producers and receivers of

texts including translations during the mediation process Karamanian takes this a

step further into the practical task of translating

25

Translation involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language

by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group entails a

process of cultural de-coding re-coding and en-coding As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree

Karamanian (2002)

Intercultural contacts between civilizations have been made possible through

translation There is a difference between the changes that occur on the language level

and that on the culture level To Faiq (20041) this has meant a good deal of

exchange naturally through language But while languages are generally prone to

change over time- phonologically morphologically syntactically and semantically-

cultures do not change fast Temple (2006) substantiates this translation perspective

thus

The solution to many of the translators dilemmas are not to be found in

dictionaries but rather in an understanding of the way language is tied to social

realities to literary forms and to changing identities Translators must constantly

make decisions about the cultural meanings which language carries and evaluate

the degree to which the two different worlds they inhabit are (the same)

Temple (2006)

In other words languages are not mere words they reflect societies and societies reflect

cultures In that sense Karmanian rightly advocates that

26

We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time space and

sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that

we should take into account The process of transfer ie re-coding across

cultures should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader

Karamanian (2002)

To conclude this rapid survey of the various ways of defining culture it is helpful to

cite Goodenough who as a sociologist approaches bdquoculture‟ in terms of the distinction

bdquostatic‟ vs bdquodynamic‟

By definition we should note that culture is not material phenomenon it

does not consist of things people behavior or emotions It is rather an

organization of these things It is the forms of things that people have in

mind their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances

To one who knows their culture these things and events are also signs

signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material

representation

Goodenough (1964 36)

This distinction between static bdquoproducts‟ and dynamic bdquopractices‟ will

be highlighted further in the following discussion

27

33 Translation for Museums

Translation for museums is a special genre that has its own features and in which

culture both as products and as practices is very much involved According to

Samovar amp Porter (2004160) translators build bridges not only between languages but

also between the differences of two cultures Language is a way of seeing and

reflecting the delicate nuance of cultural perceptions and it is the translator who not

only reconstructs the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also

reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations of another culturerdquo

Snell-Hornby (1988 40) establishes the connection between language and culture

first formally as formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt For this German philosopher

language was something dynamic it was an activity (energia) rather than a static

inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon) At the same time language is an

expression of culture and individuality of the speakers who perceive the world

through language In terms of Goodenoughs notion of culture as the totality of

knowledge this formulation sees language as the knowledge representation in the

mind

Hatimamp Mason approach these issues in terms of a distinction between socio-textual

practices and socio-cultural objects

Socio-textual practices is the whole set of rhetorical conventions that govern texts

genres and discourses Socio-cultural objects however are entities with which the

28

social life of given linguistic communities are normally identified (Hatimamp Mason

1997223)

34 Directionality

A thorny issue to tackle at the outset is that of Directionality Is the translation from

English into Arabic or the other way round for example Texts for museums are usually

written in the language of the country where the museum is located For instance texts

for the British museum are written in English because they should reflect the British

culture through displaying the British national heritage These texts are then translated

into the major languages of the world to build bridges between different cultures and to

make the information accessible to a wide range of nationalities

The first complication in our work arises when we find that this is not the case for

Sharjah museums In Sharjah because museums are fairly new in the area and

because of the lack of writing centers and research institutions texts for museums

which record Emirati history and heritage are usually written in English by western

experts Although these western researchers and text writers are well informed about

the local culture in particular and the Arabic culture in general the western influence

can still be detected in their texts One example is in a booklet written for Sharjah

Heritage Museum about marriage rituals in Sharjah The writer uses the term bridal

shower for Leylat el Henna (night of henna) because she had the English speaking

reader in mind and was trying to make things clearer to himher Here the interference

of the translator becomes a must Alejandra Patricia Karamanian puts it this way

29

Culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is culture-bound

cultural words proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions

whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the

culture concerned So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the

culture we are working with Thus translation studies are

essentially concerned with a web of relationships the importance

of individual items being decided by their relevance within the

larger context text situation and culture

(Karamanian 2002)

Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan 1985 5) states that there was a theory of context

before a theory of text In other words context precedes text Context here means

context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan 1985 7) This context is

necessary for adequate understanding of the text which becomes the first requirement

for translating Thus translating without understanding text is non-sense and

understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible

We do not translate languages we translate cultures Earlier translations primary

attention was towards equivalence in terms of grammar and linguistics as elements of

30

language Now with the urgent need for cross-cultural communication it has become

necessary to involve attitudes values experiences and traditions of people in

translation

We cannot translate ones thought which is affected by and stated in language specific

for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought

in the two languages (cultures) must be different Each language is unique If it

influences the thought and therefore the culture it would mean that ultimate

translation is impossible

35 Domestication and foreignization

Museums are products of their social context and it is proper that they should be so

If we accept that the purpose of museums is to be of service to society then it is vital

that they be responsive to their social environment in order to remain relevant to

changing social needs and goals

Museums collect record and present the meanings and values we find in life and in

art history and science In translating for museums especially when the original texts

are written in a language other than the language of the country where the museums

31

are located (in the authors research the original texts are written in English to be used

in museums located in Sharjah) the translator has to domesticate the original text in an

attempt to bring the foreign author home

According to Venuti (1998) there is a difference between the translator who

domesticates his method of translation of the foreign text to target cultural values

bringing the author home and the translator who foreignizes his text thus sending the

reader abroad - a very complex issue in translation today

Hatimamp Mason (1997) argue that when Venuti distinguishes between foreignization

and domestication he shows that the predominant trend towards domestication in

Anglo- American translations over the last three centuries had a normalizing effect by

depriving the source text producer of his voice and re-expressing foreign cultural

values in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture

To Venuti (2000486) therefore translation never communicates in an untroubled

fashion because the translator negotiates the linguistic and cultural differences of the

foreign text by reducing them and supplying another set of differences basically

domestic drawn from the receiving language and culture to enable the foreign to be

received

32

The domesticating process can be said to operate in every word of the translation

long before the translated text is further processed by readers made to bear other

domestic meanings and to serve other domestic interests When the translator is well-

informed of both cultures the credibility of the text can be maintained to the foreign

reader Quoting Schleiermacher a prominent German translator in the 18th

century

Venuti (1997101) has this to say

The translator must therefore take as his aim to give his reader the same

image and the same delight which the reading of the work in the original

language would afford any reader educated in such a way that we call him

in the better sense of the word the lover and the expert [hellip] he no longer

has to think every single part in his mother tongue as schoolboys do

before he can grasp the whole but he is still conscious of the difference

between that language and his mother tongue even where he enjoys the

beauty of the foreign work in total peace

The translator seeks to build a community with foreign cultures to share an

understanding with and of them and to collaborate on projects founded on that

understanding going so far as to allow it to revise and develop domestic values and

institutions

In translating a flyer about Hag el Leyla (an Emirati event celebrated in Mid of

Shaaban) the foreign text is rewritten in domestic dialects and discourses registers

33

and styles and this results in the production of textual effects that signify only in the

history of the domestic language and culture The translator may produce these effects

to communicate the foreign text trying to invent domestic analogues for foreign

forms and themes

To Venuti (2000) the very impulse to seek a community abroad suggests that the

translator wishes to extend or complete a particular domestic situation to compensate

for a defect in the translating language and literature in the translating culture

Focusing on domestic values and beliefs in translation helps in showing solidarity

with communities In translating a text about daily life in the Emirates the original

English text mentioned ldquowashingrdquo before prayer the translator used (ablution) instead

which helps to bind a Muslim reader with the text

According to Venuti (2000) The interests that bind the community through a

translation are not simply focused on the foreign text but reflected in the domestic

values beliefs and representations that the translator inscribes in it And these

interests are further determined by the ways the translation is used

To translate is to invent for the foreign text new readerships which are aware that their

interest in the translation is shared by other readers

Museums with relevant messages and high- quality eye- catching communication can

be effective as public forums for informal learning and entertainment

34

To Krautler (1955) If communication is truly the aim it can only be achieved by

active and genuine empathy with the public as partner through continuous efforts and

an institutionally reflected language Toury (1995) shifted the emphasis away from

exploring an equivalence between the translation and the foreign text and instead

focused on the acceptability of the translation in the target culture The source

message is always interpreted and reinvented especially in cultural forms open to

interpretation such as literary texts philosophical treatises film subtitling

advertising copy conference papers legal testimony and also texts written for

museums The source message is always reconstructed according to a different set of

values and always variable according to different languages and cultures

36 Ideology

As pointed out above museums can be defined as central institutions of civic society

and when we talk about societies we mean cultures and ideologies Translation needs

to be studied in connection with society history and culture According to Xiao-Jiang

(200763) the factors that influence translation are not only language but also

transmission of ideology between different nations and countries Ideology plays an

important role in translation practice but translation only receives influences from

ideology to a certain extent Ideology has always been and will remain one of the

key factors influencing translation Calzada Perez (20032) and Schaffner (200323)

claim that all language use is ideological and any translation is ideological

According to Venuti translating is always ideological because it releases a domestic

35

remainder an inscription of values beliefs and representations linked to historical

moments and social positions in the domestic culture In serving domestic interests a

translation provides an ideological resolution for the linguistic and cultural differences

of the foreign text

Venuti (2000)

During the translation process the translator conveys a certain ideology that can

function in the target society Andre Levefere (1992 preface) says Translation

is of course a rewriting of an original text All rewritings whatever their

intention reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature

to function in a given society in a given way

Faiq (20042) goes further to say that culture and ideology form thestarting point

for some theorists who urge that the act of translation involves manipulation

subversion appropriation and violence Nord (200129) has this to say

translateinterpretspeak write in a way that enables your texttranslation to function

in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and

precisely in the way they want it to function

In the frame of this theory one of the most important factors determining the purpose

of a translation is the addressee The first function of translation is social function

rather than linguistic function So adapting the addressees ideology is necessary to

ensure the translated text speaks to the target audience According to Xiao-Jiang

(200764)

36

The patron is the link between the translator‟s text and the audience heshe wants

to reach To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving culture

translators will often adapt it to the patron‟s ideology If translators do not stay

within the perimeters of the acceptable as defined by the patron who is the

absolute monarch the chances are that their translation will either not reach the

audience they want it to reach or that it will at best reach the audience in a

circuitous manner Therefore translators create images of a writer a period a

genre sometimes even a whole nature under a certain control of ideology

Xiao-Jiang (200765)

In recent years translation studies have moved on from endless debates

about ldquoequivalencerdquo to broader issues of society history and culture Museum

collections are displayed and interpreted for a number of reasons not least of which is

for public enjoyment and education Silas Okita (1997129-39) argues Museums

must help strengthen ethnic and national identities but also should nourish collective

humanity and equip the worlds peoples to meet the contemporary challenges of

human existence It is on this and related points that the analysis in the next Chapter

will focus

37

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF TEXTS WRITTEN FOR MUSEUMS

41 Importance of Translating for Museums

As they represent civilizations and people museums which are centres for

conservation study and reflection on heritage and culture can no longer stand aloof

from the major issues of our time From this perspective museums should be

established in a way that makes them accessible to all By accessibility we do not only

mean physical accessibility but also psychological and intellectual accessibility ie

trying to make visits both informative and enjoyable To achieve this purpose the

information about the objects on display or about the historical sites should be written

clearly and should address a wide audience of different ages cultures and educational

backgrounds

Because museums all over the world are supposed to be tourist attractions brochures

booklets panels and labels should be made available in the major world languages of

the visitors In the UAE the language issue becomes even more important because the

society itself is multilingual and multicultural The museums audiences do not consist

of ordinary tourists and Emarati visitors only but the population itself which

comprises a large number of different nationalities speaking different languages and

practising different cultures

38

Of the total number of visitors to Sharjah museums statistics show that UAE

nationals form the largest group representing 16 of total visitors Indians

comprise 14 followed by the British 8 then the Germans and the Americans

with 7 each Visitors from China account for 5 The number of languages

spoken by the visitors thus suggests the need for museum publications that are

multi-lingual or at least bilingual (Arabic and English at a minimum)

The emphasis on developing museums in Sharjah is relatively recent with the Sharjah

Museums Department (SMD) only established in 2006 The lack of qualified and

experienced staff in museum management within Sharjah and the UAE has led to the

appointment of many foreign experts to SMD and also to the museums Foreign

experts have been recruited to assist with the construction of new museums the

renovation of older museums with artifact collections conservation and

documentation and with designing and writing the interpretive information about the

buildings and the objects on display As discussed earlier the informative texts are

generally written and edited in English and then translated into Arabic as Arabic and

English are the two major languages used in Sharjah museums publications and text

panels

Translating for the museums includes translating for publication for long interpretive

texts about objects on display and also for shorter texts for labels which are restricted

to the type of object the title date or period materials and techniques measurements

inscriptions and markings

39

42 Cultural Challenges

In translating for museums and given the peculiarity of the present context with

literature being almost exclusively written in English the translator should be aware

of the specificities of the two cultures and must try to mediate and sometimes

domesticate the English original text to make it closer or less shocking to a sensitive

Arabic reader

This study will focus on texts written for the Sharjah museums booklets Seven

English booklets were examined and compared with their seven Arabic translated

texts In addition 17 further examples will be analyzed containing tricky cultural

challenges which will be highlighted A commentary always follows to illustrate the

translators endeavour (or failure) to bridge the cultural gap between the Source text

and the Target text

The cultural challenges can be detected mostly in religious sensitive texts and

sometimes in historical or political texts

Example 1

This example is taken from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage Museum The

museum and the booklet both focus on the Emirati heritage costumes marriage

rituals popular medicine herbs coins stamps and jewelry

40

The Motawa served the community in

many ways and was certainly a busy

person acting as judge faith healer

psychologist and religious and social

educator He would perform marriages

prepare bodies for burial

and act as the intermediary between the

ruler and his subjects Today the

Motawas role is one of a religious

scholar educating both children and

adults in the teachings of the Holy Quran

وب اطع ٠ظف فغ خذخ ابط اغزغ ف

اػ ػذح ب ر ب امؼبء اػع الإسشبد

ػلاح ػ دس ف ازؼ١ اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ

٠مزظش دس اطع ػ زا ئػذاد ا٤ع١بي

فؾغت ث وب ٠م ثؼ ئعشاءاد اضاط ػمذ

وب ذف (اغغ)رغ١ض أعغب ار امشا

ع١طب ث١ اؾبو سػب٠ب ى اؾظش دس اطع

ظغبس رؾف١ع امشآا١ ػ ازؼب١ اذ١٠خ

اىجبس

Analysis

41

This example is rich with cultural problems Compared is the role of Al Mutawa (a

religious man) in the past with that of today hence the need to mention some of the

rituals involved in marriage burials and some aspects of social life

Translating terms like faith healer and teachings of the holy Quran literally as

ؼبظ ا٠ب رؼب١ امشآ اىش٠

does not stimulate the same effect in the mind of an Arabic reader with Islamic

cultural background as using

اؼلاط ثمشاءح امشآ رؾف١ع امشآ

As for psychological it was deleted from the Arabic text because of the sensitivity

of the word in the Arabic culture and the word washing

)اغغ)

was added in Arabic to the translation of prepare bodies for burial

because washing dead bodies is one of the Islamic burial preparations

which may not exist in other religions Here both deletion and addition were used to

take care of semantics and more importantly to satisfy the semiotics as well as

pragmatics of the text

Example 2

From the same booklet

Those who memorized the Holy Quran

42

would demonstrate their skills in a one

week long ceremony during which time

they would parade through the narrow

streets reciting the words of the holy

book Boys who could not learn would

leave the class to follow in their fathers

trade

٠مب ؽف ػذب ٠خز أؽذ اطلاة امشآأخ١شا

شدد٠٠غزش ذح أعجع ٠ذس اطشلبد

٠خفك ف خز امشآ ٠زت ؼ غ (ازؾب١ذ)

اذ

This is an extension to the previous example Here the writer moves from the

Mutawas role to the celebrations that follow the childrens memorization of the

Quran

For reciting the words of the holy book the translator in an attempt to domesticate

the word recites

رشا١

used the word

رؾب١ذ

(tahameed)

which is the word used for this kind of celebration recital in the region

Again semantics and semiotics are at work and the signs in question are optimally

preserved

43

Example 3

The desert tribes developed their own

practical treatments and medicinal uses

for many wild plants some scientifically

proven others probably for psychological

help only

ؽسد لجبئ اظؾبس أد٠ز اؼ١خ الاعزخذابد

اذائ١خ ؼذ٠ذ اجبربد اجش٠خ مذ أصجذ ػ١ب فؼب١خ

ثؼؼب أب اجبربد ا٤خش ف اؾز أب

فمؾاشؽبلاعزخذا

In example 1 we had the ST word psychologist and the translator then deleted it

because of its sensitivity to the Arabic reader since anything to do with psychology is

popularly (though of course not academically) somehow frowned upon Here in

example 3 the translator also opted for a modification into

سؽب

(Spiritual)

instead of

44

فغ

(Psychological)

Culture is at work here including myth and superstitions But to find expression

culture mobilizes the entire semantics (and syntax) of the language and essentially

view the linguistic items as signs (the domain of semiotics)

Example 4

This example is taken from a booklet written for Bait Khalid bin Ibraheem in Sharjah

which is one of the restored historical houses The text describes the rooms and the

furniture of the house

The living rooms downstairs were

allocated to family members with Khalid

and Abdullah having private rooms Each

bedroom has a raised bed limited

furniture alcove shelves for storage

cushions for seating and an adjacent

washroom (qetiya) where tea and coffee

وبذ غشف اؼ١شخ ف اطبثك ا٤سػ خظظخ

٤فشاد اؼبئخ ؽ١ش وبذ خبذ ا٤ة ػجذ الله الإث

رؾز و غشفخ ػ عش٠ش شرفغ غشف خبطخ

لطغ أصبس ؾذدح أسفف شىزب فغاد اغذسا

٤غشاع ازخض٠ عبئذ غط ػلاح ػ

امط١ؼخغشفخ رغ

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خعضء ٠غ ف١ب

45

would be prepared In the master

bedroom displays of pearl chests swords

and daggers reflect the means and the

ways of life

اغضء ا٢خش خظض زؾؼ١ش امح اشب

رؼىظ ؼشػبد غشفخ ا اشئ١غخ طبد٠ك

اإإ اغ١ف اخبعش عبئ ؽشق اؾ١بح ف

ره الذ

Foran adjacent washroom (qetiya) the translator added

لاعزؾب اػء اض٠خف١ب عضء ٠غ

(a part called Zewyya for washing and ablution) These words were added to define

the usage of the room but the word (ablution) in particular was added to domesticate

the text and generate a sense of religious atmosphere in the context

Example 5

From the same booklet

Once the daily chores around the home

were done the ladies prepared lunch

usually a fish and rice to be ready after

the midday prayer or whenever the men

returned Afternoon prayers would follow

the siesta with an early supper of again

ب أ رمؼ ا٤ػبي ا١١خ ثبج١ذ ؽز رجذأ اغبء

ف ئػذاد عجخ اغزاء ػبدح ب وبذ رزى اغه

أ ؽبب ٠ؼد طلاح اظشا٤سص رى عبضح ثؼذ

ص ٠أر لذ عجخ ثظلاح اؼظشرزجغ ام١خ اشعبي

اؼشبء اجىش از رؾز أ٠ؼب ػ اغه ا٤سص أ

46

fish and rice or mutton for a treat The oil

lamps would be extinguished soon after

the evening prayers around 9 pm

طلاح رطفأ ظبث١ؼ اض٠ذ ثؼذ ؾ اؼأ ١خ

غبء 9 جبششح ؽا اغبػخ اؼشبء

This text is about the daily life in the Emirates in the past three out of the five

prayers names were mentioned in this example as midday prayer afternoon prayers

and evening prayer which were translated in Arabic as

(Dhohr Asr Isha ) طلاح اظش طلاح اؼظش طلاح اؼشب

On the lexical level words like midday afternoon and evening would not stimulate the

same effect (ie conjure up the same semantics semiotics) in the mind of the Arabic

Muslim reader as Dhohr Asr and Isha so again the domestication here brings the

reader home

Example 6

The text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

The piece is about popular medicine

Allah (The one God of All) says in the

47

Holy Quran There may be a thing

decreed for you that you do not like that

is good for you and things that you like

that are not good for you

ب أضي الله داء ئلا ) لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

(أضي شفبء

The English text cites a verse from the Holy Quran and uses it in a context about

popular medicine The writer however could not delve deeper In Arabic this verse

is

ػغ أ رىشا ش١ئب خ١ش ى ػغ أ رؾجا ش١ئب شش ى

It conveys a message to Muslims saying that one does not have to panic when things

go wrong because it may turn out later that this was arranged by God for one‟s good

To translate the text and in an endeavour to bridge this cultural gap the translator

replaced the verse by an interpretation given by prophet Mohammad (PBUH)

Hadeeth related in a way to the popular medicine saying

ب أضي الله داء ئلا أضي شفبء لبي اج ط الله ػ١ ع

Which means God creates the illness but He also creates the medicine which is more

relevant to the context

48

Example 7

The example is taken from Bait Khalid bin Ibrahims booklet

The baby is welcomed into Islam and by

the family in many ways On the day of

birth a softened date is rubbed gently

along the upper palate of the babys

mouth Up to seven days later the baby is

named under specific guidelines either

after a prophet or a martyr or by a name

expressing servitude to Allah

رغزمج اؼبئخ اد اغذ٠ذ ثطمط ئعلا١خ ػذ٠ذح

ف ٠ ا١لاد ٠غؼ أػ ؽه اطف ثؾجخ رش ١خ

ثشفك ثؼذ شس عجؼخ أ٠ب ٠أخز اطف اعب فك

اشعي ط الله ئسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع

أ أؽذ اشذاء أ اخز١بس اع ٠ذي ػ ع ػ١

ػجبدح الله أ رؾ١ذ

This text is about birth rituals in the Emirates For The baby is named under specific

guidelines either after a prophet or a martyr This sentence could have been

translated as

ػط اطف اعب ثبء لاسشبداد ؾذدح ب ازغ١خ ثبع أؽذ ا٤ج١بء أ اشذاء

Especially that other prophets names like Musa and Issa are popular in the Arab

world but of course not as popular as the name Mohammad The translator thus opted

for the most popular name in the Islamic world and translated the sentence as

ب ازغ١خ ثبع اشعي ط الله ػ١ ع

49

Example 8

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Bait Al Naboodah a

restored house in Sharjah

During the restoration period it is

rumoured that a guardian of the house

with a mischievous but not malevolent

nature appeared regularly to check and

on occasion to hinder the progress of

construction A lady in white carrying

two babies was seen to roam silently

around the house but quickly vanished

when approached Watchmen later

reported beds levitating voices and

footsteps running up and down the stairs

and this lady at the centre of it all It is

believed that she frequents the

Traditional Games Room on the ground

floor which coincidentally has the only

original door of the

house

As written in the Holy Quran I have

داسد اشبئؼبد أصبء فزشح ازش١ ػ عد ؽبسعخ

ج١ذ راد ؽج١ؼخ ؼثخ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ

56 )

50

only created jinns and mankind that they

may worship Me (Chapter No 51 Adh-

dhariyat Verse No 56)

As this example shows a big chunk of the English text was not translated for reasons

to do with the sensitivity of the subject The text is telling a story about a ghost used

to haunt the house For an English reader this can be an attractive mysterious story

whereas to an Arab reader who believes in jinn this can be a scary story which may

stop people from visiting this tourist attraction especially with their children The

translator thus preferred to leave out most of the text and suggestively keep the last

part only which is a Quranic verse

( 56ازاس٠بد ) ب خمذ اغ الإظ ئلا ١ؼجذ لبي الله رؼب ف وزبث اىش٠

This is interesting simply because the problem demonstrates that adapting the

addressees ideology can be and often is necessary to ensure the translated text speaks

with more immediacy to the target audience

Example 9

This text is taken from a booklet written and translated for Sharjah Heritage Museum

It is about musical instruments of the past

51

In the past a singer or musician would

often make up part of the dhows crew

There were songs for all sorts of tasks

from hauling the yard to raising the sail

the tempo set by the drum and the song

Drums were also used in the case of

illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve the problems

ف ابػ وب اطشة أ اع١مبس أؽذ

غ١غ أػؼبء ؽبل عف١خ اذ وبذ بن أغب

أاع اب رغ١ش الارغب ئ سفغ اششاع وبذ

رزظ ؽشوخ اؾ ثبطجي اطشة

This example is about the uses of drums the translator chose not to translate the last

part which talks about using drums for illness or infirmity to summon a spirit to

resolve problems This ritual is still followed by some people in a few Arab countries

to kick out the evil spirits or ghosts (called Zar in Egypt for example) The ritual

prevails among uneducated people The translator preferred to delete this sentence

because museums are supposed to work alongside schools to educate visitors To this

end the translator preferred not to mention such a ritual which at best looks pagan

Example 10

From the same booklet The text is about popular medicine

Prophetic medicine or cupping (al-

52

hijama) is a long practiced method of

healing in the emirates as is faith healing

or al-mahou (way of erasing) which

followed a strict preparation and

procedure One treatment in cupping used

air cups placed around the body in the

other cure the healer sucked bad blood

from the head legs or back of the patient

through a goats horn

اطت اج أ اؾغبخ ؽش٠مخ ػلاط ربسط ز

ثبشؽب١بد لذ ؽ٠ ف الإبساد زذا

أؽذ از رزجغ ئػذاداد ئعشاءاد دل١مخالإ٠ب١خ

عج اؼلاط ثبؾغبخ أ اىإط اائ١خ ػ أعضاء

اغغ ف ؽش٠مخ ػلاط أخش ٠زض اذ افبعذ

اشأط أ ا٤سع أ ظش اش٠غ خلاي لش

ابػض

This example is also taken from a text about popular medicine in the UAE This time

for faith healing or al mahou (way of erasing)

the translator used

ازذا ثبشؽب١بد

Arabic word al mahou could have been used simply but it may not explain clearly the

function of this kind of treatment The translators interference here was to add more

clarification to enhance meaning

Example 11

The following text about coins is from a booklet written for the Sharjah Heritage

Museum

53

The External Rupee or Gulf Rupee as it

became known replaced the Indian

Rupee in 1959 as the official currency of

the Trucial States India chose to issue

these special notes for use in the Arabian

Gulf to reduce the drain on its foreign

reserves caused by the large movements

of gold from the Gulf to India

ؽذ اشث١خ اخبسع١خ أ سث١خ اخ١ظ وب وبذ

وؼخ 1959ؼشفخ ؾ اشث١خ اذ٠خ ف ػب

أطذسد اذ ز سع١خ لإبساد ازظبؾخ

ا٤ساق امذ٠خ اخبطخ زذاي ف طمخ اخ١ظ

اؼشث زم١ اعزضاف الاؽز١بؽ ا٤عج ابع ػ

اخ١ظ ئ اذؽشوخ رغبسح ازت اضدشح

In my research about the history of the Emirates in this period I came to know that

large gold smuggling operations from the United Arab Emirates to India used to take

place I even had the chance to interview some merchant mariners who had amazing

stories to tell about their adventures while dealing with this illicit trade When I

checked with the writer of the English text she confirmed what they had said and

added that she had to hint at the subject by using the words the large movements of

gold instead

The translator diplomatically and properly in my opinion used

رغبسح ضدشح

54

for large movements of gold which removed all traces of illegality and depicted the

smuggling process as a legal trade

Example 12

The text is from the Heritage Museums booklet it is about jewelry

The head of a Bedouin family put his

wealth in silver on the wrists ankles and

neck of his wife She felt appreciated by

the jewellery bestowed on her while he

had his wealth under his eye and hand if

he needed it

From Omani Silver Jewellery by

Marycke Jongbloed

٠ذخش صشر افؼخ ف ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خوب

ؼبط ٠ذ أسعبؽ لذ أػبق صعبر ؽ١ش

٠شؼش ثبزمذ٠ش ا١جخ لاسرذائ اؾ ف فظ

الذ رى صشر ظت ػ١١ ث١ ٠ذ٠ زبؽخ ف

لذ اؾبعخ

مبخ ؽ ػب افؼ١خ بس٠ى عغج٠ذ

The head of a Bedouin family was translated as

ش١خ اؼبئخ اجذ٠خ

(Sheikh of a Bedouin family)

This is to do with the fact that the word sheikh is commonly used in the area and it

is a better usage than

وج١ش اؼبئخ أ سأط اؼبئخ

55

Example 13

The sounds of boys playing tag donkeys

braying and fisherman chatting mingled

with the gentle lapping of water along the

shore Vibrant patches of green from the

palm oases scattered along the coast

created splashes of colour into the white

sand desert scenery whilst camels

peacefully rested under the shade There

were no vehicles or motorboats in those

days and no electricity or running water

اعزغ ئ أطاد ا٤لاد ف ؼجخ اطبسدح ؽذ٠ش

اظ١بد٠ اضط ثأطاد أاط ا١ب ازلاؽخ

ثشفك ػ ؽي اشبؽئ سلغ اؽبد اخ١

اخؼشاء ابثؼخ ثبؾ١بح ساعخ رذاخلاد ١خ ػ

ا٤سع اج١ؼبء ػ خف١خ سبي اظؾشاء ث١ب

رى رشلذ اغبي ف علا رؾذ ظلاي ا٤شغبس

بن ع١بساد أ شاوت ضدح ثؾشوبد ف ره

ا٠٤ب رى بن وشثبء أ ؽز ١ب عبس٠خ

The translator ignored translating donkeys braying because the word donkey

ؽبس

in Arabic denotes stupidity and is used as an insult in the Arabic dialects so he

preferred not to use it

56

Example 14

Exquisite gold jewellery from the emirate

and worn from the head to the toe

includes the distinctive necklace known

as mortaisha a multi tier arrangement

with ornamental chains and gold discs

fringed with Gulf pearls and hung to the

waist The bride is adorned in such a

decoration at her marriage ceremony or

on other special occasions The shinaf an

elaborate piece of jewellery worn on the

head and embellished with precious

stones and Gulf pearls in another

favoured wedding accessory and one

worn at graduation

ؽ رج١خ فبرخ الإبسح رجظ اشأط ئ

امذ١ ثب ف ره للادح فش٠ذح رغ شرؼشخ ػجبسح

ػ غك ظفف زؼذد غ علاع ضخشفخ ألشاص

ازت ذثخ ث٣ئ خ١غ١خ ؼمخ ػ اخظش

رأخز اؼشط ص٠زب ثز اؾ ف ؽف صاعب أ

ؽ اضفبف افؼخ ف ابعجبد ا٤خش

ا٤خش اشبف ػجبسح ػ ؽ١خ رج١خ رؼك ػ

اشأط رزذ ػ اغج١ طؼخ ثضخبسف

ا٤ؽغبس اىش٠خ ا٣ئ اخ١غ١خ لذ عبد اسرذاؤب

ع١ ئ آخش

Explaining what she meant by (graduation) in the text the author explained that she

had interviewed some elderly Emirati ladies who told her that they used to go to

57

school and they were given this piece of accessory when they finished school so she

used the word (graduation) But the translator chose to ignore translating the word

رخشط

and replaced it by

عبد اسرذاؤب ع١ ٢خش

(this piece of jewelry was worn and moved from one generation to another)

because the graduation concept wasnt familiar at the time and for an Emarati reader

in particular who knows about the relatively young educational system in the country

a word like

رخشط

used for women finishing school 50-60 years ago would be anachronistic

Example 15

Death There is no official service the

burial site need not be marked and the

mourning passes quietly in prayer

According to tradition Abdullahs eyes

would be closed and his body washed and

covered by his family in sheets of clean

white cloth ready for burial the same

day

رز اظلاح ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح

ؽغت اطمط اذ١٠خ ٠غغ عضب ا١ذ ثذء

امبػ ا٤ث١غ اظ١ف اخظض ثىف٠غط

ذف ف فظ ا١

58

For this text about the burials in the Emirates the English source gives some details

which the English writer thought would give a better idea about death rituals in Islam

to a Non Muslim reader as they are different from Christian death rituals for example

There is no official service the burial site need not be marked Abdullahs eyes

would be closed All these were not translated the translator wrote instead

ػ ازف ف اغغذ رش اغبصح ثذء رز اظلاح

(Prayers take place in the mosque and then the funeral goes on peacefully)

The word

وف

(kafan)

in Arabic was added which is totally different from the English word coffin which

means the wooden box used for putting the dead in in a Christian burial (kafan) is a

white cloth used for covering the dead in Muslim burials so adding words like

( وفغغذ)

(kafan and mosque)

would stimulate a stronger effect on the Arabic Muslim reader We are here in the

domain of bdquorelevance‟ and the need to maintain minimax

Example 16

59

Whilst death is a very painful and

emotional time Muslims believe this life

on earth is merely a journey that tests

ones faith If you are a good practicing

Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife Abdullahs family

would have prayed for God to forgive his

sins have mercy on him and reward him

with paradise

ف ؽ١ أ اد لذ إ ػظ١ت ػ أفشاد

اد ١ظ ب٠خ اؼبئخ ى اغ١ ٠إ ثأ

٠ذػ أ ا١ذ ثبغفشح دخي ؽ١بح الاغب

اغخ

As in Example 15 the English writer is trying to give the Non Muslim reader a clearer

idea about the Islamic faith whereas there is no need for all these details in Arabic

For that reason the chunk Muslims believe this life on earth is merely a journey that

tests ones faith If you are a good practicing Muslim you will enjoy the rewards of

heaven in the afterlife was not translated and was replaced by

الاغب اد ١ظ ب٠خ ؽ١بح

(Death is not the end)

Example 17

60

Traditionally the bride is not seen for 40

days except by family and close friends

as she rests at home in preparation for her

wedding day The Laylat Al Henna

similar to a bridal shower is a fun

gathering where friends of the bride

decorate her hands and feet with henna to

symbolize good fortune health and

beauty

لا ٠ش اؼشط ئلا أفشاد ػبئزب سف١مزب ذح أسثؼ١

٠ ٠ب ؽ١ش رىش ف اج١ذ رؾؼ١شا ١ اضفبف

اؾخ بعجخ رغزغ ف١ب طذ٠مبد اؼشط مؼبء

لذ زغ ؼب اشع ػ ٠ذب لذ١ب ثبؾخ

زؼج١ش ػ غزمج طؾخ عبي دائ

This text is about marriage preparations in the Emirates but we can notice the western

influence in a bridal shower The writer gave this example to clarify the concept of

Laylat Al Henna for a Non Arab reader so the translation of bridal shower was

neglected as the Arabic reader already knows what laylat al henna is like

The question could be asked about the liberty exercised by in this case the Sharjah

Museums translators to change add and delete things in the source text Our

response would be To make a foreign work of literature acceptable to the receiving

61

culture translators will often adapt it to the patrons ideology If the translators do not

stay within the perimeters of bdquoacceptability‟ as defined by the patron (addressee) their

translation may not reach the audience they want to reach But maybe a caveat should

be added in the future to each booklet saying that some amendments were introduced

in the translation for more clarity

62

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

51 The Present Work

Translation for museums can be a very delicate process which puts certain demands

on translators This dissertation discussed the importance of dealing with the cultural

and ideological issues that may arise in translating from English into Arabic a text

written by a non-Arab about Arab heritage or culture for museums that are located in

an Arab country

Chapter one was an introduction in which the dissertation problem and purpose of the

study were stated The chapter demonstrated the significance of the dissertation by

talking about the intercultural challenges in translating for museums Chapter two

presented a review of the theories of translation by considering some important

scholarly claims to provide the reader with some background Chapter three

concentrated on the specialized theories related to the dissertation topic and included

an overview on culture Venutis domestication and foreignization communication in

translation and finally ideology In Chapter four the analysis was presented focusing

63

on museums as cultural institutions then moving to translating for museums which

includes texts written for panels labels brochures booklets guides etchellip Seventeen

examples which constituted the study samples were examined Each example

consisted of an English source text with its Arabic translation followed by an analysis

written by the researcher to clarify the tricky sections and to shed light on the

translation strategy used for bridging the cultural gap between the ST and the TT

52 Major Issues

This dissertation stressed the point that whether global national or local the

community served by a museum is the yardstick for judging whether a museum is

truly effective in realizing its ultimate objectives of interpreting the meanings and

values of its holdings to its visitors One way of serving a museum‟s audience in this

way is through so-called bdquointerpretive‟ texts or panels that accompany objects to give

the visitor an idea about the origin and the historical background of the collections on

display

The first issue tackled in this dissertation is choice of translation strategy It is amply

demonstrated that literal translation works most of the time but translators have to be

vigilant to points where a literal rendering does not deliver full equivalence The point

was made that the literal success is seen most clearly in the case of scientific texts

which form a huge portion of what we translate However more problematic are so-

called bdquocultural‟ texts used by other kinds of more heritage-oriented museums Such

texts address issues of culture and religion and are usually found in such

establishments as the Heritage Museum or the Museum of Islamic Civilization or

some of the restored historical houses

64

This necessitated moving away from Catford‟s Formal Equivalence which simply

involves replacing one form in the ST by another form in the TT towards Nida‟s

Dynamic Equivalence which relies on the principle of equivalent effect

One of the important conclusions of this dissertation points to the supremacy of

Pragmatics Koller is introduced in this context and his five types of equivalence

explained and used Denotative Connotative Text- normative Dynamic and Formal

(with the latter restricted to the aesthetics and norms of the source text and to its

stylistic features) This kind of pragmatic input highlights the fact that translating

involves far more than replacement of lexical and grammatical items between

languages

The issue of text types has also occupied us in this dissertation The point is

underlined that different text types display different characteristics and these

require different translation strategies An informative text type involves the

transmission of information and is different from an operative text type which

has a strong appellative function of persuading the text receiver As we have

seen in the analysis the latter type calls for an adaptive strategy to maintain

the same effect on the TT receiver that the ST has on its receiver

The dissertation then moved on to the issue of Culture and the view

endorsed suggests that culture is best seen not as a material phenomenon

but as what people have in mind their models of perceiving and dealing

with their circumstances Translation for museums is a special genre that

has its own features and in which culture both as products and as

practices is very much involved

65

A thorny issue tackled in this dissertation is to do with Directionality whether the

translation is from English into Arabic or the other way round But the dissertation dealt

with the complication that arises when we find that texts about Arabic heritage are

written in English and have to be rendered back into Arabic

Thus what makes our case special is that the interpretive texts are written for the

museums of Sharjah by Western museum experts In spite of careful research some

western influence can still be found in their interpretative writing about Emirati

heritage because issues are seen from the writer‟s rather alien perspective An

equivalent situation arises if an Egyptian were to compare writings about the

pyramids in Arabic to that of a westerner or even another Arab

53 Future Horizons

The suggestion here is that these interpretive texts especially those dealing with

heritage religion and traditions should in future be written by Emirati writers and

researchers who have first-hand knowledge of UAE history in general and Sharjahs

in particular Many knowledgeable Emirati historians live in Sharjah and they are

capable of performing this task admirably It would seem appropriate that they

should write their own interpretative texts which could then be merely translated into

English and other languages whilst still maintaining an Emirati perspective

Museums bear out a relationship with the past that attaches value to tangible traces

left by our ancestors and aim to protect them and even make them essential to the

functioning of human society Side by side with the monumental heritage such

66

collections now constitute the major part of what is universally known as the cultural

heritage

67

References

Baker M (1992) In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation London and New

York Routledge

Bassnett S (1980 revised edition 1991) Translation Studies London and New

York Routledge

Broeck R Van den (1978)The concept of equivalence in translation theory Some

critical reflections In J S Holmes J Lambert amp R van den Broeck

(eds) Literature and Translation (pp 29-47) Leuven Academic Press

Catford J C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation An Essay in Applied

Linguisti London Oxford University Press

Calzada-PeacuterezM (Ed) Apropos of ideology (pp 113-130) Manchester St

Jerome

Faiq S (2004) Cultural Encounters In translation From Arabic Clevedon UK amp

New York Multilingual Matters

68

Fawcett P (1997) Translation and LanguageLinguistic Theories ExplainedUK St

Jerome

Goodenough W 1964 Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics In Hymes D (ed)

Language in Cultureand Society A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology New

York Harper and Row 36-40

Greenhill EH (1992) Museums and shaping of knowledge London and New York

Routledge

Routledge Greenhill EH (1995) Museums MediaMessage London and New York

Grice HP (1989) Studies in the Way of Words Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

Gutt Ernst-August 1991 Translation and relevance cognition and context London

Blackwell

Halliday M A K A McIntosh and P Strevens (1964) The Linguistic Sciences and

Language Teaching London Longman

69

Halliday M (1978) Language as Social SemioticThe Social Interpretation of

Language and Meaning London Arnold

Halliday Mamp Hassan R (1985) LanguagContext and text Aspectsof Language in

a Social-Semiotic Perspective GeelongVictoriaDeakin University Press

Hatim B amp Mason I (1990) Discourse and the Translator London amp N Y

Longman

Hatim B amp I Mason (1997) The Translator as Communicator London amp New

York Routledge

Hatim B (2001) Teaching and Researching Translation London Longman

Hatim B and J Munday (2004) Translation An advanced resource book London

and New York Routledge

Hymes Dell H (1964) Toward ethnographies of communicative events Excerpts

from introduction toward ethnographies of communication Penguin

Harmondsworth

Jakobson R (1959) On Linguistic Aspects of Translation Cambridge Mass Harvard

University Press

70

KaplanFS (1981) Introduction in FS Kaplan (ed) Images of Power Art of the

Royal Court of Benin New York New York University

KOLLER W (1979) Einfuumlhrung in die Uumlbersetzungswissenschaft Heidelberg

Quelle amp Meyer

Koller W (1977) In Theory and Practice of Translation Bern Peter Lang

Krautler K (1995) Observations on semiotic aspects in the museum work of Otto

Neurath Reflections on the lsquoBildpadagogische Schriften‟ (writings on visual

education) In E Hooper-Greenhill Editor Museum media message London

Routledge

Larose R (1989 2nd

edition) Theories contemporaines de la traduction Quebec

Presses de l universite du Quebec

Lefevere A (1993) Translation Literature Practice and Theory in Comparative

Literature Context New York The Modern Language Association of America

Levy Jiři (1967) Translation as a Decision Process In To Honor Roman

Jakobson The Hague Mouton