Cuban RevolutionFor other uses, see Cuban Revolution (disambiguation).The Cuban Revolution (19531959) was an armed re-volt conducted by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movementand its allies against the US-backed authoritarian govern-ment of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revo-lution began in July 1953,[4] and continued sporadicallyuntil the rebels nally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959,replacing his government with a revolutionary socialiststate. The Movement organization later reformed alongcommunist lines, becoming the Communist Party in Oc-tober 1965.[5] The Communist Party, nowheaded by Cas-tros brother Ral, continues to govern Cuba today.The Cuban Revolution had powerful domestic and inter-national repercussions. In particular, it reshaped Cubasrelationship with the United States, which continues anembargo against Cuba as of 2015, although eorts toimprove diplomatic relations have gained momentum inrecent years.[6][7][8] In the immediate aftermath of therevolution, Castros government began a program of na-tionalization and political consolidation that transformedCubas economy and civil society.[9][10] The revolutionalso heralded an era of Cuban intervention into foreignmilitary conicts, including the Angolan Civil War andNicaraguan Revolution.[11]1 Background and causesFulgencio Batista, who had served as the electedPresident of Cuba from 1940 to 1944, became Presidentfor the second time in March 1952, after seizing powerin a military coup and cancelling the 1952 elections.[12]Although Batista had been a relative progressive duringhis rst term,[13] in the 1950s he proved far more dic-tatorial andindierent topopularconcerns.[14]WhileCuba remained plagued by high unemployment and lim-ited water infrastructure,[15] Batista antagonized the pop-ulation by forming lucrative links to organized crime andallowing American companies to dominate the Cubaneconomy.[15][16][17]During his rst term as President, Batista had been sup-ported by the Communist Party of Cuba,[13]but dur-ing his second term he became strongly anti-communist,gaining himpolitical andmilitarysupport fromtheUnitedStates.[15][18]Batistadevelopedapowerful se-curity infrastructure to silence political opponents. Inthe months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Cas-tro, then a young lawyer and activist, petitioned for theoverthrow of Batista, whom he accused of corruptionand tyranny. However, Castros constitutional argumentswere rejected by the Cuban courts.[19] After deciding thatthe Cuban regime could not be replaced through legalmeans, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution.To this end, he and his brother Ral founded a paramili-tary organization known as The Movement, stockpilingweapons and recruiting around 1,200 followers from Ha-vanas disgruntled working class by the end of 1952.[20]2 Early stagesMain article: Moncada BarracksTostriketheir rst blowagainst theBatistagovern-ment, Fidel and Ral Castro gathered 123 Movementghters and planned a multi-pronged attack on militaryinstallations.[21] On 26 July 1953, the rebels unsuccess-fully attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and thebarracks in Bayamo.[4] The exact number of rebels killedin the battle is debatable; however, in his autobiography,Castro claimed that nine were killed in the ghting, andan additional 56 were executed after being captured bythe Batista government.[22] Among the dead was AbelSantamara, Castros second-in-command, who was im-prisoned, tortured, and executed on the same day as theattack.[23]The people, including Fidel and Ral Castro, were cap-tured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidelspoke for nearly four hours in his defense, ending with thewords Condemn me, it does not matter. History will ab-solve me. Fidel was sentenced to 15 years in the PresidioModelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Ral wassentenced to 13 years.[24] However, in 1955, under broadpolitical pressure, the Batista government freed all polit-ical prisoners in Cuba, including the Moncada attackers.Fidels Jesuit childhood teachers succeeded in persuadingBatista to include Fidel and Ral in the release.[25]Soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles inMexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receiv-ing training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republicanforces in the Spanish Civil War. In June 1955, Fidel metthe Argentine revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara, whojoined his cause.[26]The revolutionaries named them-selves the 26th of July Movement, in reference to thedate of their attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953.12 3 GUERRILLA WARFARE3 Guerrilla warfareI believe that there is no country in theworld including any and all the countries un-der colonial domination, where economic col-onization, humiliationandexploitationwereworse than in Cuba, in part owing to my coun-trys policies during the Batista regime. I ap-proved the proclamation which Fidel Castromade in the Sierra Maestra, when he justi-ably called for justice and especially yearned torid Cuba of corruption. I will even go further:to some extent it is as though Batista was theincarnation of a number of sins on the part ofthe United States. Nowwe shall have to pay forthose sins. In the matter of the Batista regime,I am in agreement with the rst Cuban revolu-tionaries. That is perfectly clear. U.S. President John F. Kennedy, inter-view with Jean Daniel, 24 October 1963[27]The yacht Granma arrived in Cuba on December 2, 1956,carrying the Castro brothers and 80 others, even thoughthe yacht was only designed to accommodate 12 peoplewith a maxiumum of 25.[28] The boat landed in PlayaLas Coloradas, in the municipality of Niquero, arrivingtwo days later than planned because the boat was heavilyloaded, unlike during the practice sailing runs.[29] Thisdashed any hopes for a coordinated attack with the llanowing of the movement. After arriving and exiting theship, the band of rebels began to make their way into theSierra Maestra mountains, a range in southeastern Cuba.Three days after the trek began, Batistas army attackedand killed most of the Granma participants while theexact number is disputed, no more than twenty of theoriginal eighty-two men survived the initial encounterswith the Cuban army and escaped into the Sierra Maestramountains.[30]The group of survivors included Fidel and Ral Castro,Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos. The dispersed sur-vivors, alone or in small groups, wandered through themountains, looking for each other. Eventually, the menwould link up again with the help of peasant sympathiz-ers and would form the core leadership of the guerrillaarmy. Celia Sanchez and Hayde Santamara (the sisterof Abel Santamaria) were among the female revolution-aries who assisted Fidel Castro in the mountains.[31]On 13 March 1957, a separate group of revolutionaries the anticommunist Student Revolutionary Directorate(Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil, DRE), composedmostly of students stormed the Presidential Palace inHavana, attempting to assassinate Batista and decapi-tate the government. The attack ended in utter fail-ure. The RDs leader,student Jos Antonio Echever-ra, died in a shootout with Batistas forces at the Ha-vana radio station he had seized to spread the news ofBatistas anticipated death.The handful of survivors in-cluded Dr. Humberto Castello (who later became theInspector General in the Escambray),Rolando Cubelaand Faure Chomon (both later Commandantes of the 13March Movement, centered in the Escambray Mountainsof Las Villas Province).[32]Thereafter, the UnitedStates imposedaneconomicembargoonthe Cubangovernment andrecalleditsambassador, weakening the governments mandatefurther.[33]Batistas support amongCubans begantofade, withformer supporters either joiningtherev-olutionaries or distancing themselves fromBatista.Nonetheless, the Maa and U.S. businessmen continuedtheir support.[34]The government often resorted to brutal methods to keepCubas cities under government control. However, in theSierra Maestra mountains, Castro, aided by Frank Pas,Ramos Latour, Huber Matos, and many others, stagedsuccessful attacks on small garrisons of Batistas troops.Che Guevara and Ral Castro helped Fidel to consoli-date his political control in the mountains, often throughexecution of suspected Batista loyalists or other rivals ofCastros.[35] In addition, poorly armed irregulars knownas escopeteros harassed Batistas forces in the foothills andplains of Oriente Province. The escopeteros also provideddirect military support to Castros main forces by pro-tecting supply lines and by sharing intelligence.[36] Ulti-mately, the mountains came under Castros control.Ral Castro (left), with his arm around his second-in-command,ErnestoChe Guevara, intheir Sierrade Cristal mountainstronghold in Oriente Province, Cuba, in 1958.Inadditiontoarmedresistance, therebelssought touse propaganda to their advantage. A pirate radio sta-tion called Radio Rebelde (Rebel Radio) was set up inFebruary 1958, allowing Castro and his forces to broad-cast their message nationwide within enemy territory.[37]The radio broadcasts were made possible by Carlos Fran-qui, a previous acquaintance of Castro who subsequentlybecame a Cuban exile in Puerto Rico.[38]During this time, Castros forces remained quite smallin numbers, sometimes fewer than 200 men, while theCuban army and police force had a manpower of around37,000.[39] Even so, nearly every time the Cuban military3fought against the revolutionaries, the army was forced toretreat. An arms embargo imposed on the Cuban gov-ernment by the United States on 14 March 1958 con-tributed signicantly to the weakness of Batistas forces.The Cuban air force rapidly deteriorated: it could not re-pair its airplanes without importing parts from the UnitedStates.[40]Batista nally responded to Castros eorts with an at-tack on the mountains called Operation Verano, knownto the rebels as la Ofensiva. The army sent some 12,000soldiers, half of them untrained recruits, into the moun-tains. In a series of small skirmishes, Castros determinedguerrillas defeated the Cuban army.[40] In the Battle of LaPlata, which lasted from 11 July to 21 July 1958, Castrosforces defeated a 500-man battalion, capturing 240 menwhile losing just three of their own.[41]However, the tide nearly turned on 29 July 1958, whenBatistas troops almost destroyed Castros small army ofsome 300 men at the Battle of Las Mercedes. With hisforces pinned down by superior numbers, Castro askedfor, and received, a temporary cease-re on 1 August.Over the next seven days, while fruitless negotiations tookplace, Castros forces gradually escaped fromthe trap. By8 August, Castros entire army had escaped back into themountains, and Operation Verano had eectively endedin failure for the Batista government.[40]4 Final oensive and rebel victoryThe enemy soldier in the Cuban examplewhichat present concernsus, isthejuniorpartner of the dictator; he is the man who getsthe last crumb left by a long line of proteersthat begins in Wall Street and ends with him.He is disposed to defend his privileges, but heis disposed to defend them only to the degreethat they are important to him. His salaryand his pension are worth some suering andsome dangers, but they are never worth hislife. If the price of maintaining them will costit, he is better o giving them up;that is tosay, withdrawing from the face of the guerrilladanger.Che Guevara, 1958[42]Map showing key locations in the Sierra Maestra during the 1958stage of the Cuban Revolution.On 21 August 1958, after the defeat of Batistas Ofensiva,Castros forces began their own oensive. In the Ori-ente province (in the area of the present-day provinces ofSantiago de Cuba, Granma, Guantnamo and Holgun),Fidel Castro, Ral Castro and Juan Almeida Bosque di-rected attacks on four fronts. Descending fromthe moun-tains with new weapons captured during the Ofensiva andsmuggled in by plane, Castros forces won a series of ini-tial victories. Castros major victory at Guisa, and thesuccessful capture of several towns including Mao, Con-tramaestre, and Central Oriente, brought the Cauto plainsunder his control.Meanwhile, three rebel columns, under the commandof Che Guevara,Camilo Cienfuegos and Jaime Vega,proceeded westward toward Santa Clara, the capital ofVillaClaraProvince. Batistasforcesambushedanddestroyed Jaime Vegas column,but the surviving twocolumns reached the central provinces, where they joinedforceswithseveral otherresistancegroupsnot underthe command of Castro. When Che Guevaras columnpassed through the province of Las Villas, and speci-cally through the Escambray Mountains where the an-ticommunist Revolutionary Directorate forces (who be-came known as the 13 March Movement) had been ght-ing Batistas army for many months friction developedbetween the two groups of rebels. Nonetheless, the com-bined rebel army continued the oensive, and Cienfue-gos won a key victory in the Battle of Yaguajay on 30December 1958, earning him the nickname The Heroof Yaguajay.Map of Cuba showing the location of the arrival of the rebelson the Granma in late 1956, the rebels stronghold in the SierraMaestra, and Guevara and Cienfuegoss route towards Havanavia Las Villas Province in December 1958.On 31 December 1958, the Battle of Santa Clara tookplace in a scene of great confusion. The city of SantaClara fell to the combined forces of Che Guevara, Cien-fuegos, and Revolutionary Directorate (RD) rebels ledby Comandantes Rolando Cubela, Juan (El Mejicano)Abrahantes, and William Alexander Morgan. News ofthese defeats caused Batista to panic. He ed Cuba forthe Dominican Republic just hours later on 1 January1959. Comandante William Alexander Morgan, leadingRD rebel forces, continued ghting as Batista departed,and had captured the city of Cienfuegos by 2 January.[43]Castro learned of Batistas ight in the morning and im-mediately started negotiations to take over Santiago deCuba. On 2 January, the military commander in the city,Colonel Rubido, ordered his soldiers not to ght, and Cas-4 5 AFTERMATHtros forces took over the city. The forces of Guevara andCienfuegos entered Havana at about the same time. Theyhad met no opposition on their journey from Santa Clarato Cubas capital. Castro himself arrived in Havana on 8January after a long victory march.His initial choice ofpresident, Manuel Urrutia Lle, took oce on the 3rd ofJanuary.[44]5 AftermathFidel Castro (far left) and Che Guevara (centre) lead a memo-rial march in Havana on 5 May 1960, for the victims of the LaCoubre freight ship explosion.Our revolution is endangering all Amer-ican possessions in Latin America. We aretelling these countries to make their own rev-olution. Che Guevara, October 1962[45]On 15 April 1959, Castro began an 11-day visit to theUnited States, at the invitation of the American Society ofNewspaper Editors.[46] He said during his visit: I knowthe world thinks of us, we are Communists, and of courseI have said very clear that we are not Communists; veryclear.[47]Hundreds of Batista-era agents, policemen and soldierswere put on public trial, accused of human rights abuses,war crimes, murder and torture.Most of the people ac-cused were convicted by revolutionary tribunals of po-litical crimes, and were executed by ring squad;oth-ers received long sentences of imprisonment. A no-table example of revolutionary justice was after the cap-ture of Santiago, where Ral Castro directed the execu-tion of more than seventy Batista POWs.[48] For his partin taking Havana, Che Guevara was appointed supremeprosecutor in La Cabaa Fortress. This was part of alarge-scale attempt by Fidel Castro to cleanse the secu-rity forces of Batista loyalists and potential opponents ofthe new revolutionary government. Though many werekilled or imprisoned, others were fortunate enough to bedismissed from the army and police without prosecution,and some high-ranking ocials of the Batista adminis-tration were exiled as military attachs.[48]5.1 Reforms and nationalizationDuringitsrst decadeinpower, theCastrogovern-ment introduced a wide range of progressive social re-forms. Laws were introduced to provide equality forblack Cubans and greater rights for women, while therewere attempts to improve communications, medical fa-cilities, health, housing, and education. In addition, therewere touring cinemas, art exhibitions, concerts, and the-atres.By the end of the 1960s, all Cuban children werereceiving some education (compared with less than halfbefore 1959), unemployment and corruption were re-duced, and great improvements were made in hygiene andsanitation.[49]According to geographer and Cuban ComandanteAntonio Nez Jimnez, 75% of Cubas best arable landwas ownedbyforeignindividuals or foreign(mostlyAmerican) companies at the time of the revolution. Oneof the rst policies of the newly formed Cuban govern-ment was eliminating illiteracy and implementing landreforms. Land reform eorts helped to raise living stan-dards by subdividing larger holdings into cooperatives.Comandante Sori Marin, who was nominally in chargeof land reform, objected and ed, but was eventually exe-cuted when he returned to Cuba with arms and explosives,intendingtooverthrowtheCastrogovernment.[50][51]Many other non-Marxist, anti-Batista rebel leaders wereforced into exile, purged in executions, or eliminated infailed uprisings such as that of the Beaton brothers.[52]Shortly after taking power, Castro also created a revolu-tionary militia to expand his power base among the for-mer rebels and the supportive population. Castro alsocreated the informant Committees for the Defense ofthe Revolution (CDRs) in late September 1960. Lo-cal CDRs were tasked with keeping vigilance againstcounter-revolutionary activity, keeping a detailed recordof each neighborhoods inhabitants spending habits, levelof contact with foreigners, work and education history,and any suspicious behavior.[53]Among the increas-ingly persecuted groups were homosexual men.[54]In February 1959, the Ministry for the Recovery of Mis-appropriated Assets (Ministerio de Recuperacinde Bi-enes Malversados) was created. Cuba began expropriat-ing land and private property under the auspices of theAgrarian ReformLawof 17 May 1959. Farms of any sizecould be and were seized by the government, while land,businesses, and companies owned by upper- and middle-class Cubans were nationalized (notably,including theplantations owned by Fidel Castros family).By the endof 1960, the revolutionary government had nationalizedmore than $25 billion worth of private property owned byCubans.[9] The Castro government formally nationalizedall foreign-owned property, particularly American hold-5.3 Exiles and counterrevolutionary rebels 5ings, in the nation on 6 August 1960.[10]In 1961,the Cuban government nationalized all prop-erty held by religious organizations, including the dom-inant Roman Catholic Church. Hundreds of membersof the church, including a bishop, were permanently ex-pelled from the nation, as the new Cuban governmentdeclared itself ocially atheist. Education also saw sig-nicant changes private schools were banned and theprogressively socialist state assumed greater responsibil-ity for children.[55]In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations(IRO) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castros 26th ofJuly Movement, the Peoples Socialist Party led by BlasRoca, and the Revolutionary Directorate of 13 March ledby Faure Chomn.[56] On 26 March 1962, the IRO be-came the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution(PURSC) which, in turn, became the modern CommunistParty of Cuba on 3 October 1965, with Castro as FirstSecretary. Castro remained the ruler of Cuba, rst asPrime Minister and, from 1976, as President, until his re-tirement in February 2008.[57] His brother Ral ociallyreplaced him as President later that same month.[58]5.2 International reactions and foreignpolicyMain article: Foreign relations of CubaThe greatest threat presented by Castros Cuba is as anexample to other Latin American states which are be-set by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic ex-ploitation ... his inuence in Latin America might beoverwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, hecould establish in Cuba a Communist utopia. Walter Lippmann, Newsweek, 27 April 1964[59]The Cuban Revolution was a crucialturning point inU.S.-Cuban relations. Although the American govern-ment was initiallywillingtorecognizeCastros newgovernment,[60] it soon came to fear that Communist in-surgencieswouldspreadthroughthenationsofLatinAmerica, as theyhadinSoutheast Asia.[61]Castro,meanwhile, resented the Americans for providing aid toBatistas government during the revolution.[60] After therevolutionary government nationalized all U.S. propertyin Cuba in August 1960, the American Eisenhower ad-ministration froze allCuban assets on American soil,severeddiplomatictiesandtighteneditsembargoofCuba.[6][10][62] In 1961, the U.S. government backed anarmed counterrevolutionary assault on the Bay of Pigswith the aimof ousting Castro, but the counterrevolution-aries were swiftly defeated by the Cuban military.[61] TheAmerican embargo against Cuba the longest-lasting sin-gle foreign policy in American history[63] is still in forceas of 2015, although it has undergone a partial looseningin recent years,[6] and the U.S. began eorts to normaliserelations with Cuba in the mid-2010s.[8][64]Castros victory and post-revolutionary foreign policy hadglobal repercussions. Inuenced by the expansion of theSoviet Union into Europe after the 1917 Russian Rev-olution, Castro immediately sought to export his rev-olution to other countries in the Caribbean and beyond,sending weapons to Algerian rebels as early as 1960.[11]In the following decades, Cuba became heavily involvedin supporting Communist insurgencies and independencemovements in many developing countries, sending mili-tary aid to insurgents in Ghana, Nicaragua, Yemen andAngola, among others.[11]Castros intervention in theAngolan Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s was partic-ularly signicant, involving as many as 60,000 Cubansoldiers.[11][65]Following the American embargo, the Soviet Union be-came Cubas main ally.[10] The two Communist countriesquickly developed close military and intelligence ties, cul-minating in the stationing of Soviet nuclear weapons inCuba in 1962, an act which triggered the Cuban MissileCrisis. Cuba maintained close links to the Soviets un-til the Soviet Unions collapse in 1991. The end of Sovieteconomic aid led to an economic crisis and famine knownas the Special Period in Cuba.[66]5.3 Exiles and counterrevolutionary rebelsMain article: Cuban exilesIn the wake of the revolution, thousands of disaf-fected anti-Batista rebels, former Batista supporters, andcampesinos (peasants) ed to Cubas Las Villas province,where an anticommunist underground had been formingsince early 1960. Operating out of the Escambray Moun-tains, these counterrevolutionary rebels, also known asAlzados, made a number of unsuccessfulattempts tooverthrow the Cuban government, including the abortive,United States-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961.[61]In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, theUnited States promised not to invade Cuba in the future;in compliance with this agreement, the U.S. withdrewall support from the Alzados, eectively crippling theresource-starvedresistance.[67]Thecounterrevolution-ary conict, known abroad as the Escambray Rebellion,lasted until about 1965, and has since been branded theWar Against the Bandits by the Cuban government.[67]Between 1959 and 1980, an estimated 500,000 Cubansleft theislandfor theUnitedStates, seekinggreaterpolitical and economic freedom; 125,000 left in 1980alone, when the Cuban government briey permitted anyCubans who wished to leave to do so.[68] By 2010, theCuban American community numbered over 1.9 million,67% of whom lived in the state of Florida.[69] As a votingbloc, Cuban Americans have traditionally been stronglyopposed to ending the U.S. embargo of Cuba, but in re-6 8 NOTEScent years there has been growing support for diplomaticengagement among the younger generations.[70]6 In popular cultureThe Cuban Revolution, including Batistas resigna-tion and ight into exile, plays a major role in theplot of the 1974 lm The Godfather Part II.[71]The1987videogame Guevara, releasedintheUnited States as Guerrilla War, features Castro andGuevara ghting in the jungle against the forces ofan unnamed dictator.[72][73]TheCubandissident andexileReinaldoArenaswrote about Castros persecution of homosexualsin his 1992 autobiographyAntesQueAnochezca,which became the basis for the 2000 lmBeforeNight Falls.[74]StevenSoderbergh's 2008lmChe, a two-partbiopic about Che Guevara, depicts the rise of Cas-tros movement and Guevaras role in the CubanRevolution.[75]The 2010 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops fea-tures a level set in Havana in 1961, in which playersmust attempt to assassinate Castro. The level wascondemned by the Cuban government.[76]The 2013 strategic board game Cuba Libre by USwargaming publisher GMT Games puts players intothe roles of the involved parties in the Revolutionand lets them reenact the conict alongside a ran-domized storyline of the key historical events.[77][78]The 2014 founding of the South African EconomicFreedom Fighters political party.[79]7 See alsoCommunist revolutionCuban ThawHistory of CubaLatin American wars of independence8 Notes[1] Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson (1997). Interna-tional Conict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conictsand Their Management, 1945-1995. Congressional Quar-terly.[2] Singer, Joel David and Small, Melvin (1974). The Wagesof War, 1816-1965. Inter-University Consortium for Po-litical Research.[3] Eckhardt, William, in Sivard, Ruth Leger (1987). WorldMilitary and Social Expenditures, 1987-88 (12th edition).World Priorities.[4] Faria, Miguel A., Jr. (27 July 2004). Fidel Castro andthe 26th of July Movement. Newsmax Media. Retrieved14 August 2015.[5] Cuba Marks 50 Years Since 'Triumphant Revolution'".Jason Beaubien. NPR. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 9 July2013.[6] Cuba receives rst US shipment in 50 years. Al Jazeera.14 July 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2012.[7] On Cuba Embargo, Its the U.S. and Israel Against theWorld Again. New York Times. 28 October 2014. Re-trieved 31 October 2014.[8] Cuba o the U.S. terrorism list: Goodbye to a Cold Warrelic. Los Angeles Times. 17 April 2015. Retrieved 18April 2015.[9] Lazo, Mario (1970). American Policy Failures in Cuba Dagger in the Heart. Twin Circle Publishing Co.: NewYork. pp. 198200, 204. Library of Congress Card Cat-alog Number: 68-31632.[10] Gary B. Nash, Julie Roy Jerey, John R. Howe, Peter J.Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, CharleneMires and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People,Concise Edition: Creating a Nation and a Society,Com-bined Volume (6th edition, 2007). New York: Longman.[11] Makers of the Twentieth Century: Castro. History To-day. 1981. Retrieved 9 July 2013.[12] From the archive, 11 March 1952: Batistas revolution.The Guardian. 11 March 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.[13] Julia E. Sweig (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution. Cam-bridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-01612-5.[14] Arthur Meier Schlesinger (1973). The Dynamics of WorldPower: A Documentary History of the United States For-eignPolicy 1945-1973. McGraw-Hill. p. 512. ISBN0070797293.[15] Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Din-ner, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 6, 1960. John F. KennedyPresidential Library. Retrieved 29 June 2013.[16] Fulgencio Batista. HistoryOfCuba.com. Retrieved 29June 2013.[17] Daz-Briquets, Sergio & Prez-Lpez, Jorge F. (2006).CorruptioninCuba: Castroandbeyond. University ofTexas Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-292-71482-3.[18] James Stuart Olson (2000). Historical Dictionary of the1950s. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 6768. ISBN0-313-30619-2.[19] Biography of Fidel Castro. About.com. Retrieved 29June 2013.7[20] Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: ABiography of Fidel Cas-tro. New York City: Dodd, Mead & Company. pp. 6869. ISBN 978-0396085188.[21] Historical sites:Moncada Army Barracks. CubaTrav-elInfo. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[22] Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 133[23] Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 672[24] CHRONICLE OF AN UNFORGETTABLE AGONY:CUBA'S POLITICAL PRISONS. Contacto Magazine.September 1996. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[25] Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 174[26] Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 174[27] Jean DanielBensaid: Biography. Spartacus Educa-tional. Retrieved 3 December 2012.[28] Cuban Revolution:The Voyage of the Granma. LatinAmerican History. Retrieved 24 December 2014. Theyacht,designed for only 12 passengers and supposedlywith a maximum capacity of 25, also had to carry fuelfor a week as well as food and weapons for the soldiers.[29] Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 182[30] Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or The Pursuit of Freedom(Updated Edition).New York: Da Capo Press.ISBN 0-306-80827-7.[31] Opiniones: Haydee Santamara, una mujer revolu-cionaria (in Spanish). La Ventana. 2 July 2004. Re-trieved 14 June 2013.[32] Faria 2002, pp. 4041[33] Louis A. Prez. Cuba and the United States.[34] English 2008, p. ?[35] The Killing Machine: Che Guevara, from CommunistFirebrand to Capitalist Brand. Independent.org. 11 July2005. Retrieved 14 April 2012. Guevara murdered oroversaw the executions in summary trials of scores ofpeopleproven enemies, suspected enemies, and thosewho happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time.[36] Dewitt, Don A. (2011). U.S. Marines at Guantanamo Bay,Cuba. iUniverse via Google Books. p. 31.[37] About Us. Radio Rebelde. Retrieved 11 March 2013.[38] Carlos Franqui. Daily Telegraph. 24 May 2010. Re-trieved 14 June 2013.[39] Batista Says Manpower Edge Lacking. Park City DailyNews. Google News Archive. 1 January 1959. Retrieved14 June 2013.[40] Air war over Cuba 1956-1959. ACIG.org. 30 Novem-ber 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2013.[41] 1958: Battle of La Plata (El Jige)". Cuba 19521959.15 December 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2013.[42] TheLife&TimesofCheGuevara by David Sandison(1996). Paragon. ISBN 0-7525-1776-7. p. 41.[43] Faria 2002, p. 69[44] Thomas, Hugh, Cuba: The pursuit of freedom, pp. 6913[45] Attack us at your Peril, Cocky Cuba Warns US. HenryBrandon. The Sunday Times. 28 October 1962. Retrieved4 December 2012.[46] Glass, Andrew (15 April 2013). Fidel Castro visits theU.S.,April 15,1959. Politico. Retrieved 14 August2015.[47] Cuban Revolution. 1959 Year in Review. United PressInternational. 1959. Retrieved 14 August 2015.[48] Juan Clark Cuba (1992). Mito y Realidad: Testimonio deun Pueblo. Saeta Ediciones (Miami). pp. 5370.[49] Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe, sec-ond edition.[50] Escalante 1995, pp. 80-81[51] Lazo 1968, p. 288[52] Cuba Orders Rebels Death. The Milwaukee Journal.14 June 1960 (via Google News archive). Retrieved 28April 2012.[53] Juan Clark Cuba: Mito y Realidad (1992), pp. 13158.[54] Young, Allen (1982). Gays under the Cuban revolution.Grey Fox Press. ISBN 0-912516-61-5.[55] Faria 2002, pp. 21528[56] Kantor, Myles B. (14 June 2002). Interview With Dr.Miguel Faria (Part I)". Newsmax Media. Retrieved 14August 2015.[57] Fidel Castro Resigns as Cubas President. NewYorkTimes. 20 February 2008. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[58] Ral Castrobecomes Cubanpresident. NewYorkTimes. 24 February 2008. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[59] Cuba Once More by Walter Lippmann. Newsweek. 27April 1964. p.23.[60] Gleijeses, Piero (2002). ConictingMissions: Havana,Washington and Africa, 19591976. University of NorthCarolina Press. p. 14.[61] Ahead Of Bay Of Pigs, Fears Of Communism. NPR.17 April 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2013.[62] Faria 2002, p. 105[63] Washington and the Cuban Revolution Today: Ballad ofa Never-Ending Policy Part I: The Myth of the MiamiLobby. 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Electronic Gam-ing Monthly 234 (November 2008): 97.[73] Guerrilla War/Guevara. Hardcore Gaming 101. 18 Oc-tober 2013. Retrieved 31 October 2013.[74] Antes Que Anochezca = Before Night Falls. PublishersWeekly. 3 February 1992. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[75] Che: Part One. The Observer. 4 January 2009. Re-trieved 10 July 2013.[76] Call of Duty:Black Ops upsets Cuba with Castro mis-sion. The Guardian.11 November 2010.Retrieved 10July 2013.[77] Cuba Libre. GMT Games. Retrieved 18 April 2014.[78] Cuba Libre. BoardGameGeek.com. Retrieved 18 April2014.[79] EFF. EFF. Retrieved 9 April 2015.9 ReferencesEnglish, T. J. (2008). Havana Nocturne: How theMob Owned Cuba and Then Lost It to the Revolution.William Morrow. ISBN 0-06-114771-0.Faria, Miguel A., Jr. (2002). Cuba in Revolution:EscapefromaLost Paradise. Milledgeville, GA:Hacienda Pub Inc. ISBN 0-9641077-3-2.10 Further readingThomas M. Leonard (1999).Castro and the CubanRevolution. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29979-X.Julio Garca Luis (2008). Cuban Revolution Reader:ADocumentaryHistoryofKeyMomentsinFidelCastros Revolution. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-920888-89-6.Samuel Farber (2012). Cuba Since the Revolutionof 1959: A Critical Assessment. Haymarket Books.ISBN 9781608461394.Joseph Hansen (1994). Dynamics of the Cuban Rev-olution: A Marxist Appreciation. Pathnder Press.ISBN 0-87348-559-9.Julia E. Sweig (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution:Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. HarvardUniversity Press. ISBN 0-674-01612-2.Thomas C. Wright (2000). Latin America in the Eraof the Cuban Revolution. Praeger Paperback. ISBN0-275-96706-9.Marifeli Perez-Stable (1998). The Cuban Revolu-tion: Origins, Course, and Legacy. Oxford Univer-sity Press. ISBN 0-19-512749-8.Geraldine Lievesley (2004). TheCubanRevolu-tion: Past, Present and Future Perspectives. PalgraveMacmillan. ISBN 0-333-96853-0.Teo A. Babun (2005). The Cuban Revolution: Yearsof Promise. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2860-4.Antonio Rafael de la Cova (2007). The MoncadaAttack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution. University ofSouth Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-672-1.Samuel Farber (2006). The Origins of the CubanRevolution Reconsidered. The University of NorthCarolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5673-8.Jules R. Benjamin (1992). The United States and theOrigins of the Cuban Revolution. Princeton Univer-sity Press. ISBN 0-691-02536-3.Comitecentral del PartidocomunistadeCuba:Comisin de orientacin revolucionaria (1972).Rencontre symbolique entre deux processus his-toriques[i.e., deCubaet deChile]. La Habana,Cuba: ditions politiques.David M. Watry (2014). Diplomacy at the Brink:Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War.BatonRouge: LouisianaStateUniversityPress.ISBN 9780807157183.11 External linksFidel Castro. What Cubas Rebels Want at theWayback Machine (archived April 17, 2009). TheNation via Internet Archive. 30 November 1957.The Cuban Revolution (19521958)". LatinAmerican Studies Organization.Michael Voss. Reliving Cubas Revolution. BBC.29 December 2008.9The History of Socialist Revolution in Cuba (19531959)". World History Archives.Arthur Brice. Memories of Boyhood in the Heatof the Cuban Revolution. CNN. 2009.1959 2009: Celebrating 50 years of the CubanRevolution. Cuba Solidarity Campaign.A lm clip Castro Triumphs. Havana Crowds HailSuccess Of Revolt, 1959/01/05 (1959)" is availablefor free download at the Internet Archive.10 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses12.1 Text Cuban Revolution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution?oldid=676093446 Contributors: Mav, The Anome, WilliamAvery, Hephaestos, Leandrod, Edward, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, Kwertii, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Dpol,Kaihsu, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Choster, Greenrd, Proteus, Hajor, Jeq, Jni, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Big Jim Fae Scotland,Hadal, Fuelbottle, SoLando, HaeB, Walloon, TDC, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Jackbrown, DO'Neil, Beardo, Moogle10000, Sesel,Formeruser-81, Antandrus, Beland, CaribDigita, Rdsmith4, Comandante, Sam Hocevar, Cglassey, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Esper-ant, SYSS Mouse, Kingal86, CheateN, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, MarkS, Bender235, FrankCostanza, Yasis, El C, ThierryVig-naud, Shanes, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Aaronbrick, 96T, PatrikR, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, Elipongo, Foobaz, Tachitsuteto, Darwinek, Lok-ifer, Obradovic Goran, Polylerus, Jarich, Alansohn, Alfanje~enwiki, Yamla, Lectonar, Lightdarkness, InShaneee, Spangineer, Bart133,Zsero, Marianocecowski, Velella, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ndteegarden, Bsadowski1, Forteblast, Mhazard9, Gotten, Feezo, Jef-Infojef,Bobrayner, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, PatGallacher, Grillo, Ardfern, MONGO, Lapsed Pacist, Terence, Junes, Wayward, Jdorney,Stefanomione, Palica, Dynamax, A3r0, Descendall, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Kidblast, TJive, Vary, The wub, Parelius~enwiki, Ya-mamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Who, RexNL, Gurch, ChongDae, Brendan Moody, King of Hearts, Stormscape, Suso de la Vega~enwiki, Chobot,Jersey Devil, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Albanaco, Dannycas, Anonymous editor, AVM, Gaius Cornelius, Notchcode, NawlinWiki, Na-hallac Silverwinds, NickBush24, Howcheng, ThrashedParanoid, Larsinio, Daqron, NWOG, The Halo, Takethemud, Sperril, Closedmouth,Nothlit, Peter, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Jaysbro, Hiddekel, A bit iy, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Xnyxx, Ronaldo16~enwiki, Unyoyega,InvictaHOG, Furry, Vald, Kintetsubualo, Yamaguchi, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, ERcheck, Rmosler2100, MarcKupper, Happywae, Gonzalo84, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Reep, MalafayaBot, Fluri, Baa, Darth Panda, Diyako, MyNameIsVlad,Frap, Zleitzen, Bolivian Unicyclist, Edivorce, Weirdy, Nakon, Savidan, RandomP, Ged UK, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Polish-Man, Kuru, The idiot, Microchip08, Gobonobo, Filippowiki, Notwist, Martinp23, Alanmaher, Dl2000, Pauric, Iridescent, Joseph Solis inAustralia, Chasetabell, ChadyWady, Audiosmurf, Tawkerbot2, RookZERO, Curtmack, Circle-Green, Arcadio Ruiz-Castellano, Bradleee,JohnCD, Basawala, Kylu, WeggeBot, Avillia, Neelix, JPadron, Yaris678, Cydebot, Wikien2009, MC10, Funnyf33t, Travelbird, Crowish,DumbBOT, Kozuch, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Therealboltcutters, Mattisse, ThylekShran, Vmvidal, GrahamMartin, Epbr123, Biruitorul,Pajz, Kablammo, Escyos, Andyjsmith, Oliver202, John254, Jonny-mt, MinnesotanConfederacy, Chadpollard, Vaniac, AntiVandalBot,Carolmooredc, Antique Rose, Prolog, Goldenband, Chill doubt, David Shankbone, Brandnewlove, JAnDbot, Dogru144, MER-C, Sed-don, Coreydragon, I.1, Ersatzbot, Magioladitis, Andropod, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Professor marginalia, Lansinge, SHCarter,Faizhaider, Zatoichi26, Catgut, Captain America, Glen, DerHexer, Skylights76, Dailynetworks, Jackson Peebles, MartinBot, AlphAl-phA, Xumm1du, Dearon, Glrx, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, DandyDan2007, Gabe2314, AAA!, Bogey97, Fiachra10003, Bro-diac, Cowguru2000, Aznafro2, Zeisseng, Skier Dude, Keizers, Coppertwig, Fullmetal2887, NewEnglandYankee, Cometstyles, EjrcitoRojo 1950, Tiggerjay, RVJ, Andy Marchbanks, Wewelsburg, RjCan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Lights, Hugo999, Lvleph, Malik Shabazz,Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Laredo Bru, Davedim, DOHC Holiday, VasilievVV, Philip Trueman, RPlunk2853, TXiKiBoT, Blueocean-pub, Die4Dixie, Oldandtired, Rritvos~enwiki, Broadbot, Blandis, K. 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