RadioNet Engineering Forum Workshop : Next Generation Correlators for Radio Astronomy and Geodesy
Cross Correlators
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Transcript of Cross Correlators
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M.P. Rupen, Synthesis Imaging Summer School, 18 June 2002
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Cross Correlators
Michael P. RupenNRAO/Socorro
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• In an optical telescope…– a lens or a mirror collects the light & brings it to a focus
– a spectrograph separates the different frequencies
What is a Correlator?
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• In an interferometer, the correlator performs both these tasks, by correlating the signals from each telescope (antenna) pair:
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The basic observables are the complex visibilities:amplitude & phase
as functions ofbaseline, time, and frequency.
The correlator takes in the signals from the individual telescopes, and writes out these visibilities.
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Correlator BasicsThe cross-correlation of two real signals and is
A simple (real) correlator.
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Antenna 1:
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Antenna 2:
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=0:
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=0.5:
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=1:
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=1.5:
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=2:
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Correlation:
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Correlation of a Single FrequencyFor a monochromatic signal:
and the correlation function is
So we need only measure with
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Correlation:
xI
xR
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At a given frequency, all we can know about the signal is contained in two numbers: the real and the imaginary part, or the amplitude and the phase.
A complex correlator.
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Broad-band Continuum Correlators
1. The simple approach:• use a filterbank to split the signal up into quasi-
monochromatic signals• hook each of these up to a different complex correlator, with
the appropriate (different) delay:• add up all the outputs
2. The clever approach:instead of sticking in a delay, put in a filter that shifts the phase for all frequencies by /2
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Spectral Line Correlators
1. The simple approach:• use a filterbank to split the signal up into quasi-
monochromatic signals• hook each of these up to a different complex correlator, with
the appropriate (different) delay:• record all the outputs:
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Fourier Transforms: a motivational exerciseThe frequency spectrum is the Fourier transform of the cross-correlation (lag) function.
• Short lags (small delays) high frequencies• Long lags (large delays) low frequencies
…so measuring a range of lags corresponds to measuring a range of frequencies!
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Spectral Line Correlators (cont’d)
2.Clever approach #1: the FX correlator• F: replace the filterbank with a Fourier transform• X: use the simple (complex) correlator above to measure the
cross-correlation at each frequency• average over time, & record the results
3. Clever approach #2: the XF correlator• X: measure the correlation function at a bunch of different lags
(delays)• average over time• F: Fourier transform the resulting time (lag) series to obtain
spectra• record the results
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FX vs. XF
t
t
v1
v2
S1()
S2()
S()
F
Fourier transform
F
Fourier transform
X multiply Xmultiply
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Fig. 4-6: FX correlator baseline processing.
Fig. 4-1: Lag (XF) correlator baseline processing.
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Details, DetailsWhy digital?• precise & repeatable• lots of duplication• accurate & stable delay lines…but there are some complications as well…
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1. Sampling: v(t) v(tk), with tk=(0,1,2,…)t– For signal v(t) limited to 0, this is lossless if
done at the Nyquist rate:t1/(2)
– n.b. wider bandwidth finer time samples!– limits accuracy of delays/lags
2. Quantization: v(t) v(t) + t– quantization noise– quantized signal is not band-limited
oversampling helps
Digitization
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Quantization & Quantization Losses
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Michael’s Miniature Correlator
0.3
V1
V2
Signals come in… sampled… quantized…delayed… multiplied…integrated & normalized
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We measure the cross-correlation of the digitized (rather than the original) signals.
• digitized CC is monotonic function of original CC• 1-bit (2-level) quantization:
– is average signal power level – NOT kept for 2-level quantization!–roughly linear for correlation coefficient
• For high correlation coefficients, requires non-linear correction: the Van Vleck correction
Cross-Correlating a Digital Signal
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Van Vleck Correction
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• XF correlator: limited number of lags N ‘uniform’ coverage to max. lag Nt Fourier transform gives spectral response
- 22% sidelobes!- Hanning smoothing
• FX correlator: as XF, but Fourier transform before multiplication spectral response is
- 5% sidelobes
Spectral Response; Gibbs Ringing
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Spectral Response: XF Correlator
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sinc( ) vs. sinc2( )
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• n.b. radio frequency interference is spread across frequency by the spectral response
• Gibbs phenomenon: ‘ringing’ off the band edges
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The size of a correlator (number of chips, speed, etc.) is generally set by the number of baselines and the maximum total bandwidth. [note also copper/connectivity costs…]
• Subarrays … trade antennas for channels• Bandwidth -- cut :
same number of lags/spectral points across a smaller : Nchan= constant narrower channels: …limited by filters
How to Obtain Finer Frequency Resolution
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-- recirculation:• chips are generally running flat-out for max. (e.g.
EVLA/WIDAR uses a 256 MHz clock with = 128 MHz/sub-band)
• For smaller , chips are sitting idle most of the time: e.g., pass 32 MHz to a chip capable of doing 128 M multiplies per second
add some memory, and send two copies of the data with different delays
Nchan 1/ 2
…limited by memory & data output rates
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VLA Correlator: Bandwidths and Numbers of Channels
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• difficult to send the data to a central location in real time
• long baselines, unsynchronized clocks relative phases and delays are poorly known
• So, record the data and correlate later• Advantages of 2-level recording
VLBI
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Correlator Efficiency c
• quantization noise• overhead
– don’t correlate all possible lags– blanking
• errors– incorrect quantization levels– incorrect delays
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Choice of Architecture• number of multiplies: FX wins as {Nant, Nchan}
multiplies per second ~ Nant2 Nprod Nchan
• number of logic gates: XF multiplies are much easier than FX; which wins, depends on current technology
• shuffling the data about: “copper” favors XF over FX for big correlators
• bright ideas help: hybrid correlators, nifty correlator chips, etc.
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New Mexico CorrelatorsVLA
EVLA(WIDAR) VLBA
Architecture XF filter-XF FX
Quantization 3-level 16/256-level 2- or 4-level
Nant 27 40 20
Max. 0.2 GHz 16 GHz 0.256 GHz
Nchan 1-512 16,384-262,144 256-2048
Min. 381 Hz 0.12 Hz 61.0 Hz
dtmin 1.7 s 0.01 s 0.13 s
Power req’t. 50 kW 135 kW 10-15 kW
Data rate 3.3 x 103 vis/sec 2.6 x 107 vis/sec 3.3 x 106 vis/sec
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Current VLA EVLA/WIDAR