CRIMINALISTIC-4

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATIONBy: Rico T. Musong, R.C.

Subject Code: Criminalistics 4

Subject Course Title: Questioned Documents Examination

Course Description: The course covers the scientific methods of identification and examination of questionable documents, handwriting examination, detection of forgery, falsification and counterfeiting of documents with stress on the procedures of restoring and deciphering erasures and obliteration; examination of documents with the use of visible light, ultraviolet and ultra-red radiation and colored powders; recognition and selection of standards; the examination of questionable typewriting, computerized documents and other forms of modern printing.

What is Forensic Document Examination?

The term "forensic" means simply, "having to do with the law."  Document Examination, as an established field of scientific study, came into being early in this century as a means of identifying forgery and establishing the authenticity of documents in dispute. It grew out of the need of The Court to be able to correctly evaluate document evidence. It has been stated that "Forgery was practiced from the earliest times in every country where writing was the medium of communication" (The Law of Disputed and Forged Documents, J. Newton Baker). It was especially profitable in those earlier times of general public illiteracy. For the reason that most of an examiner's work involves some form of handwriting problem, the field is sometimes referred to as "Handwriting Identification" and the practitioner as a "Handwriting Expert". Albert S. Osborn , with the publication of his book Questioned Documents in 1910, is rightfully credited with laying the foundation of this field of forensic examination.

Forensic document examination applies the principle of science and logic to all questioned document problem in order to determine the origin, authenticity and genuineness .Answers are sought to questions regarding handwriting, typewriting, imprint document, alteration, ink, paper, writing instrument and other problem that may challenge the integrity of a document.

The examination of document is one of the oldest fields of the Forensic Science.  History reveals that the practice of forgery and other frauds involving document evolved almost as early as the development of writing as a medium of communication. Every investigator and law enforcer must know basic knowledge regarding the scientific method in the accurate collection and preservation of evidence pertaining to questioned document problem.

The role of the document examiner does not end in the generation of examination results and offering of expert opinion. But rather it is the study and responsibility of a document examiner to testify in court if the need to do so arises;   which usually happens when a document case is filed in court.

Historically, Questioned Document Examination has been somewhat of an inclusive profession, even to the point where so-called pseudo-experts (in palmistry and fortune-telling) were sometimes welcome, and even today, it suffers from a bit of identity crisis in that at least eight (8) different, or related, areas can be identified:

Questioned Document Examiners -- A document examiner analyzes any questioned document and is capable of more than just questions of authorship limited only by their access to laboratory equipment

Historical Dating -- These is work involving the verification of age and worth of a document or object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and can get as complicated as Carbon-14 dating 

Fraud Investigators -- This is work that often overlaps with that of the document examiner and focuses on the money trail and criminal intent

Paper & Ink Specialists -- These are public or private experts who date, type, source, and/or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical methods

Forgery Specialists -- These are public or private experts who analyze altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting, expensive spectrography equipment, or digital enhancement techniques

Handwriting Analysts -- These are usually psychology experts who assess personality traits from handwriting samples, also called graphologists or graphoanalysts; Forensic stylistics refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word choice, syntax, and phraseology.

Typewriting Analysts -- These are experts on the origin, make, and model used in typewritten material

Computer Crime Investigators -- This is an emerging group that relates to QDE through some common investigative and testimonial procedures

    It's probably a futile effort to rigidly demarcate and delimit the various areas of Questioned Document Examination as there will always be overlap, evolution, and, perhaps, controversy. 

WHAT IS A DOCUMENT?

While we think for the most part of a document as being written on paper, anything that contains and conveys information constitutes a document..  Therefore, messages inscribed on cardboard, wood or stone; graffiti on walls, mirror writing or even body writing are all documents that can be offered as evidence.  The writing instrument used to produce a document can be a pen, pencil, marker, chisel or spray can -- or a typewriter.

A document may be broadly defined as anything that bears marks, signs, or symbols which have meaning or conveys a message to someone.

Document- Any material which contains marks, symbols or signs, either visible, partly visible or invisible that my presently or ultimately convey a meaning and message to someone.

Major Component of Document:

1. Paper2. Pen3. Writing produced by a writer of the used ink

Importance of Documents

1. It bridges a person as a means of communication2. It record to life to death3. Serve as reference for future study4. It is a means of preserving events or history

Kinds of Document

Under the Philippine law, the following are the four (4) kinds of document:

1. Public Document-

In any instrument notarized by a notary public or competent public official with solemnities required by law.

2. Official Document-

Any instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue. The officers must issue the document in the performance of their duties.

3. Private Document-

Every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public or any other person legally authorized, by which document, some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.

4. Commercial Document-

Any instrument executed in accordance with the code of commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.

What is Questioned Document?

Any document about which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

A questioned document is a document whose authenticity is being questioned also called a suspect document.  It may be only part of the document is questioned such as a signature. The writing may not even be on paper such as the case of graffiti, we still refer to it as a questioned document. A "questioned" document is any signature, handwriting, typewriting, or other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful. Letters, checks, driver licenses, contracts, wills, voter registrations, passports, petitions, threatening letters, suicide notes, and lottery tickets are the most common questioned documents, although marks on doors, walls, windows, or boards would also be included by definition.

"Questioned Documents" are documents that are suspected to be forgeries. Scientific

analysis can sometimes determine whether another person’s handwriting was impersonated, how

long ago something was written, whether something was written on a specific typewriter or with a

certain pen, or if some writing was altered or obliterated. Any object with handwriting or print

whose source or authenticity is in doubt may be referred to as a questioned document. Document examiners apply knowledge gathered through years of training and experience to recognize and compare the individual characteristics of questioned and known authentic writings. For this purpose, the gathering of documents of known authorship or origin is critical to the outcome of the examination. The uniqueness of handwriting makes this type of physical evidence one of the few definitive individual characteristics available.

Disputed Document

There is an argument or controversy over the document, and strictly speaking, this is its true meaning.

Examination

The act of making a close and crucial study of any material, and with questioned documents is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types of examination are undertaken including microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical, ultraviolet and infrared document examinations.

Scope of Document Examination

Identification of handwriting and signatures Identification of a document as a forgery Identification of typewriters, check writers, and photocopies Detection of alterations, additions, deletions, or substitutions Deciphering alterations and erasures Identification and deciphering of indented writing Comparisons of inks and identification of type of writing instrument

Various Aspects of Question Document Examination

1. Examination of handwritings which includes signature and hand prints for determining of their authorship.

2. Typewriting and type prints for the purpose of determining their sources.3. Miscellaneous aspects, such as detection of alteration, decipherment of erased writings,

restoration of obliteration writings, determination of age document, identification of stamps, seal and other authenticating devices, currency bills and coin and the like.

Classes of Question Document

1. Document with question signature most common.

Ex: Commercials or legal papers like checks, notes receipt draft contact agreements, assignments, will deed, etc.

2. Document containing alleged fraudulent alteration.

Ex: Alteration made by erasure addition interlineations or substitution.

3. Holograph documents.

Ex: last will or testament.

4. Document question as to their age or dates.5. Document question on the materials used in their production.6. Document involving typewriting and are investigated or examined for purposes of

determining or determination.

Ex: sources, date, etc.

7. Document which may identify a person through handwriting.

a. anonymous letter such as: extortion notes, libelous notes, letter of threat, ransom notes.

b. Subscription, registration, application and other miscellaneous writing.8. Genuine document erroneously attacked or disputed.

Types of Questioned document Examination

1. Criminalistic Examination- detection of forgery erasure, alteration and obliteration.2. Hand writing Identification- finds out who is the author of writing.

Development of Hand Writing

Some basic facts and theory

Handwriting originates in the brain when a mental picture of letters and words is formed. The signal to try to duplicate the mental picture is sent to the arm and hand through the muscles and nervous system. The actual output is almost never an exact match of the original mental picture.

The Physiology of Handwriting Production

Let's look at how a human learns to use his or her brain and nervous system to write. When a baby is born, it is equipped with certain basic, automatic abilities. It can breathe, cry, suck, and move its limbs randomly. To accomplish more complex tasks, the baby must learn. Patterns must be formed and stored in the brain which then will trigger messages to travel through the nervous system to the muscles to produce movements (behavior). Smiling is a simple behavior that a baby learns early in life. At first, he imitates his parents' smiles, and as this behavior is rewarded by more smiles and hugs from his parents (positive feedback), a pattern is built in the baby's brain. The baby learns to call upon that pattern to produce a smile. Soon, smiling becomes automatic, just like breathing.

In a similar way, the baby learns to reach, grasp, speak and walk. More and more complex actions become possible as the baby builds the neural pathways that travel between the muscles and the brain via the nervous system. Handwriting is an extremely complex motor task, which is not usually learned until the child is 5 or 6 years old and has mastered simpler skills.

The motor system controls the movement and posture needed for handwriting by contraction and relaxation of muscles. Messages go to and from the muscles and brain via the nervous system. During the learning process, the senses and muscles send messages (feedback) back to the brain to let it know how the sequence, timing and force applied worked out. The brain makes the adjustments needed to give a maximal outcome. Eventually a motor program is formed. This is a set of muscle commands that can be carried out with the correct timing and sequence automatically, without feedback, to give the best possible result.

Handwriting is the result of such stored motor knowledge. Handwriting is distal, meaning that it occurs at the extremities and involves fine motor activity as opposed to a skill like walking which is proximal - a large, or gross motor skill. One reason individuals find it difficult to simulate the handwriting of others is that to do so successfully requires understanding the essence of the writer's motor control program and executing a motor control program that yields a very similar result.

Once the basic pattern is established, the muscles and nerves of the shoulder, arm, hand and fingers become important because they certainly affect the appearance of the written line. You can think of the body as a machine, a series of levers and fulcrums (pivot points) with each part

influencing the working of the next part in the link. The strength and flexibility of the muscles, the position of the pen grip and the overall posture of the writer all affect the output.

Variety: The Natural Range of Handwriting

Handwriting is a free-form activity, and there are an infinite number of ways to write even the simplest letter combination. It is highly unlikely that any person will write his or her own name exactly the same way twice in an entire lifetime.

Actually, every person has a range of handwriting variation determined by his or her physical writing ability, training in "penmanship", and other factors. To the experienced expert, a study of known samples of writing can reveal a cluster of individual writing characteristics which can allow the expert to identify or exclude an individual as the author of some questioned writing.

Handwriting characteristics come in two categories:

1. General or Class Characteristics- features that is common to a group.2. Individual Characteristics- A characteristic that is highly personal or peculiar and is unlikely

to occur in other instances.

Depending on the cultural setting (time and place) when writing is learned, entire groups of individuals may be taught or trained to write in the same way. When these individuals are first learning to write, there are differences in their ability to do the task, and the results are not all the same, but the true individualizing differences appear over time. As we grow and mature physically and personally, our handwriting becomes more of an individual product - through conscious changes made to fit a mental picture of how we want our writing to appear, or unconsciously.

INVESTIGATIVE FOUNDATIONS

     One of the things important to understand is what the QDE expert is looking for. This deals with the issue of class characteristics versus individual characteristics.

    In a nutshell, CLASS characteristics, which are commonly found at crime scenes, describe evidence which can only be associated with a group (like those with certain personality traits) and not a single source. Such evidence can only be used for corroboration or circumstantial purposes, and the evidentiary problem lies in the fact that little or no mathematical models exist to assess probability values with the comparison of class evidence. The expert must say things like "relatively certain" instead of things like "95% of the time" or "an odds-ratio of 300:1".  INDIVIDUAL characteristics describe evidence that is associated with a common source and an extremely high level of probability. It's not so much that the evidence points directly at anything or anyone; it's that it draws an inevitable conclusion based on mathematical calculations or probabilities so high as to defy human comprehension while at the same time substantiated by the opinion of a scientific expert.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS

    Among QDE experts, the use is made of many different scientific principles from a variety of disciplines, and one of the first attempts at basic principles appeared in Albert Osborn's Questioned Documents in 1910, grounded in handwriting comparison as evidence of individual characteristics (paraphrased below):

1. The most identifying characteristics are those which are most divergent from the regular system or national average

2. Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be sought first and

given the most weight

3. Regular or national system similarities are not alone sufficient to base judgments.

4. It is the combination of particulars, common and uncommon, that identifies

5. It is impossible to discover how all strange and peculiar characteristics came to be developed

6. People do wholly unaccountable things in their speech, gestures, and writing

7. An individual characteristic may be the survival of an error overlooked by a teacher

8. Many characteristics are outgrowths or copies of an at one time admired design

   The psychological theory of handwriting comparison is developmental. Children learn to write by copying whatever style of writing is fashionable at the time and taught to them by teachers from textbooks. This style is known as the regular or national system, and for most of the twentieth century, it was either the Palmer system or the Zaner-Blosser system for cursive. Today, there are many systems, or no system. As the child grows, the act of writing becomes a subconscious effort and begins to pick up habitual shapes and patterns that distinguish it from all others. This is most evident with capital letters and numerals.  Handwriting has individual characteristics due to it being largely unconscious behavior. The unconscious handwriting of two different individuals is never identical. Mechanical and physical factors, as well as the mental ones, make it highly unlikely that the exact same handwriting occurs in two different people. It's therefore important that samples, exemplars, or specimens (all synonymous terms for documents of known origin) be obtained under conditions as similar as possible to the conditions present at the time the disputed, doubtful, or original (all synonymous terms for questioned documents) was created. 

Handwriting

Every person has unique handwriting and everyone’s handwriting changes over time. A signature from ten years ago will be different from one today. This fact can be used to fix the date of a document or a forgery. If someone suspects that a document was forged, the date that it was signed may not correspond to the appearance of the signature at that particular time, especially if the forger took the sample from an earlier time.

Character of Handwriting• Document experts continually testify to the fact that no two individuals write exactly alike.• Many factors comprise the total character of a person’s writing.• The early stages of learning handwriting are characterized by a conscious effort to copy standard letter forms.• However, as writing skills improve, nerve and motor responses associated with the act of writing become subconscious. • The unconscious handwriting of two different individuals can never be identical. • Variations are expected in angularity, slope, speed, pressure, letter and word spacing, relative dimensions of letters, connections, pen movement, writing skill, and finger dexterity.• Spelling, punctuation, phraseology, and grammar can be personal and help to individualize the writer.

Furthermore, the writing style of one individual may be altered beyond recognition by the influence of drugs or alcohol.

Note: Handwriting and signature samples are compared side-by-side using visual and often microscopic analysis of the individual characteristics present.

The comparison can include factors such as:

• height ratios, • slant,• proportions, • pressure, • speed and • line quality.

Note: Only original documents are to be used, if possible, as photocopies and facsimiles often lose much of the important details present in the original.

Sometimes individuals may try to disguise their handwriting by:

• writing very quickly or very slowly• adding unnecessary embellishments to letters, • heavy pen pressure, or any combination of these

Other factors that affect handwriting

1. injury, 2. illness, 3. medication, 4. drug or alcohol use, 5. stress, 6. the writing surface, 7. the writing instrument, or 8. Attempted disguise.

• Other factors to consider include the arrangement of the writing on the paper, such as:

1. margins, 2. spacing, 3. crowding, 4. insertions, and 5. alignment.

Note: It is the job of the document examiner to understand these factors as they might relate to a specific situation.

WHAT IS HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION?

In the legal sense, as it applies to civil and criminal litigation, handwriting identification seeks to establish the identity or non-identity of a writer.  One handwriting should exhibit significantly different writing habits and letter designs (allographs) from another.

WHAT IS HANDWRITING?

Handwriting is a neuromuscular process that originates in the brain.   Some researchers have called it brainwriting.  For litigation purposes it is important to know whether the normal process has in any way been impeded either through the use of medication or drugs, or through illness or extreme old age.

Movement

Is an important element of handwriting? It embraces all the factors related to the motion of the writing instrument: skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis and tremor. The manner, in which the writing instrument is moved, that is, by finger, hand, or arm action, may influence each of the factors.

Two Kinds of Impulses which Function in the act of writing:

1. Extensor Muscles- a group of muscles that push up the pen upward movement stroke.

2. Flexor Muscle- which push the pen to form the downward strokes.3. Lumbrical Muscle-The flexor and extensor muscle combined with, to form the

lateral strokes.

Development of Handwriting

The following are the different steps in the development of the person’s handwriting.

FIRST STEP- When a person first begins to learn the art of writing, penmanship, copybook, forms and blackboard illustrations of the different letters placed before him. His first step is one of imitation only, by a process of drawing, painstaking, laborious slow copying of the letter form.

SECOND STEP- As the person progresses, the matter of form recedes and the focus of attention is centered on the execution of various letters that they are actually written instead of drawn.

THIRD STEP- The manual operation in the execution of letters after more progress is likewise soon relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more or less automatic.

Individuality of Handwriting

Writing with all its thousands of peculiarities in combination is the most personal and individual that a man does which leaves a record which can be seen an analyzed. This combination of peculiarities is what constitutes individuality of handwriting.

Natural Variation

Normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or other record making machines.

A variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues until each writer writes in the way that means easiest and best for him. No two persons write exactly alike and no reproduction of the hand writing or handwritten document can duplicate completely all the details of the origin of writing.

The deviation from the copybook forms and modification in mature writing may be caused or done in the following:

1. Simplification- disregarding or discarding unimportant details and may go as far as to strip the letters to the letter skeleton making it either clear-cut and precise or bare careless.

2. Elaboration- decorative strokes are added to the plain letter form writing an ornate character.

3. Linear Pattern- writing shows no concern for form so that lines and angles predominate and loops and angles are not pronounced.

Document Examiner

One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of handwriting.

What is the difference between a handwriting examiner and a questioned-forensic document examiner?

A handwriting examiner is generally limited in expertise to comparing suspected handwriting or hand printing with known samples to determine authenticity of the questioned document. A questioned document examiner, or forensic document examiner considers many other aspects of a questioned document in addition to the questioned text. Some examples are paper folds, staple holes, inks, paper and erasures to name a few.

Is a handwriting expert the same as a questioned document examiner?

The term questioned document examiner is more inclusive than handwriting expert. As the name implies, a handwriting expert limits his or her practice to determining the authenticity of signatures, hand printing and cursive writing. A questioned document examiner does that too, but is also involved in a variety of other related specialties such as fraudulent photocopy reproductions, inks, identifying paper, identifying paper clip marks, watermarks and staple holes just to name a few.

What is graphology or graphoanalysis?

Graphology is loosely defined as determining personality and character traits of a person by examining and evaluating their handwriting. This person is known as a graphologist or grapho-analyst. Graphoanalysis (grapho-analysis) is used by some attorneys in the jury selection process where it is important to know if a person is a leader or follower, or if the person is deceitful or trustworthy. Some employers use the same service to evaluate job applicants. In some cases, men/women have their spouse or significant other evaluated for fidelity. Most forensic questioned document examiners are not involved in graphology. Graphoanalysis is the charting of an individual's personality through the examination and analysis of their handwriting or printing. A Forensic Document Examination produces an opinion regarding the legitimacy or authenticity of a suspicious document or writing.

Should two independent examiners with the same level of skill and expertise come to the same opinion when examining the same questioned document?

The simple answer is, "yes." One variable that can affect the opinion is whether both examiners had the same quality and quantity of both known and questioned documents available for their examination.

What is a "cut and paste?"

This is when a person "cuts" a genuine signature of another person off of a legitimate document and "pastes" it onto a fraudulent document. This "pasted" signature is usually taped on the fraudulent document then photocopied. The person who commits this act of forgery now passes the document off as the "original" or legitimate.

Can printing be identified by a document examiner? How about initials?

Yes. Handwriting and printing comparisons are based on identifying individual/unique characteristics of the writer. The more unique the writer's characteristics, the more likely the writer can be identified. However, if a writer is talented enough to utilize a copybook style of printing and eliminates all of his/her personal and unique characteristics, then the possibility of identifying the writer is unlikely.

COLLECTING KNOWN DOCUMENTS FOR COMPARISON 

To help us support our opinion satisfactorily to the court, we need to provide as many valid known documents referred to as standards as possible at the beginning of the case. Standards also called Exemplars , are legally admissible authentic samples of handwriting used for comparison with questioned writing. We use them to enable us to form an opinion concerning the authenticity of handwriting in dispute. 

There are two kinds of standards:

1. informal which are documents previously executed and known to be genuine and 2. formal which are request writing samples.

Standards are also called known handwriting samples. 

Handwriting identification depends on the quality of the known writing. One of the most important steps in the investigation of suspected or disputed writing is the procurement of sufficient genuine writing samples. Sufficient suitable material facilitates the work of the expert in establishing the master pattern or habits of the writer in order to avoid errors and inconclusions. A document examiner who must work with insufficient writing has a more difficult task and may not be able to draw adequate conclusions from the limited material

Informal handwriting exemplars are more reliable for comparison purposes than request writing. Since informal writing was written in the normal course of business, it more accurately reflects the subconscious habits of the writer. Self-consciousness or conscious-awareness enters into the request writing process. Even when there is no attempt to disguise request writing, it may not represent the normal subconscious habits of the writer.

If informal standards are not sufficient or suitable for comparison purposes, request writing should be taken from the victim as well as any suspects. Often the only way to obtain comparable handwriting samples is through request writing. There are some disadvantages to request writing that must be taken into consideration.

DISADVANTAGES OF REQUEST WRITING SAMPLES 

1. Request writing taken after the incident may not be as close to the date of the questioned writing as informal documents executed in the normal course of business.

2. Courts consider request writing taken after the fact as self-serving and may not allow it. 3. Some writers will deliberately disguise their request handwriting.

4. The person taking the request writing needs to take this into consideration. 5. It may be difficult or impossible to duplicate the writing environment of the suspect

document in order to obtain comparable documents. 6. The writer may not be available for request writing or circumstances may have caused

changes that make it impossible to obtain similar request writing samples.

COLLECTING INFORMAL STANDARDS

Standards must be suitable for comparison with the questioned writing. Since handwriting can be found on many different types of surfaces, comparison materials should, when possible, duplicate the conditions under which the questioned document was executed. While this is usually done with request writing, it may be harder to locate informal writing samples that meet these criteria. Locating material to be used as evidence may require considerable effort on the part of the investigator. Comparison materials should, when possible, be written under the same conditions under which the questioned documents were executed. While this is the standard method of taking request writing, it is impossible to control the writing environment of informal writing samples. 

Try to obtain signatures that are similar to the questioned signature.

1. If the questioned signature is in ink, get signatures in ink, 2. if it is in pencil; get documents written in pencil for comparison. 3. If the questioned document is on lined paper, find documents written on lined paper. 4. If the questioned document contains handprinting, collect documents that are handprinted. 

Where no similar documents are available, try to locate documents whose authenticity can be verified such as canceled checks that have been accepted by a bank. Other documents executed in the regular course of business are also suitable.

The date of the questioned writing must be taken into consideration when looking for suitable comparable documents. While an adult's handwriting may remain constant for many years, writing habits normally change over time so that an outdated standard may be unsatisfactory for comparison purposes. All writing samples are not of equal value and some may be of no value at all.

When gathering handwriting for comparison purposes, it is necessary to keep in mind that various factors cause changes in handwriting. Age and illness may lead to the deterioration of writing skills, which can be an important consideration in a disputed will case. A teenager's handwriting may change drastically in as short a time frame as a year. A drug addict may undergo a radical change in handwriting as his addiction takes over. Handwriting samples taken prior to the addiction are not going to accurately reflect later writing.

Handwriting changes gradually over a person's lifetime but some factors can cause drastic changes in handwriting in a short period of time, therefore it is essential to compare handwriting from a similar time frame and under similar conditions. Trauma such as stroke, illness, or loss of a spouse; or medication, or substance abuse can affect handwriting. If a person's writing has changed drastically around the time the questioned document was executed, there may not be comparable material available.

Ideally, writing executed around the date of the questioned material should be used for comparison purposes, some dated shortly before and after the date of the questioned material. What time frame is considered suitable? Documents executed within two to three years are most suitable. If these are not available, documents dating further from the questioned material may be used. Do not rely on present-day writing exclusively, if possible.

Make sure the handwriting exemplars are not in dispute and that they can be authenticated. Any uncontradicted testimony of competent eyewitnesses who saw the execution of the writing can be used to verify its authenticity. Courts accept the testimony of the author admitting genuineness or someone to whom the author has admitted genuineness. The testimony of a person who received writing from the author and acted on it is also valid, though not necessarily accurate. Documents executed in the normal course of business are frequently used for comparison purposes, which include negotiable instruments such as checks, contracts, and other business documents.

Document examiners have given erroneous conclusions based on forged standards. When the standards have been fabricated by the same writer as the forged material, an opinion of authenticity based on false information will occur.

HOW MANY SAMPLES OF HANDWRITING ARE NEEDED? 

The type of case determines the number of standards that the document examiner needs for comparison with the questioned documents. Always try to collect as many samples as possible because it is more important to have suitable undisputed samples than a large quantity of little comparable value. Cases have been won in court using a single known signature to support the authenticity of a questioned document. One signature is sufficient when all the characteristics of handwriting match. When proving that an individual did not write a questioned document, it is necessary to obtain a larger range of writing. Ideally, the average would be twenty to twenty-five signatures and four to five pages of handwriting preferably written at different times. However, due to the practicalities involved, In practice, we often only receive about half of the that number to work with. 

More known documents are needed if the writer has a wide range of variation or an oversimplified signature, while only a few signatures would suffice if the writer is consistent. An oversimplified signature is one that contains few changes of direction and is usually an illegible scrawl. Oversimplified signatures are easier to imitate than more complex signatures that contain more changes of direction and more stylized letter forms.When a questioned signature shows obvious signs of forgery not present in the known signature, one known signature should be enough to prove non-genuineness. Forged writing often contains tremor or has a drawn look. 

A single signature would be sufficient to determine the facts when the questioned signatures are written with a higher skill level than the suspected writer could execute. However, it is better to have more standards whenever possible. The document examiner must evaluate the standards to determine if he or she has sufficient suitable material to render an accurate opinion.

SUITABLE STANDARDS

Cancelled checks, contracts, applications, and business letters make suitable exemplars or standards. The writing can be properly identified, the date can be verified, and the habits of the writer can be studied. Additional standards may be needed if the words on the disputed writing do not match the standards. Ideally, original writing should be available for the scrutiny of the document examiner. Original writing is always better than a photocopy or a facsimile. If it is impossible to obtain original documents, a first generation photocopy should be supplied. The original documents should be requested whenever the adverse party supplies a photocopy. Intermediate tones are almost always lost in a photocopy because it aims to secure the greatest possible contrast. Subsequent generations of photocopies may drop sufficient detail, rendering them unusable. 

Documents similar in nature will make the best standards. For example, contracts should be compared with contracts, and cancelled checks with cancelled checks. Capital letters should be compared with capital letters, lower case letters should be compared with lower case and unconnected lower case with unconnected lower case. You also need to compare documents using the same kind of writing instrument for example, ink with ink, and pencil with pencil. Try to find writing on similar documents. People often have more than one style signature depending on the document being executed. Cheques may be executed in a more careless manner than wills and contracts. 

There are many characteristics of handwriting that can be compared besides letter forms and connecting strokes.

1. Document examiners compare line quality, 2. pressure patterns, 3. size and proportions, 4. spacing, 5. slant, 6. baseline, and 7. utilization of space. 8. Document examiners can compare similar letters such as “N” and “M,” and “P” and “R”;

circle letters and loops can be compared.

Therefore, all available handwriting samples should be given to a document examiner.

While it may be possible to make a match with only a few standards, the more standards available the better. Collect as many samples of handwriting, including signatures, as possible. It is necessary to collect enough handwriting samples to enable the expert to render a professional opinion. How much is enough? Enough would be sufficient standards to eliminate any other writer as the author of a document. 

These conditions are an essential part of what are called standards of comparison:

1. Care must be taken to avoid samples which are deliberately written in a crude, unnatural way, or so well thought out as to disguise the writer's natural style 2. A sufficient number of samples must be taken, several pages if necessary, over and over again, to establish multiple (more than one) comparisons of single characteristics or combinations of common and uncommon characteristics

3. Samples should be taken within two or three years of the disputed writing in order to rule out changes in style that may have occurred over time or with age

4. The sample should include some dictated text, words, or phrases contained in the original document (but under no circumstances should the writer be shown the questioned document)

5. Pen and paper, as well as writing position, should consist of the same conditions that existed at the time the questioned document was written (if these facts are known)

TECHNICO-LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

    Legally, the conditions in place that produced the specimen serve to authenticate it as a standard. Authentication, or positively establishing the origin of known documents, is required for any piece of documentary evidence. This can be accomplished by the testimony of witnesses who saw the original writing produced, by the testimony of persons familiar with the writing, or (in some

states) by a post litem motam courtroom demonstration where the writer gives a sample which is checked within an hour to a day or more by a QDE expert.  Technically, even the police could extract authenticated samples since neither Fourth nor Fifth Amendment rights apply to handwriting samples. In addition, some samples are self-authenticating -- as in any writing on legal forms, business correspondence, responses to communication from others, and some "ancient" documents (over 30 years old). Irregularities in the authentication (or discovery) process of a handwriting case are NOT grounds for reversible error. The accused may get a new trial, but they are not exculpated or found innocent by most courtroom errors. Refusal by the accused to give a handwriting sample is presumptive evidence of guilt. There's no right to remain silent when it comes to handwriting.     A potential problem exists with signatures. People usually have three (3) different signatures:

(1) a formal one, used on important documents; (2) a routine one, used on regular correspondence; and (3) an informal one, used for jotting quick notes.

Other circumstances affect writing such as:

1. age, 2. arthritis, 3. emotional distress, 4. medication, 5. intoxication, and 6. corrective vision.

Note: It's difficult to tell handedness, gender, and age from unknown samples.

QDE experts must consider all these things, and make an informed judgement (usually in consultation with an investigator or attorney) based on their familiarity with handwriting dynamics (e.g., appearance, laborious movements, rhythm). With an impairment like arthritis, for example, the writing function may become more of a conscious than subconscious effort, making for a more complex case. However, a paraphrasing of Larry Miller's (1987) indicia drawn from a review of the forgery literature might provide useful guidelines when dealing with impaired or deliberately deceptive writing:

Line Quality Irregular, laborious, shaky, lack of rhythm

Size/Proportion Larger, wider, higher, inconsistent, different spacing after caps

Pen lifts Frequent lifts off paper

Angle/Slant Greater than 5 degree change, other-hand slanting

Pen Pressure Heavier than usual

Circle formation More teardrop or egg-shaped, frequent counterclockwise formations

Retouching formal signature used, often retracing strokes, foreign marks present

Loop formation Wider spacing between, more squared, shorter, or broken loops

Stroke formation Wider M's and W's, more squared or wedge-shaped stokes

Alignment Change in baseline habits, more downward slants from baseline

Diacritics Heavier t-crossings and i-dots, position placement changes

Begin/end strokes

Heavier pressure, blobbed, vertical position change or slanting

 TESTIFYING IN COURT 

       There's quite a bit of divergent terminology found in court testimony. The most common "conclusions" are really qualified opinions. Although the science of QDE has its origins in Bertillon's points of comparison method, there's no set standard, such as 11 or 12 "matches" as with fingerprinting. Instead, it's up to each expert to say what constitutes a sufficient number. The most commonly used phrases are "significant similarities", "most probably", or "very probably". An expert opinion need not be based on absolute certainty. A QDE expert can expect to be on the stand a long time, as direct, cross, redirect, and recross trial procedures play out. The background and integrity of the expert as well as the quality of the evidence determines both admissibility and impact.

    Court-recognized expertise as a QDE expert is not something that can be achieved through self-study alone. An old common law rule that isn't recognized much anymore says that one can become an expert by study without practice or by practice without study. With QDE, the courts (State v. Evans 1991) have decided that a person needs both: study and practice -- that is, a period of training (internship or apprenticeship is better than a self-study course) and a period of experience (twenty some previous cases worked on is a good average). In addition, there's a rather large literature base to become familiar with, and a good number of journals, periodicals and newsletters.

CASES IN WHICH NO STANDARDS ARE NEEDED 

There are some cases in which no Standards are needed to prove spuriousness. Since no one can write his signature exactly the same way twice, identical signatures are generally evidence of non-genuineness. This would include traced forgeries, scanned signatures, or even freehand simulations, as well as cut and paste signatures.

Some writers use signature stamps and autopens as legitimate signatures making it is necessary to determine the nature of the signatures before an opinion of non-genuineness is given. Signs of forgery are indicative of non-genuineness. Documents that contain indications of tracing can be identified without known signatures. Evidence of tracing the signature would be a groove or guideline along the signature line or residue of pencil or carbon.  When a questioned signature matches the handwriting of another writer, identification can be made that that individual penned the writing. In this case, no known signatures of the victim are needed for comparison. Writing of the impaired or illiterate can be identified as spurious if the questioned writing exceeds the ability of the known writer. A high skill level signature of an impaired individual can be rejected without comparison documents.

REQUEST WRITING 

Request Writings are handwriting samples made at the request and under the supervision of solicitors, the police, document examinations and investigators for the purpose of comparison with questioned writing.

COMPUTER CRIME DEVELOPMENTS

    Computer forensics is used in many areas. In civil law for discrimination and harassment cases, by insurance companies for workman's compensation cases, by corporations for trade secret misappropriations, and in criminal law mostly for drug and embezzlement record-keeping and child pornography. As mentioned previously, this is a loosely related, developing specialty area. It is most closely related to typewriting comparison. The FBI has, for many years, maintained typewriter databases, ink databases, copy toner databases, paper databases, and watermarks (which sometimes change every year). Private examiners do not have the advantage of large databases available to government examiners. Computers and computer printouts also leave a trail that can be followed, whether it's from something simple like how full or dry a printer ink cartridge is, to the various alignments and misalignments of dot matrix and laser printers, to fiber analysis of the paper used, computer crime specialists utilize some of the same age-old techniques that typewriting analysts used as well as other investigative methods.    A computer forensics expert will have experience on a wide variety of hardware and software. Unlike paper evidence, computer evidence exists in many forms, with earlier, alternate, and backup versions of each and every file somewhere on the hard drive and frequently unknown to the user. The process of examining a suspect computer system is as follows:

Secure/protect the system from further use, damage, or corruption Discover all files, including hidden and encrypted ones Recover all (or as many as possible) deleted files Reveal all hidden, temporary, and swap files Access all protected or encrypted files Analyze all unallocated or "slack" spaces on a disk Print out an overall analysis of the system, listing all files Formulate an opinion of the system layout, file structure, and any attempts to hide, delete,

protect, or encrypt information

Microscopes and other Tools of the Trade

The Microscope:

Through the Looking Glass

The most important tool a document examiner has is his or her own vision, but in this section and the laboratory tour section we will consider the external tools which enable the examiner to see, evaluate and record more than is apparent to the unaided eye. These tools can be grouped into 6 categories:

1. basic measuring tools

2. magnification (magnifiers/microscopes)

3. light sources

4. special instruments

5. photography equipment

6. computer equipment

1. BASIC MEASURING TOOLS

Basic measuring tools include metric rulers, calipers for fine measurements and various glass alignment plates such as the one illustrated below which allow comparison and measurement of angles, height, width and spacing of handwriting and typewriting.

A tool for both measurement and magnification is a "reticle" which is a magnifier eyepiece containing an engraved measurement scale which allows the examiner to precisely measure what is viewed under the microscope.

2. MAGNIFICATION - Magnifiers/Microscopes

Document examiners use a wide range of magnification equipment. Handheld magnifiers (sold here by QDEWill) enlarge the material from 2 to 10 times (magnification powers of 2X to 10X) and may have lighting abilities as well to brighten the field of view. To see details more closely, there are many types of microscopes. A binocular, or stereo, microscope is comfortable to use because, as the name implies, there are 2 eyepieces and the viewer focuses with both eyes. In addition, a microscope can have a third viewing tube which allows a still or video camera to be attached for "through the microscope" photography or videography. Digital microscopes combine optics for magnification with digital capture technology to allow the user to view the magnified image on the monitor instead of or in addition to viewing it through the microscope eyepieces.

It might seem that the more powerful the microscope in terms of magnification, the better, but for the task of handwriting examination, this is not the case. Most handwriting examination is done at powers of 10X to 50X (the subject is enlarged 10 to 50 times). When magnification is higher, the field of vision is so narrow that the object viewed loses relevance. In the example below, my signature is shown at 10X, 15X, 20X and 25X.

It is a good idea to start out with a low power when first examining a portion of a document and then to zoom in closer to the area you want to inspect.

A type of microscope that is particularly useful in document examination is the comparison microscope. Two documents can be viewed side-by-side and the images can be positioned so that they appear to overlay each other. By using a different color of filter on each document, the examiner can then see a third color in those areas where the two segments being compared overlap each other. Below you see the results when two of my signatures are viewed under the comparison microscope at 15x. The interplay of colored light makes this image a bit confusing to the first time viewer, but essentially you are seeing a composite of two signatures (one viewed through a red filter and one viewed through a green filter) in which the black line segments are the places where the two signatures would coincide if the signatures were really on top of each other.

10X 15X 20X 25X

One enjoyable fringe benefit of being a document examiner is recreational use of the microscope. Over the years I have looked at and photographed lots of interesting things through the looking glass. Below are 6 reasonably common items photographed at varying powers. See if you can guess what they are.

3. LIGHT SOURCES

Light sources include transmitted light, long and short wave ultraviolet light, and infra-red light. Transmitted light is simply light from behind a document. This is best provided by a light box which has a color corrected flourescent type light bulb. The document can be laid upon the box and the light from behind the document makes it possible to see details not otherwise visible.

4. SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS

UV and IR light are used to differentiate between inks and papers, and to reveal obliterated materials. Photography using specific films and filters can be used in conjunction with these special lights to reveal and record information. These techniques do not always lead to answers, but they are the best initial approach because they are non-destructive methods. For more information and a demonstration of this equipment, take a tour of my document examination laboratory.

5. PHOTOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

The second important use of photography in document examination is for recording and presenting evidence. A critical part of the job of the document examiner is to present evidence to the parties involved in a document dispute. The examiner must be able to state and explain his or her opinion, but the best service is given when the examiner goes the final step of illustrating testimony with visual evidence. Photo equipment is likely to include a 35mm SLR camera, digital camera, copy stand, filters, extension tubes, lenses, and other items.

6. COMPUTER EQUIPMENT

The last category, computer equipment is a recent and diverse category. Of course the computer is an essential aid to anyone who writes reports, runs a business, and handles finances. But in document examination there is a lot more to do with a computer. A whole new area of potential document fraud has developed around the computer. Just as the examiner once had to divert from the study of handwriting to learn about a new machine, the typewriter, now he must learn about the computer and the output devices that are associated with it.

Terms about Forensic Document Examination

ALLOGRAPH Letter design:  From Greek: allos = other and graph = the pattern traced on the writing surface to represent a letter.  Any style of the 26 letters of the English alphabet and its combinations.

ALTERATION:  An unauthorized operation performed on a document after it has been validated that changes its language or legal meaning, specifically the terms in a negotiable instrument, without knowledge or consent of the parties involved.

APEX:  Also peak.  The upper or lower junction of letters such as "A" and "M", or "V" and "W".

ARCADE:  The rounded top stroke forming an "m" or "n" in cursive writing; a writing style where this formation predominates.

ABNORMAL LETTER DESIGN :A letter design which falls outside the normal range of variation for a writer and may be introduced as a disguise

ACCIDENTAL :A feature within a handwriting which fall outside the normal range of variation of a writer and is not intentional

ALIGNMENT :The positioning of the handwriting with respect to any printed lines

AMPERSAND :The character representing the word ‘and’ (&)

ANGULAR HANDWRITING :Handwriting which is characterized by sharp points and lacking roundness

ARCH :A rounded upper portion of a letter design arrangement The positioning of handwriting on the page

Assisted Signature- A signature made by a writer whose hand is supported by another person during the act of writing (Another term for guided hand signature)

AUTHOR :The writer of a piece of handwriting

BALLPEN :A writing instrument containing viscous ink, housed in a refill, which is transferred to the page via a rotating ball housing The end of a ballpen which supports and retains the ball

BLOCK CAPITALS :A writing style in which all of the letter designs are capital letters

BLUNT ENDING :The ending of a letter design where ink has accumulated as a result of a hesitation

BONA FIDE:  "In good faith."  An agreement made in good faith, without fraud or deceit.  A "gentlemen's agreement," usually unwritten, that is not legally enforceable.

BUBBLE WRITING :A term used to describe the overly-rounded handwriting of adolescent girls (USA)

BURR STRIATIONS :Striation marks visible in ballpen ink lines and produced by burrs or other extraneous material on the ball housing which prevent the ink in the refill from contacting the ball surface

CARBON COPIES :Copies which are produced by incorporating an intermediate sheet of carbon paper directly below the page written upon and in contact with the page used to transfer the carbon image of the handwriting

CARBON PAPER :A thin sheet of paper impregnated on one side with carbon or a waxy dye

CHARATERISTIC :A feature within a letter design or handwriting

CLASS CHARACTERISTIC :A feature within a particular handwriting style

COLLECTED SPECIMENS :Handwriting specimens (not written for the purposes of an investigation) obtained from personal papers, diaries, bank accounts, driving license applications and other sources

CONCLUSIVE OPINION :A strong opinion that is not qualified. For instance In my opinion, Rolf Berzel is the writer

CONNECTING STROKES :Handwritten strokes that join letters together

CONTEMPORANEOUS SPECIMEN :Specimen handwriting made around the time as the disputed handwriting

CONTROL OF PEN :The ability to move and manipulate the writing instrument

COPY :A reproduction of a handwriting or signature

COPYBOOK :A writing book of letters printed for imitation and used in schools as a teaching aid

COURSE-OF-BUSINESS SPECIMENS :Another term for collected specimens

CROWDING :The effect of placing handwriting in a confined space

CURSIVE :A style of writing which is flowing and the letters are joined by connecting strokes

CURVATURE :The roundness of a letter design

CHARACTER:  Any written or typed single letter, number, mark or symbol.

CURSIVE:  Continuous writing which connects letters with one another. The design of the letters and how they connect is based on a system taught in schools.

DEPOSITION:  Out of court testimony of a witness under oath that is usually written down by a court reporter for later use in court.

Decipher- To read or interpret difficult handwriting

Deviation- A differing from a standard form

Diacritic- A mark (accents, cedillas, i dots etc) attached to letters

Difference- A dissimilarity

Disconnected script- A style of writing in which the letter designs are representations of printed letters and is characterised by the absence of connecting strokes

Disguise- To change the appearance of handwriting

Disputed handwriting - Handwriting which is called into question

Distinctive - Marking or expressing difference; characteristic

Distinctive feature- A feature which is considered unusual or unique

ESDA:  Eletrostatic Detection Apparatus -- used to detect indented impressions left from writing on an overlying page (also IMED).

Evidential Value -The strength or weight of evidence

Exemplar - An example; a type

Expert- A specialist; a scientific or professional witness

Eyelet- A small loop in a letter design

FORENSIC:  An argumentative exercise that permits the document examiner to explain her findings to the court in a formal manner, consecutively and logically.

FORGERY:  The alteration of an instrument (document, writing) from its genuine state.

Forger - Someone who forges (counterfeits for the purposes of fraud)

Flourish- A figure made by a bold stroke of the pen; to make ornamental strokes with the pen

Fluency -The quality of being fluent

Fluent - Smooth, easy, graceful

Fountain pen- A writing instrument in which liquid ink is held in a reservoir

freehand forgery- A forgery, usually a signature, which has been written either from memory or by copying (but not by tracing)

GRAPHEME:  The smallest identifiable unit of writing; not divisible; the abstract concept of a letter of the alphabet (Huber & Headrick: Handwriting Identification Facts and Fundamentals, 1999).

Guided Hand Signature- A signature made by a writer whose hand is supported by another person during the act of writing. Another term for assisted signature.

HARPOON:  A short, sharp-angled writing impulse at the end, or sometimes at the beginning, of a regular stroke.  It occurs involuntarily and is indicative of speed.  Sometimes also called a "tick".

HIATUS:  A gap, or interruption in what should be a continuously written line.  The writing instrument is lifted from the paper momentarily.  The space can be very noticeable or so minute that it can only be detected under a microscope.

HOOK:  It frequently ends a letter and the stroke swings upward in a soft curve.  A downward or sideways hook is also possible.

Handwriting Expert- A specialist in the comparison and identification of handwriting

Hesitation- A slowing-down or stopping of during the act of writing

Holograph- A document wholly written by the person from whom it proceeds

Illegible handwriting- Handwriting which cannot be read

Illiterate- Unable to read and write

Indented writing- The impressions of writing produced on an underlying page by the pressure of the writing instument during the act of writing

Initial stroke- The first stroke of a letter design

Ink line- The mark produced when ink is transferred to paper from a writing instrument

Impressed writing - Another term for indented writing

Letter design- The structure and form of a handwritten letter

Letter spacing- The distance between handwritten letters

Line habit - Another term for alignment

Line quality- A term which describes the appearance of the written line in relation to its smoothness. A writing which displays good line quality is fluently written with few hesitations.

Line spacing- The distance between lines of handwriting

Loop- A curve in the written line which crosses back over itself Lower case- A printing term which describes the small letters in a print style

Microscope- An instrument for magnifying objects

Natural handwriting- Handwriting which is not disguised

Natural variation- The variation of letter designs which occurs in natural handwriting

NCR copies- Copy documents which are produced without the use of carbon paper (NCR stands for No Carbon Required)

Non-request specimens- Another term for collected specimens and course-of-business specimens

Opposite hand- The hand not normally used by a writer. Another term for unaccustomed hand.

Palimpsest - A manuscript in which old writing has been rubbed out to make room for new

Pen- A writing instrument which contains ink

Pen pressure- The force with which the pen indents the page during the act of writing

Pencil- A writing instrument which usually deposits graphite on the page

Penlift- A separation of the handwritten line which occurs when the pen is lifted from the page

Penmanship- A term which describes the ability of a person to write

Personal characteristic-A feature pertaining to an person’s writing habits and not derived from a learned copybook style

Photocopy- A copy of a document, usually produced by an electrostatic process

Photocopied handwriting- An image of handwriting which has been produced by a photocopy process

Pictorial similarity- A feature which looks similar to another one on casual inspection but may differ when examined more closely

Porous-point pen- Another term for fibre tip pen and felt tip

Pen proportion- The relationship of one thing to another in magnitude

Punctuation- The act of dividing sentences by points or marks; for example, a semi-colon, a comma or a full stop.

Qualified opinion- An opinion that is not entirely conclusive

Questioned handwriting- Another term for disputed writing

Range of variation- The extent of the variation of the letter designs found within a handwriting

Ratio- A similar term for proportion

Relationship- The state or mode of being related

Relative height -The height of a character when considered in relation to another

Relative width- The width of a character when considered in relation to another

Request specimens- Specimens of handwriting that are specifically taken for the purposes of an investigation

Retrace- A stroke formed by moving the writing instrument back over a preceeding stroke during the act of writing

Retouching- An adding of extra strokes or touches to a letter design

Rollerball- A writing instument containing fluid ink which is transferred to the paper via a rotating ball

Rubric- A fluorish after a signature; a handwritten entry originally one in red

Sample handwriting- Another term for specimen handwriting

Scribble- To write badly, carelessly or worthlessly

Significant difference- A difference which has significant evidential value

Significant similarity- A similarity which has significant evidential value similar Corresponding in shape

Similarity- A feature of a handwriting which corresponds to another

Simulated forgery- A forgery, usually a signature, which resembles a genuine signature and has been written freehand

Slant- Another term for slope

Slurred handwriting- A handwriting that is devoid of structure and is indistinct

Spacing- The distance between, for example, letter designs or words

Specimen handwriting- Handwriting used for comparison purposes with disputed handwriting

Straightedge- An instrument, usually a ruler, used by some writers to give handwriting a regular appearance on the page

Style characteristics- Handwriting characteristics learned from copybooks

Terminal stroke- The handwritten stroke at the end of a word

Traced forgery- A forgery, usually a signature, produced by a tracing method

Tracing- A traced forgery

Tremor- A shakiness or quivering observed within a writing line

Trough- A rounded, low point in a letter design

Unaccustomed hand- Another term for opposite hand

Unfamiliar script- A handwritten script in a different language to that of the reader

Unique feature- A feature of a person’s writing which is very significant and would not occur in the handwritings of other people

Upper case- A printing term which describes the large (or capital) letters in a print style

Variation- A departure from the usual word spacing The distance between words in a handwritten text.

INTERNET RESOURCESAmerican Society of Questioned Document ExaminersBart Bagget's MyHandwriting.comFree Handwriting Analysis SoftwareGraphology, Graphoanalysis, and Handwriting AnalysisHandwriting Analysts GroupJudd Robbins Computer Forensics WebsiteNorwitch Document Laboratory Home PagePreparing for a Daubert Hearing (with Handwriting Evidence)Questioned Document Examination Page of Emily J. WillSpeckin Forensic Laboratories

PRINTED RESOURCESBrunelle, R. (1982). "Questioned Document Examination" in R. Saferstein (ed.) Forensic Science Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Dines, J. (1998). Document Examiner Handbook. NY: Pantex.Ellen, D. (2005). Scientific Examination of Documents, 3e. Boca Raton: CRC Press.Huber, R. & A. Headrick. (1999). Handwriting Identification. Boca Raton: CRC Press.Kelly, J. & Lindblom, B. (Eds.) (2006). Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, 2e. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Koppenhaver, K. (1991). The Business of Document Examination. MO: Forensic Publishers of Joppa.Miller, L. (1984). "Bias Among Forensic Document Examiners: A Need for Procedural Change" Journal of Police Science & Administration 12:407-11.Miller, L. (1987). "Forensic Examination of Arthritic Impaired Writings" Ibid 15:51-55.Moenssens, A., J. Starrs, C. Henderson & F. Inbau. (1995). Scientific Evidence in Civil and Criminal Cases. Westbury, NY: Foundation Press.Osborn, S. & A. (1991). Questioned Document Problems: The Discovery & Proof of the Facts. NJ: Patterson SmithSaudek, R. (1978). Psychology of Handwriting. NY: Books for Professionals.

Last updated: Sept. 30, 2006Not an official webpage of APSU, copyright restrictions apply, see Megalinks in Criminal Justice O'Connor, T.  (Date of Last Update at bottom of page). In Part of web cited (Windows name for file at top of browser), MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/rest of URL accessed on today's date.

HOLY CHILD COLLEGES OF BUTUANCOLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

HANDWRITING COMPARISON

I. QUESTIONED SPECIMEN KNOWN SPECIMEN

A. SIGNATURE

II. DISCUSSION\FINDINGS:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. CONCLUSIONS:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Date Examined:_________________ Owned by :_________________

_______________________________ Forensic Document Examiner

HOLY CHILD COLLEGES OF BUTUANCOLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

HANDWRITING COMPARISON

I. QUESTIONED SPECIMEN KNOWN SPECIMEN

A. LETTERS

Q1_________________________ K1__________________________

Q2_________________________ K2__________________________

Q3_________________________ K3__________________________

Q4_________________________ K4__________________________

Q5_________________________ K5__________________________

Q6_________________________ K6__________________________

Q7_________________________ K7__________________________

Q8_________________________ K8__________________________

Q9_________________________ K9__________________________

Q10________________________ K10_________________________

II. DISCUSSION\FINDINGS:

1. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. CONCLUSIONS:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Date Examined:_________________ Owned by :_________________

_______________________________ Forensic Document Examiner

HOLY CHILD COLLEGES OF BUTUANCOLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

HANDWRITING COMPARISON

I. QUESTIONED SPECIMEN KNOWN SPECIMEN

C. WORDS

Q1_________________________ K1__________________________

Q2_________________________ K2__________________________

Q3_________________________ K3__________________________

Q4_________________________ K4__________________________

Q5_________________________ K5__________________________

Q6_________________________ K6__________________________

Q7_________________________ K7__________________________

Q8_________________________ K8__________________________

Q9_________________________ K9__________________________

Q10________________________ K10_________________________

II. DISCUSSION\FINDINGS:

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. CONCLUSIONS:

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Date Examined:_________________ Owned by :_________________

_______________________________ Forensic Document Examiner

HOLY CHILD COLLEGES OF BUTUANCOLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

HANDWRITING COMPARISON

I. QUESTIONED SPECIMEN KNOWN SPECIMEN

A. SIGNATURE

II. DISCUSSION\FINDINGS:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. CONCLUSIONS:

After a thorough examination of the questioned signature, it is the examiner's opinion that the known specimen (K1) and the questioned specimen (Q1) were written by the same person.

Date Examined:_________________ Owned by :_________________

_______________________________ Forensic Document Examiner

HOLY CHILD COLLEGES OF BUTUANCOLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY

HANDWRITING COMPARISON

I. QUESTIONED SPECIMEN KNOWN SPECIMEN

WORDS:

II. DISCUSSION\FINDINGS

1.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. CONCLUSIONS:

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Specimen Handwriting taken from:_______________________________

Date taken:___________________________________________________

Time taken:___________________________________________________

_______________________________ Forensic Document Examiner