critintsyn.pdf

8/10/2019 critintsyn.pdf

1/288

A Critical Introductionto Syntax

JIM MILLER Ac o n t i n u u m


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A CriticalIntroduction

to Syntax


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Al so ava i lab le f rom Cont i nuum

Crit ical Introduction to Phonetics , Ken Lodge

Crit ical Introduction to Phonology, Dan ie l S i lverman

Crit ical Introduction to Translat ion Studies. J e an Bo as e - Be ie r (f o rth co min g )

In trod u c tio n to S y n ta c tic Theory\ E d i th A . M o r av cs ik

In troduc ti on lo S y n ta x . Ed i th A . Moravcs ik


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A CriticalIntroduction

to SyntaxJim Miller

Continuum Critical Introductions to Linguistics

Ac o n t i n u u m


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Continuum International Publishing Group

T h e T o w e r B u i ld i n g 8 0 M a id e n L i n e

I I Y o r k R o a d S u i te 7 04

L o n d o n , S K I 7 N X N e w Y o r k, N Y 1 00 38

\ < w w . c o n t i n u u m b o o k s . c o m

[ im M il l e r 2 0 1 1

i*ll r i g h t s re s e r v e d N o p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a ti o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d o r

t ra n s m i tt e d i n a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , e l e c tr o n i c o r m e c h a n ic a l,

i n c l u d in g p h o t o c o p y i n g , c o r d i n g , o r a n y i n fo r m a t io n M o r jg c

< t r e tr ie v a l s y st em , w i t h o u t p r i o r p e r m i s si o n i n w r i t i n g f ro m

t h e p u b l i s h e r s

J im M i ll er h a s a s s e r t e d h i s r i g h t u n d e r t h e C o p y r i g h t , D e s i g n s a n d

P a t e n t s A c t , 1 9K 8, t o b e i d e n t i fi e d a s A u t h o r o f th i s w o r k .

British Library C alaloguing-in-Publication Data

A c a t a lo g u e r e c o r d f o r t h is b o o k is a v a i la b l e f r o m t h e B r i t is h l i b r a r y

I S B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 3 - 1 ! h a r d c o v e r )

9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 4 - 8 ( p ap e r b ac k )

Library of Con gress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

M i ll e r. [ . E . ( J a m e s E d w a r d ) . 1 9 4 2

A c r i ti c a l i n t r o d u c t i o n t o s y n t a x / J i m M i lle r.

p . c m , - ( C o n t in u u m c r i t ic a l i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o l in g u i s t i c s )

I S B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 3 - 1 ( h a r d c o v e r )

I S B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 8 2 6 4 - 9 7 0 4 - 8 ( p b k . )

1. G r a m m a r , C o m p a r a t i v e a n d g e n e r a l S y n t a x I T i t l e . I I . S e rie s.

P 2 9 I . M 4 9 8 2 0 1 1

4 l S ~ d c 2 2

2 0 0 9 0 5 1 9 5 2

l y p c s c t b y N c w g c n I m a g i n g S y s t em s P v t L t d , C h e n n a i , I n d ia

P r i n t e d a n d b o u n d i n I n d i a b y R e p l ik a P r e ss P v t L t d


6/288

Contents

In t rod u c tion an d Ac kn ow l e d ge m e n t s vi i

1 Theory, Da ta an d An alys is 1

2 De p e n d e n c y R e l a tion s4 1

3 Nou n Ph ra se s and N on -con f i gu ra t i ona li ty 6 1

4 C o n st ru c tio n s 9 9

5 Grammat ica l i ty 1 1 8

6 U s a g e - b a s e d M o d e l s 1 4 0

7 Gram m ar and Semant i cs : The G e tPassive 1 6 3

8 Gram m ar and Sem ant ic s : w h w o r ds 1 7 5

9 Gram m ar and Semant i cs : Pa r ts o f Speech 1 9 1

10 Gram m ar and Semant i cs : Them at ic Ro le s 1 9 8

L an gu age C om p l e x it y 2 1 9

2 F ir st L an gua ge Acqu i s it ion 2 3 7

Append i x 2 5 5

Epi logue 2 6 1

References 2 6 2

Index 2 7 3


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T h i s p a g e i n t e n t i o n a l ly l e f t b la n k


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Introduction and

Acknowledgements

T h i s b o o k h a s a s l i g h t l y u n o r t h o d o x p e r s p e c t i v e , r e f l e c t i n g m y p a r t i c u l a r

e x p e r i e n c e o f s y n t a x , t h e t e a c h i n g o f s y n t a x a n d t h e v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s f o r

s y n ta x . S e v e ra l l o n g - h e l d i d e a s u n d e r p i n a n d c o n n e c t t h e d i f f e re n t c h a p t e rs

a n d t o p i c s . T h e o n e t h a t w ill p e r h a p s b e m o s t o b v i o u s i s t h a t sp o k e n l a n g u a g e

m u s t b e t a k e n s e rio u s ly , o r r a t h e r s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e ; t h a t is , s p o

k e n la n g u a g e p r o d u c e d b y sp e a k e r s i n c i rc u m s ta n c e s t h a t a l lo w a m i n i m u m o f

p la n n in g t im e . N o t th a t w r i t te n lan g u ag e is d o w n g ra d e d ; ra th e r , s p o k e n a n d

w r it te n l a n g u a g e a r c t re a t e d a s e q u a l l y w o r th y o f a t t e n t i o n , a l t h o u g h s p e e c h

h as p r io r i t y f o r ea rly f ir s t l an g u ag e acq u i s i ti o n .

T h e a b o v e id e a is ra n k e d f i r s t b e c a u s e s p o n t a n e o u s sp o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d

f o rm a l w r it te n l a n g u a g e ( t o t a k e t h e tw o p o l e s o f a c o n t i n u u m o f t e x t t y p e s )

a r e n o t ju s t d i f f e r en t b u t p r o f o u n d ly d i f f e ren t . T h i s a f fec ts co r e s y n t ac t i c

t .i eo r y {n o s en t en ces ; d i f f e r en t w ay s o l c o m b in in g c l au s es ; d i f f e r en t co n s t r u c -

t o n s a n d s o o n ) a n d b e a r s d i re c t ly o n t h e o r ie s o f fi rs t l a n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n

( C h a p t e r 1 2), l a n g u a g e c o m p l e x i ty ( C h a p t e r 1 1) a n d e v o l u ti o n o f la n g u ag e .

T h e la st t o p i c i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e b o o k , b u t t h e o r i e s o f l a n g u a g e e v o l u ti o n

m u s t ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e f a c t th a t h u m a n s s p o k e lo n g b e fo r e t h e y b eg a n t o

w r it e . In d e ed , ev en t o d ay , o n ce t h ey f in i s h f o r m a l s ch o o l in g , th e m a jo r i t y o t

h u m a n s u s e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m o r e t h a n th e y u s e w r it te n l a n gu a g e.

A s e c o n d i d e a is th a t g r a m m a r a n d m e a n i n g a r e c lo s e ly c o n n e c t e d , to t h e

e x t e n t t h a t a ll g ra m m a t ic a l m o r p h e m e s c a r ry m e a n i n g a n d t h a t f o r m o s t u se rs

c f g r a m m a r , e s p e c ia l ly n o n - n a t i v e l e a r n e r s o f a n y l a n g u a g e , t h e m o s t sa ti sf y

in g e x p l a n a t io n o l s o m e g r a m m a t ic a l p o i n t is a s e m a n t ic o n e t h a t w o r k s . T h i s

i de a i n f o r m e d m y d o c t o r a l r e s e a rc h i n t h e l a te 1 9 60 s o n a s p e c t i n R u s si an ,

w o r k i n g w i th i n a lo c a li st f ra m e w o r k . H e r e , t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n g r a m m a r a n d

s e m a n t ic s is d is c u s se d v i a l o u r t o p i c s, i n C h a p t e r s 7 - 1 0 : t h e g e tpassive, ivh

w o r d s , p a r t s o f sp e e c h a n d t h e m a t i c r o le s.

A th i r d i d ea , d is cu s s ed in C h a p te r 1 o n t h e o r y , d a t a an d an a ly s is , i s t h a t i t is

e s s en ti a l to h av e in s ig h t f u l , r e l iab l e d es c r ip t i v e g r a m m ar a s w e ll a s f o r m a l

m o d e l s . B o t h a p p r o a c h e s t o l a n g u a g e a r e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d f o r m a l m o d e l s g o

as t r ay w i th o u t s o l i d d es c r ip t i v e s u p p o r t . ( Sec , f o r ex amp le , t h e d i s cu s s io n o f


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V I I I Introduct ion and Acknowledgements

s tr o n g a n d w e a k f e a tu r e s a n d I n d i re c t Q u e s t io n s i n C h a p t e r 1 .) T h e a u d i e n c e

fo r g o o d d e s c rip ti v e g r a m m a r s a n d g r a m m a r is e n o r m o u s ; t h e m a r k e t a n d

r an g e o f ap p l i ca t io n s l o r d es c r ip t iv e g r am m ar i s l a r b ig g e r t h a n t h e s p ec ia l is t

m a r k e t f o r f o r m a l m o d e l s . I t m u s t b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t d e s c r i p t i v e g r a m m a r

c o e s n o t s t a n d s til l, j u s t a s fo r m a l m o d e l s d o n o t s t a n d s t il l. G o o d d e s c ri p ti v e

g r a m m a r s d r a w o n t h e v as t a m o u n t o f w o rk t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e i n s id e an d

o u t s id e f o r m a l m o d e l s o v e r th e p a s t fi ft y y e a rs o r s o a n d a d e s c r ip t iv e g r a m

m a r p r o d u c e d i n 2 0 1 0 is n o t a t a ll th e s a m e a s a d e s c r ip t iv e g r a m m a r p r o d u c e d

in 1950.

T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s t o p i c s h a s a l s o b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e

i m p o r ta n c e o f c o ll e c ti n g re l ia b l e d a t a .A s a u s e r o f d a t a b a s e s a n d a c o l l e c to r o f

s p o k e n d a t a , J M i s a w a r e o f t h e l im i t a ti o n s o n a n y o n e s p e a k e r 's e x p e r ie n c e

c - f l a n g u a g e a n d i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t s y n t a x a n d o t t h e n e e d t o k e e p t e s t i n g

f o rm a l r u l e s a n d p r in c i p l e s a g a i n s t n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g d a t a a s o p p o s e d to

i n v e n te d e x a m p l e s . T h i s to p i c i s c e n t r a l t o C h a p t e r 6 , o n u s a g e - b a s e d m o d e ls .

S o m e o f t h e c h a p t e r t o p i c s m i g h t s e e m t o b e o n l y i n d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o

s y n ta x . W h a t a r e c o m p l e x it y , g r a m m a t i c a l it y a n d c o n f i g u r a t io n a l it y d o in g

i:i th i s b o o k ? C o m p lex i ty is i n c lu d ed b e cau s e i t is cen t r a l t o t h e d i ff e ren ces

b e tw ee n s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a n d w r it te n la n g u a g e , e sp e c ia lly th e

w r it te n l a n g u a g e re q u i re d a t s c h oo l a n d u n i v e r si ty a n d i n m a n y p r o f es s io n s .

(W e l ea ve o n o n e s i d e th e q u e s t io n o f w h e t h e r a n d i n w h a t r e sp e c t o n e l a n

g u a g e m i g h t b e m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n a n o t h e r . ) I t is d ir e c t ly r e le v a n t t o t h e o ri e s

o f f i rs t l a n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n a n d t o t h e o r i e s o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f l an g u a g e . T h e

c o n c e p t o f g r a m m a t ic a l it y i s c e n t r a l t o a ll g e n e r a t iv e g r a m m a r , to d e s c ri p ti v e

g r a m m a r , t o t h e o r ie s o f f ir s t l a n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n , t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li sh a s

a n a d d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e a n d t o t h e p r a c t i c e o l s p e e c h t h e r a p y . T o d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r a p a t i e n t h a s s o m e s p e e c h d e f ic i t o r is s i m p l y u s i n g a s p o k e n - la n g u a g e

c o n s t r u c ti o n , s t a n d a r d o r n o n - s t a n d a r d , sp e e c h t h e r a p is ts n e e d a t h o r o u g h

k n o w le d g e o f s p o k e n a n d w r it te n E n g lis h a n d o f th e n o n - s t a n d a r d v a r ie ty

s p o k en in th e a r ea w h er e th ey p r ac t is e .

C o n f i g u r a t i o n a l i t y h a s t o d o w i t h w h e t h e r h e a d s a n d m o d i f i e r s , p a r t i c u

l a r l y n o u n s a n d m o d i f y i n g d e m o n s t r a t i v e s a n d a d j e c t i v e s , a r e a d j a c e n t o r

s e p a r a te d b y o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a c la u s e . T h e r e a r e la n g u a g e s i n w h i c h t he y

a r e n o t a d j a c e n t ; t h e q u e s t i o n i s h o w t h e f ac ts a r e to b e i n t e r p r e t e d , a n d t h is in

t u r n t ie s in w i t h w o r k o n s p o n t a n e o u s sp o k e n la n g u a g e . T h e f ac ts a ls o b e a r o n

t he q u e s t i o n o l c o n s t i t u e n t s tr u c t u r e a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a n a ly s t s i n v es ti

g a t in g s p o k e n l a n g u a g e h a v e s i m p l y a p p l ie d t h e s t r u c t u r e s f a m i li a r t o t h e m


10/288

Introduction and Acknow ledgem ents

f r o m w r i tt e n la n g u a g e ( m a i n l y t h e w r it te n v a r i e ti e s o f l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in

Europe) .

N a tu ra l ly o c c u r r in g ex a m p le s o f s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k e n la n g u a g e a r c s c a t

t e re d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k . T h e R u s s ia n o n e s a r e t a k e n f ro m Z e m s k a ja ( 1 97 3 ).

T h e E n g li sh o n e s c o m e f ro m v a r i o u s c o rp u s e s .

T h e M il le r B r o w n C o r p u s , e s t a b l i s h e d a s p a r t o f a r e s e a r c h p r o je c t o n t h e s y n t ax o f

S c o tt is h E n g l is h b e t w e e n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8 a n d J u n e 1 9 8 0 ( T h e p ro je c t w a s fu n d e d b y

t h e o l d S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l, t h e P r in c ip a l I n v e s t ig a t o r s w e r e J im M il le r

a n d K e it h B r o w n a n d t h e d a t a w a s c o l le c t e d b y M a rt in M i l la r a n d B ill W a t so n . )

T h e p r o j e c t w a s c a r r ie d o u t in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f l in g u i s t ic s , t h e U n i v e rs it y o f

E d in b u r g h . T h e c o r p u s c o n s i s t s o f a p p r o x im a t e ly 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s s p lit in t o 1 0 0 c o n

v e r s a tio n s . T h e c o r p u s is s to r e d in t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f L i n g u i st ic s a n d E n g l is h L a n

g u a g e a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f E d i n b u r g h . A n o t h e r c o p y i s in t h e S c o t t i s h T e xt s A r c h iv e ,

s u p e r v is e d b y th e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n g l is h L a n g u a g e , U n iv e rs it y o f G l a sg o w .

t h e W e l l in g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a l a n d E n g l is h w a s c o ll e c t e d b e t w e e n

1 9 8 8 a n d 1 9 9 4 b y r e s e ar ch e r s in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L in g u is t ic s a n d A p p l ie d

L a n g u a g e S t u d i e s a t t h e V i ct o r ia U n iv e r s i t y o f W e l li n g t o n , N e w Z e a la n d . T h e c o r p u s

c o n s is t s o f o n e m il l io n w o r d s m a d e u p o f ? .0 0 0 - w o r d e x t r a ct s It c o n t a in s f o rm a l,

s e m i- fo r m a l a n d i n fo r m a l s p e e c h , b o t h m o n o l o g u e a n d d i a lo g u e , a n d in c lu d e s

b r o a d c a s t m a t e ria l a s w e l l a s p r i v a t e in t e r a c t io n s in a r a n g e o f s e t t in g s . T o g e t h e r

w i th t h e W e l li n g t o n W r it te n C o r p u s , it w a s m a d e a v a i la b le t o t h e p u b l ic in 1 9 9 8 in

t h e f o rm o f a C D e n t i t le d W e l l in g t o n Co r p o r a o f N e w Z e a l a n d E n g l i sh . T h e w e b s it e

i s a t h t t p Zf w w w v u w . a c .m l l a t s. E x a m p le s f ro m t h is c o r p u s a r e la b e lle d ' W S C . f o r

W e l l i n g t o n S p o k e n C o r p u s ' .

T h e t r a n s c r ip t io n s i n t h e W S C a n d t h e M i ll er -B r o w n C o r p u s h a ve n o

p u n c tu a t io n a n d n o c a p ita l le tte rs . T o h e lp re a d e rs , lo n g e r sp aces h av e b e e n

i n s e rt e d t o s i g n al t h e e n d s a n d b e g i n n i n g s o f w h a t a r e t a k e n t o b e c la u se s.

S o m e e x a m p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e M a c q u a r i e C o r p u s , s p e c i fi c a l ly fr o m t h e A u s t ra l ia n

c o m p o n e n t o f t h e I n t e rn a t io n a l C o r p u s o f E n g l is h , w h i c h is a b b r e v ia t e d t o ' A u s tr a lia n

I C E i n t h e la b e l s o n t h e e x a m p l e s T h e d a t a c o m e fr o m t e x ts c a t e g o r iz e d a s

u n s c r ip t e d d i a lo g u e , c o d e d b y ' S I A ' i n t h e M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s . O n e o r t w o e x a m

p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e N e w Z e a la n d c o m p o n e n t o f I C E , a ls o p a rt o f th e M a c q u a rie

A r c h i v e I a m g r a te f u l t o P a m P e t e rs a n d A d a m S m it h fo r g i v i n g m e a c c e s s t o t h e

a r c h i v e .

O n e o r t w o e x a m p l e s a r e t a ke n f ro m C a r t e r a n d M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 9 7 ) , t ra n s cr ip t s

o f v a r io u s in t e ra c tio n s . T h e d a t a w e r e c o l le c t e d a n d t r a n s c rib e d a s p a r t o f t h e

C A N C O D E p ro je c t .


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Introduction and A cknowledgem ents

O n e e x a m p l e co m e s f ro m a t r a n s c r ip t o f a c o n v e r s a tio n b e t w e e n a d o c to r a l

r e se a r ch e r , G i ll ia n F o y , a n d t h e m o t h e r o l a s c h o o l s t u d e n t , o n e o f t h e s u b j e c t s

t a k i n g p a r t in G F ' s w o r k o n lit er ac y .

T w o e x a m p l e s o f r e su l ta t iv e s in C h a p t e r 6 c o m e f ro m R o n M a c a u la y 's b o o k

L o c a t i n g D i a l e c t i n D i sc o u r s e .

I c l o se t h is v e r y s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n b y a c k n o w l e d g i n g m y d e b t t o v a ri o u s

f ri e n d s a n d c o ll ea g u es . M y g e n e r a l o u t l o o k o n l a n g u a g e a n d l in g u i s ti c s w a s

m u c h i n f lu e n c e d b y p e o p l e I w o r k e d w i th a t t h e U n i v e rs it y o f E d i n b u r g h : t h e

la te D e n n i s W a r d ( in t h e R u s s ia n D e p a r t m e n t ) , J o h n L y o ns , K e it h B r ow n a n d

Kei th M i tchel l in L ing uis t ics , loh n A nd erson in Engl i sh L anguag e . Lat te r ly ,

I h a v e le a r n e d m u c h f ro m R o s a n n a S o r n i c o l a a t t h e U n i v e rs it y F e d e ri co I I inN aple s a n d h a v e b e e n in s p ire d b y th e w o rk o l C la i r e B lan ch e -B cn v en is te

i n P a ris a n d A i x -e n - P r o v e n c e . D u r i n g t h e l a st f o u r y e a r s o f m y c a re e r, a t t h e

U n iv e r s it y o f A u ck lan d , 1 h ad m an y i l l u m in a t in g d i s cu s s io n s w i th A n d r eea

C a l u d e , J i m F e is t, K e ith M o n t g o m e r y a n d I l e le n C h a r t e rs . (T h e y p r o b a b l y d id

r o t re a liz e a t t h e t im e h o w i ll u m i n a t in g t h e ir c o m m e n t s a n d q u e s t i o n s w e r e.)

A n d re e a C a l u d e , J im F eis t a n d W i n if re d B a u e r ha v e c o m m e n t e d o n p a r ts o f

t he b o o k a n d a n s w e r e d q u e s t io n s . O f c o u r s e , I a lo n e a m r e s p o n s ib l e f o r a ny

m o r t h o d o x i e s a n d m i sta ke s.


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Theory, Data and Analysis

Chapter OutlineI n t r od u c t i on 1E x p la n a t io n a n d d e sc r ip t ion 2

D a t a a n d the ory 8

D a t a a n d a n a ly s is 11

C la u se a n d se n te n ce 21

Tricky s t ru c tu re s in s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g l ish 2 6

C o n c lu s io n : in te g ra te d a n d u n in te g ra te d s tru c tu re s 3 9

IntroductionW h a t c o u n t s a s d o i n g sy n t ax ? S o m e m i g h t i n s e r t t h e w o r d r ea l: w h a t c o u n t s

*s d o i n g r e al s y nt a x? T h e r e a r e t w o m a i n c a m p s : th o s e l i n g u i s ts f o r w h o m re al

s yn ta x f o c u s es o n t h e o r i e s o f f ir st l a n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n a n d t h o s e w h o se e

s y n t ax a s f o cu s in g 011c o n c e p t s l o r t h e a n a l y s i s a n d d e s c r ip t i o n o f la n g ua g e s,

l i n g u i s t s w h o p r ac t i s e t h e f ir st k in d o f s y n t ax l i k e to see it as ex p l an a to r y , w i th

ih e s eco n d k in d b e in g 'm er e ly ' d es c r ip t iv e . I n t h i s ch ap t e r , w e a r g u e t h a t a ll

s y n tac ti c w o r k i n v o lv es t h eo r y , t h o u g h n o t n eces s a ri ly f o r m a l m o d e l s , an d t h a t

d a ta a r c i m p o r t a n t . T h e o r y r e s t in g o n i n c o r r e c t d a t a o r u n s a t is f a c t o r y an a ly se s

o f c o r r e c t d a t a m i g h t b e c o h e r e n t a n d i n t e r n a l ly c o n s i s te n t , b u t c a n n o t be

a c ce p te d w i th o u t r el ia b le s u p p o r t in g e v id e n c e . G a t h e r i n g s u f f i c ie n t e v id e n c e

is n o t a s i m p l e m a t te r , e v e n l o r w r i tt e n l a n g u a g e , w h i l e o b t a i n i n g g o o d s p o k e n

data i s d i f f icu l t , i t s t r an sc r ip t io n i s t im e-c on su m ing an d i ts ana lys i s is t ri cky .

iS ce C h a p t e r 5 f o r a d is c u s si o n o f d a t a a n d g r a m m a t ic a l ly . )


13/288

A Crit ical Introduc t ion to Syntax

T h e n e e d t o c h e c k t h e d a t a o n w h i c h p ie c e s o f th e o r y a re b a s e d i s d e m o n

s t r a t e d i n p p . 4 - 7 v i a a n a c c o u n t o f i n d i r e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s t i o n s . J u s t

h o w d i f f icu l t i t i s t o an a ly s e t h e s y n t ax o f s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k en l an g u ag e is

d e m o n s t r a te d in p p . 1 3 - 2 0 v i a a n e x a m i n a t io n o f t r a n s c r i p t io n p r o b l e m s ,

except c la u s e s ( m a i n o r s u b o r d i n a t e ? ) a n d t h e be sa t !be s tood s t ruc tu re s , a ll

f ro m C a r t e r a n d M c C a r th y ( 1 9 9 7 ), a n d v i a a d i s c u ss io n o f c o n s t r u c ti o n s

ty p ic a l o f s p o k e n l an g u ag e : N P - C l a u se ( N P - N o u n P h r a s e ) , V - D i r e c t O b j ec t

N P -C o m p lc m c n t C la u se , W U c le f t ( th e s p o k e n c o n s t ru c t io n r a th e r th a n th e

w r it te n o n e ) a n d t h e t h in g - i s c o n s t ru c t i o n .

Explanation and descriptionT h e c o n c e p t s a n d m e t h o d s o f s y n t a x a r e t w o o f t h e s e t o t t o o l s f o r t h e

a n a ly s is a n d d e s c r i p t i o n o f l a n g u a g e s . T h e s m a l le s t u n i ts o f s y n t a x a r e w o r d s.

T h e y c o m b i n e i n t o p h r a s e s , p h r as e s i n t o c la u s e s a n d c la u s e s i n t o s en t en c e s .

S e n te n c es c o m b i n e i n t o l o n g e r te x t s, b u t t h e d i s c o u r s e li n ks o v e r c h u n k s o f

t ex t a r e d i f f e re n t f r o m t h e l i n k s b e tw e e n w o r d s , p h r a s e s a n d c la u s es . T h e s t r u c

t u r e o f p h r a s e s a n d c l a u s e s is d if fe r e n t f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s e n te n c e s ; th e

c la s sica l c r i te r i a f o r d e t e r m in in g co n s t i t u e n t s t r u c tu r e ap p ly n ea t l y t o p h r as es

a n d c l a u s e s b u t m u c h le ss n e a t l y to s e n t e n c e s . T h a t i s to s ay , p h r a s e s a n d

c lau s es r eq u i r e d i f f e r en t t ech n iq u es o f an a ly si s f ro m s en t en ces , an d l o n g e r

t ex ts r e q u i r e v e r y d i ff e r e n t a n a ly t ic a l t e c h n i q u e s . ( T h e s t r u c t u r e o f w o r d s i s

l ik ew i se d i f f e r en t f r o m th e s t r u c tu r e o f p h r as es an d c l au s es an d w i ll n o t b e

d ea l t w i th i n t h i s b o o k ex c ep t in p as s in g . )

W h a t d o l in g u i s t s d e s c r i b e w i th s y n ta x ? T h e y p r o d u c e r e fe r en c e g r a m m a r s

a f in d i v i d u a l l a n g u a g e s, d e s c r ip t i o n s t h a t t r y t o e n c o m p a s s a ll th e s t ru c t u r e s

f o u n d i n a l l t h e d i f fe r e n t t y p e s o f t e x t i n a g i v e n la n g u a g e : c o n v e r s a t io n , le c

tu r e s , p o e t r y , n o v e ls , n ew s p ap e r s , r e s ea rch m o n o g r ap h s , t ex tb o o k s f o r s ch o o l

a n d u n i v e rs it y a n d s o o n . E x a m p l e s o f s u c h r e fe re n c e g r a m m a r s a re Q u i rk

? t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) f o r E n g l is h , G r ev i s s e -G o o s s e ( 1 9 9 3 ) an d Bau e r ( 1 9 9 7 ). T h e s ec

o n d in t h e l i s t is en t i tl ed l e bon usage ( Goo d Usage ),b u t i n f act co v e r s p a t t e r n s

a n d I tap ax legom ena f ro m a ll s o r t s o f t e x ts a n d t a k e s a r el ax e d v i e w o f n o r m s .

T h e l as t i n t h e li st h a s t h e a i m o f r e c o r d i n g a n d a n a l y s in g c o n s t r u c t i o n s u s e d

b y o ld e r sp e a k e rs o f M a o r i w h o se u sa g e w a s le ss a ffe c te d b y E n g lish th a n

t h e u s a g e o f y o u n g e r sp e a k e r s. G r a m m a t ic a l d e s c r i p t io n s m a y fo c u s m o r e

n a rr ow l y , n o t o n E n g l i s h i n g e n e r a l b u t , sa y, o n t h e l a n g u a g e o f J a n e A u s t e n s

n o v els o r o f le g al d o c u m e n t s o r c o u r t p r o c e e d in g s .


14/288

Theory, Data and Ana lysis

L i n g u i st s a l so p r o d u c e g r a m m a r s f o r n o n - n a t iv e l e a r n e r s o f p a r t ic u l a r

l ang u ag es . T o d o s o , t h e y d ec id e w h a t s e t o f l ea r n e r s t h ey a r e w r i t in g fo r,

w h e t h e r c o m p l e t e b e g i n n e r s , l e a r n e r s w i t h s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f th e l a n g u a g e o r

l e a r n e rs w i th a l o t o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d s e le c t a c c o r d in g l y th e a r e a s o f g r a m m a r

( a n d v o c a b u l a ry ) , th e a m o u n t o f d e t a i l a n d t h e l ev e l o f e x p l a n a t i o n . A t h i r d s e t

c f g r a m m a r s i s w r i tt e n f o r n a t iv e u s e rs o f a l a n g u a g e . F o r e x a m p l e , s p ee c h

t h e r a p i s ts t r e a t c h i ld r e n a n d a d u l t s w h o h a v e d i f fi c u l ty p r o d u c i n g la n g u a g e ,

w h e t h e r b e c a u s e o l a n a c c i d e n t o r s tr o k e , i n t h e c a s e o l a d u l t s , o r b e c a u s e ol

s o m e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o b l e m , i n t h e c a se o f c h i ld r e n . T h e r a p i st s h a v e t o k n o w

w h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( a n d v o c a b u l a ry a n d d i s c o u rs e o r g a n i z a t i o n ) t h e i r p a ti e n ts

n i g h t b e t ry i n g t o p r o d u c e , a n d t h e y m u s t b e a b le t o d e s c ri b e th e l an g u a g e o f

th e i r p a t i en t s i n c l i n ica l r ep o r t s . M u ch f o r en s i c l i n g u i s t ic w o r k f o r co u r t ca s es

c c a ls w i th t h e s o u n d s o f l a n gu a g e , b u t s o m e w o r k d e als w i th g r a m m a r a n d

d i s c o u rs e o r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p le u n d e r t a k i n g f o re n s ic w o r k h a v e t o b e a b l e to

a n a ly s e a n d c o m p a r e t h e sy n t a x o l d i ff e re n t t e x ts , a n d t h e y n e e d t o b e a b le

to d es c r ib e t h e i r f i n d in g s ac cu r a t e ly an d co n s i st en t ly .

T h e w o r d ' d e s c ri b e o c c u r s s ev e r al t i m e s in t h e e a r l ie r p a r a g r a p h s , a lo n g

w i t h t h e w o r d d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e l in g u i s t ic s t h a t is u s e d i n r e fe r e n c e g r a m m a r s

a n d in g r a m m a r s f o r s p e e c h t h e r a p i s ts a n d f o re n s ic l in g u i s t s is k n o w n a s

ces c r ip t i v e li n g u i s ti c s . O p p o s e d t o i t, o r a t l ea st p r e s en t ed b y s o m e l in g u i s t s a s

o p p o s ed t o i t , i s t h eo r e t i ca l , ex p l an a to r y l in g u i s t i c s , a ch o i ce o f t it l e t h a t p r e

s u p p o s es t h a t d es c r ip t i v e l in g u i s t ic s is n o t t h eo r e t ica l a n d n o t ex p l an a to r y . We

w i ll s e e t h a t , w h a t e v e r t h e o p p o s i ti o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s , it i s n o t

d e a r - c u t a n d i n fa c t is n o t r ec o g niz e d b y a g o o d n u m b e r o f p r a c ti ti o n e rs .

A n d e r s o n ( 2 0 0 8 ) s e t s o u t c le a r ly th e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n m e r e l y d e s c r ib i n g

( C la r k , 2 0 0 5 , p . 2 3 2 ) an d ex p l a in in g . Fo r g en e r a t i v e l i n g u i s t s , ex p l a in in g

m ean s d ev e lo p in g a s ma l l n u m b e r o f v e r y g en e r a l p r i n c ip le s g o v e r n in g th e

a r r an g em en t s o f s y n tac t ic s t r u c tu r e , t h e 'm o v em en t o f co n s t it u en t s , co -r e le r en ce

r el ati o ns b e tw e e n a n a p h o r s a n d a n t e c e d e n t s a n d t h e m a p p i n g o f s y nt ac tic

s t r u c t u r e o n t o s e m a n t i c in t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I t a l so m e a n s p r o v i d i n g a t h e o ry

o f h o w c h i l d r e n a c q u i re t h e i r n a t iv e la n g u a g e w i th o u t ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

C h o m s k y a n s ) i n s t r u c t i o n a n d w i th e x p o s u r e t o d e g e n e r a t e d a t a . ( F o r a d if fe r

en t v i ew , s ee t h e d i s cu s s io n o l f i r s t l an g u ag e acq u i s i t i o n i n Ch ap te r 1 2 . )

A n d er s o n ( 2 0 0 8 , p . 7 9 6 ) s e t s o u t t h i s i n f l u en t i a l p e r s p ec t iv e v e r y f ir m ly : t h e

o b j e c t o f s tu d y is n o t s e ts o f s o u n d s , o r w o r d s , o r s e n t e n c e s, o r t e x ts f o r t h e i r

o w n s a k es , b u t r a t h e r t h e s y s te m o l k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e c o g n i ti v e c a p a c it y th a t

u n d e rl ie s t h e a b i li ty o f h u m a n b e i n g s to p r o d u c e a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e s e th in g s.


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L i n g u is ts a re c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o g n i ti v e f ac u lt y

M a t s u p p o r t s L a n gu a ge .

I t w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e a c c u r a t e to s ay t h a t o n e o b j e c t o f s t u d y i s t h e c o g

n iti ve c a p a c i ty u n d e r l y i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f u tt e ra n c e s .

T h e m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s e n g a g e d i n r e s ea r ch o n l an g u a g e a r e p r o b a b l y n o t

d i r e ct ly c o n c e r n e d w i th t h e n a t u r e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f th e c o g n i t iv e c a p ac it y . B u t

n e i t h e r d o t h e y s tu d y w o r d s , s e n t e n c e s a n d t e x ts f o r t h e i r o w n s a k es b u t t o

u n d e r s ta n d w h y so m e t e x t s a r e s u cc e s s lu l a n d o t h e r s a r e n o t , t o e l u c i d a t e la n

g u ag e p rac t i ce s an d a t t it u d e s i n g r o u p s o f u s e r s , t o w r i t e s o ftw ar e - en ab l in g

c o m p u t e r s to h a n d l e n a t u r a l la n g u a g e a n d , a s m e n t i o n e d e a r li er , t o d e s c ri be ,

d i a g n o s e a n d t r e a t t h e l in g u i s ti c p r o b l e m s a f f e c ti n g p a t i e n t s i n n e e d o f s p e e c h

n e r ap y , t o u n d e r t ak e f o r en s i c l i n g u i s t i c w o r k an d ev en , i n an i d ea l w o r ld , t o

t each l an g u ag es a t a l l l ev el s o f ed u c a t i o n .

A n d e r s o n d o e s n o t s a y w h a t c o u n t s a s s t u d y i n g w o r d s , s e n t e n c e s a n d te xts

f o r t h e i r o w n s a k e , a n d h i s s t a t e m e n t i n v it es t h e i n f e re n c e t h a t , w h a t e v e r s u c h

s tu d y m ig h t b e , it is n o t r e l ev a n t t o t h e s t u d y o f co g n i ti v e cap ac it y . W e w il l

a r g u e i n C h a p t e r 12 t h a t t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e d a t a , in p a r t ic u l a r s p o k en

d a t a , h a s r e v e a le d s e r i o u s d e f e c t s i n t h e C h o m s k y a n t h e o r y o f f i rs t l an g u a g e

a c q u i s i ti o n a n d r a is e d f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s ti o n s : W h a t a b o u t f ix ed p h r a s e s a n d

d a u s c s? W h a t a b o u t c l a us e a n d p h r a s e t e m p l a te s t h a t a l lo w s o m e m a n i p u la -

t .o n o f p a tt e rn s ? W h a t a b o u t p h r a s e , c l a u s e a n d s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t ca n

be g e n e ra te d b y ru le ( o r c o n tro l le d b y s im p le c o n s tra in ts )? T h e s e issu es lead to

q u e s t io n s a b o u t th e r o l e o t m e m o r y a n d r o te le a r n in g a n d a b o u t t h e r e la t io n

s h i p b e t w e e n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i n , s a y , i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

p ro d u c e d w ith li tt le o r n o t im e fo r d e ta i le d p la n n in g a n d w r it te n lan g u ag e

p ro d u c e d a n d in te rp re te d w ith tim e fo r p la n n in g , e d i t in g a n d rev is ing .

W e c a n q u e s t i o n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n d r a w n s o c l e a rl y b y A n d e r s o n . B ri ar s

( 2 0 0 6 , p . 1 4 ) a n d G r e e n ( 2 0 0 5 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e o r y a r e

i n te r c o n n e c t e d a n d i n te r d e p e n d e n t . D e s c r ip t io n o f la n g u ag e r e q u ir e s a s e t o f

co n cep t s an d , c r u c i a l l y , g en e r a l i za t i o n an d ab s t r ac t i o n . E v en o b s e r v a t i o n

r e qu i re s s o m e t h e o r y t o e n a b l e o b s e rv e r s t o p i c k o u t r e l e v a n t d a t a . F o r in s ta n c e ,

t i e o b s e r v e r c o m i n g a c ro s s th e e x a m p l e in ( I ) w o u l d n o t a p p r e c i a te th e s ig

n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p a r t i n b o l d u n l e s s t h e y k n e w t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o r e f e r e n c e

g r a m m a r s o f E n g lis h i n d i r e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s t i o n s h av e t h e s tr u c t u r e o f

a d ec l a r a t iv e s en t en c e , a d ec l a r a t io n t h a t is r ep ea t ed i n a ll th e g en e r a t iv e

g r a m m a r s o f E n g l is h . A c c o r d in g t o t h e s e a c c o u n t s , ( 1 ) s h o u l d h a v e t h e s t r u c -

t a r e i n (2 ).


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( 1 ) I 'd l o v e t o k n o w h o w m u c h b e l t e r a p l a y e r is T i g er W o o d s l h a n l o m M o r r is .

T h e H e r a l d , M id w e e k S p o r t, 1 6 A p r i l 2 0 0 8 , p . 1 6

( 2 ) I 'd l o v e to k n o w h o w m u c h b e t te r a p l ay e r Ti g e r W o o d s is t h a n T o m M o r n s.

I n ( 1 ) , t h e i n d i r e c t o r e m b e d d e d q u e s t io n h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a d i r e c t q u e s

tion: H o w m u c h be lt e r a p la y e r is T ig er W oods th a n T o m M o rris? T h e w h p h r a se

l o w m u c h b e tt er is i n f ir s t p o s i ti o n a n d s u b j e c t - a u x i li a r y in v e r s io n h a s c h a n g e d

Tigers Woods is to is Tiger Woods. ( 2 ) h as t h e co n s t i t u en t o r d e r o l a d ec l a ra t iv e

c la u se . T h e w h p h r a s e i s a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e c la u s e , t h is b e i n g a k e y p r o p e r t y o f

i n d ir e c t q u e s t io n s , b u t t h e s u b j e c t N P p r e c e d e s t h e a u x i li a ry , Tiger Woods is.

T h e l a t t e r o r d e r is a k ey p r o p e r ty o f d ec l a r a t iv e c l aus es.

O b s e r v e rs i n f o r m e d a b o u t M i n im a l is m w o u l d a ls o k n o w t h a t t h e e x a m p l e

r u n s c o u n t e r t o t h e i de a t h a t su c h e x a m p l e s c a n b e s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d l y ' a n a ly s e d

a s a ri s in g f r o m t h e le xi ca l s p e c if ic a t io n o f t h e e m b e d d e d C ( c o m p l e m e n t ) ,

v /h ic h w o u l d h a v e a w e a k f e a tu r e ( Q ) ( f o r Q u e s t i o n ) r a t h e r t h a n a s t ro n g ( Q | .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s in c e t h e a n a ly s is o f e m b e d d e d q u e s t i o n s a n d t h e a n a ly s is o f

w h - q u es t i o n s i s s y n t ac t ica l ly p a r a l le l , w e co r r ec t l y p r ed i c t t h a t w e d o n o t f in d

inver s ion in e m b e d d e d w h q u es t i o n s ' (A d g er , 2 0 0 3 , p . 3 5 7 ) . ( 1 ) a n d m an y o th e r

e x a m p l e s f ro m w r i tt e n a n d s p o k e n E n g l is h s h o w t h a t t h e p r e d i c t io n i s w r o n g

a n d c a st d o u b t o n t h e d i s ti n c t io n b e tw e e n a w e a k a n d s t r o n g f e a t u re [ Q J .

It is i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e a n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s to s h o w t h a t w h a t t h e a n aly s t

h a s c o m e a c r o s s is n o t a o n e - o f f b u t p e r h a p s a r e g u l a r f e a t u re o f o n e s p e a k e r s

u t t e ran ces . E v en b e t t e r is t o h av e a r an g e o f ex am p les f r o m d i f f e r en t tex t ty p es ,

a s i n ( 3 ) ( 7 ). T h e f ac t t h a t ( 3 ) ( 7 ) a r e f r o m w r i t ten t ex t s is im p o r t an t , s i n ce

t h at i n d i c a te s c le a r ly t h a t w e a r e n o t d e a l in g w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e e r ro r s:

(3) T h e q u e s tio n r e m a in s o l w h a t i s t h e g r a n t - g i v i n g b o d y

D e p a r t m e n t M e e t in g , U n i v e rs it y o f E d i n b u r g h

( n o t S c o t t i s h f c n g lis h , a s t h e s p e a k e r w a s E n g l is h )

(4 ) T h is is s u e a b o u t h o w a r e w e p r e p a r in g s t u d e n t s t o f lo w o n s e e m s t o m e

q u i t e im p o r t a n t

A s s o c i a t e D e a n s M e e t i n g , U n i v e< s it y o f A u c k l a n d , u n p l a n n e d

(5 ) N o o n e is s ur e h o w l o n g a r e t h e p a s s a g e s l e a d i n g o f f f r o m t h i s c e n t r e .

Sc o t l a n d a n Su n d a y , 1 3 N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 8 T ra v el a r t ic l e b y D o r e e n T ay lo r

(6 ) L o g o n a t t he B B C W o r ld Se r vic e A I D S s it e to f in d o u t h o w m u c h d o y o u

k n o w a b o u t c o n d o m s

B B C w e b p a g e 2 0 0 6


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(7 ) Y o u h a v e lo a s k w h y i s it n e c e s s a r y t o r a i s e t h i s v e r y d e l ic a t e a n d d i f f i

c u l t s u b j e c t in t h e f r a u g h t a n d f e b r ile c o n t e x t o f a g e n e r a l c a m p a i g n .

N e w Z ea l a n d H e r a ld , 1 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 5 . w r i tt e n

( 8) T h e l u g g e d u n c e r ta in l y h a n g i n g o ve r t h e e c o n o m y i s h o w r e d w i ll t h i n g s g e t

i R e f l o m a p s h o w i n g a r e a s o f t i o u s e -p r ic e d e c r e a s e s i n re d]

Jb e Ec o n o m a t , 1 0 - 1 6 M a y 2 0 0 8 . A m e r ic a n h o u sin g .

M a p o f m is e r y , p 9 7

T h e h i s t o ry o f a c o n s t r u c ti o n m a y b e r e l e v an t , g iv en a p r o p e n s i t y a m o n g

m an y p r o f es sio n a l l in g u i s t s an d o r d in a r y u s e r s o l a g iv en lan g u ag e to d i s m i ss

c o n s t r u c ti o n s th a t a r e s u p p o s e d ly c o n fi n e d t o o n e ( o r m o r e ) n o n - s ta n d a r d

v a r i e t y o r t o s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h o r t h a t a r e ( s u p p o s e d l y ) o f r e c e n t o r i g i n .

W i th r e s p e c t t o t h e i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n c o n s t r u c t io n e x e m p l if ie d e a r lie r , D e n i s o n

( 19 9 8 , p . 2 4 6 ) , f o l lo w in g H en r y ( 1 9 9 5 ) , a s s e r t s t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n o r m a l

in U l s t e r E n g l i s h , i n Wel s h E n g l i s h , i n r ecen t A mer i can E n g l i s h ( n o t e t h e

recent) a n d i n t h e N e w E n g l i s h e s . ( 3 ) - ( 8 ) s h o w t h a t D e n i s o n d o e s n o t c a s t

h i s n e t w i d e e n o u g h , a n d w e w o u l d a d d t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n i n

ex i s ten ce s in ce a t l ea st t h e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n in e t ee n th c en tu r y , w i tn es s th e

e x a m p l e fr o m E s t h e r S u m m e r s o n s n a r ra t i v e i n B leak H om e. h a d th o u gh t

be forehand tha t I k ne w i ts purport , an d I d id. I t a sk e d m e w o u ld I b e th e m i s tre s s

c f B l e a k H o u s e { B le a k H o u se ,P a r t 1 4, C h a p t e r 4 4 ) . ( 9 ) i s a w r it te n e x a m p l e o f

t i e c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m t h e e a rl y 1 94 0s.

( 9 ) T h e y t h in k t h a t w h a t h a p p e n e d in P o l an d c o u l d n e v e r h a p p e n h e r e , b u t

I s o m e t im e s w o n d e r H a v e j u s t a s k e d o n e m a n d i d h e h e a r th i s p r o

g r a m m e . a n d h e re p lie d , 'N o . w e t u rn e d o f f

M a s s- O b se r v a t i o n , B r i t a i n i n t h e S ec o n d W o r ld W a r,

F o l io S o c i e t y 2 0 0 7 , D o r is M e llin g , p . 2 1

T h e i m p o r ta n c e o f g o o d , d e t a il e d d e s c r ip t io n is r ec o g n iz e d b y m a n y l in

g u is ts w h o w o u l d d e s c r i b e t h em s e lv e s as d e a l in g w i th t h e o r y a n d n o t d e s c r i p

t io n ; o n e m a jo r ex c ep t io n i s C h o m s k y , w h o s t a t e d ( C h o m s k y , 1 98 0, p . 11 ) t h a t

s u b s t an t i a l co v e r ag e o f d a t a i s n o t s i g n i f ican t an d d i r ec t ed h i s p a r t i cu l a r

e x p l a n a t o r y t h e o r y t o w a r d s 1- la n g u a g e ( i n te r n a l a n d a b s t ra c t ) a n d a w a y f ro m

E - l an g u ag e ( ex t e r n a l a n d o b s e r v ab l e ) . It w i ll b e a r g u e d i n C h a p te r 1 2 t h a t t h is

n e g le c t o f E - la n g u a g e h a s i m p o r t a n t n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r C h o m s k y s

th e o r y o f f i rs t l an g u a g e acq u i s it io n .

B o r j a rs ( 2 0 0 6 , p . 1 6 ) d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o d i s a g r e e m e n t a m o n g l i n g u is ts o v e r

w h a t c o u n t s a s e x p la n a t io n . In t h e C h o m s k y a n a p p r o a c h , a n a ly s e s a r e d e e m e d


18/288


e x p l a n a t o r y i f t h e y a c c o r d w i t h c e r t a i n g e n e r a l a n d u n i v e r s a l p r i n c ip l e s t h a t

a re i n n a t e ( p a r t o f th e l a n g u a g e fa c u l ty ) a n d e n a b l e c h i l d r e n t o a c q u i r e t h e ir

n a ti ve la n g u a g e , w h a t e v e r i t m i g h t b e . Q u i t e a p a r t f ro m c u r r e n t c o n t ro v e r s y

e v e r f ir s t la n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n , a v e r y la r g e n u m b e r o f l in g u i s t s c o n s i d e r a n a l y

s es t o b e e x p l a n a t o r y o n l y i l th e y p r o v i d e s e m a n t i c o r p r a g m a t ic m o t i v a t io n

f a r p a t t e r n s o f s y n ta x . ( S ee t h e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e g e tp a ss iv e in C h a p t e r 7 a n d

c a se in C h a p t e r 1 0 .) A s s o c ia t in g s e m a n t i c i n t e r p r e t a t io n s w i th s y n t a c ti c s t r u c

t ur e s i s c ru c i al t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o ! a n a d e q u a t e t h e o r y o l f i rs t la n g u a ge

a c q u i s it io n . H u m a n s f in d it v e r y d i ff ic u l t - i n f a ct m a n y f i n d i t i m p o s s i b le - to

r e m e m b e r a n d u s e m e a n in g le s s s e q u e n c e s o l s y m b o l s s u c h a s P I N n u m b e r s

a n d t e le p h o n e n u m b e r s . C h i ld r e n a r e n o e x c ep tio n .

It is n o t a s i m p l e m a t t e r to s e t o u t t h e s y n t a c ti c a n d m o r p h o s y n t a c ti c

p a tte rn s o l a g iv en lan g u a g e , d e m o n s tr a te h o w th e y in te ra c t a n d w h a t th e ir

s e m a n t ic i n t e r p r e t a t io n s a r e . F o r i n s ta n c e , t h e S i m p l e P r e se n t a n d t h e P r o g r e s

s iv e P r es en t i n E n g l is h i n t e r ac t i n a co m p lex w ay , a s d o t h e S im p le Pas t , t h e

Pr o g res siv e Pas t an d t h e ( P r es en t ) Pe r f ect . T h e I m p er f ec t iv e a s p e c t o f Ru s si an

i s u s ed i n ma in an d s u b o r d in a t e c l au s es an d i n f i n i t e an d i n f in i t i v e c l au s es .

I t h e r e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f in i t e a n d n o n f in i te p a t te r n s ? A n a d e q u a t e

e x p l a n a ti o n i s o n e t h a t o f fe rs a s e m a n t i c - p r a g m a t ic a c c o u n t w h i c h d e m o n

s t r a t e s c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t t h e p a t t e r n s a n d u s a g e s a r e n o t a r b i t r a r y b u t a r e

r o o t ed i n s em an t i c s . A n o th e r t y p e o f ex p l an a t i o n i s r eq u i r ed f o r, s ay , t h e p a t

t e rn s o f r e la t iv e cl a u se f o r m a t i o n t h a t a r e f o u n d in h u m a n la n g u a g e s, in p a r

t i cu la r w h ich n o u n s i n a c l au s e can b e m o d i f ied b y a r e la t iv e c lau s e. K een an

a n d C o m r ie s ( 1 9 7 7 ) c l as si c w o r k o n a h i e r a r c h y o f g ra m m a t ic a l f u n c ti o n s

a n d t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f r e la ti v iz a ti o n c o n n e c t s t h e c o n c e p t s o f c o m p l e m e n t a n d

a d j u n c t w i th t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e c o r e o f a c la u s e - s u b j e c t , d i re c t o b j e c t a n d

v e rb - a n d it s p e r i p h e r y - o b l i q u e o b je c t. L ik e t h e w o r k b y G i v o n a n d o t h e rs

e n t h e acces s ib i li ty o f r e f e ren ce , t h e i r re s ea r ch p r o d u ced a h i e r a r ch y o t acces

s ib i li ty t o r e l a t iv i za t io n an d a p l eas in g se t o f im p l i ca t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a lo n g t h e

l :nes o f I f a l angua ge can r c la tiv ize a d i r ec t ob jec t , i t ca n a l so r e la t iv ize sub jec ts

( b u t n o t n eces s a r i ly o b l iq u e o b j ec ts ) .

I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t n o t a l l f o r m a l m o d e l s d e a l w i th t h e c o gn i ti v e

cap a c i t y u n d e r ly in g l an g u ag e . B r ja r s ( 2 0 0 6 , p . 1 3 ) c it e s G az d a r e t a l. (1 9 8 5 )

s t a ti n g p l a i n ly t h a t i t w o u l d b e i rr e s p o n s i b l e t o c l a im t h a t t h e i r f o r m a l g r a m -

n a r o f F .n glish ( a n d b y i n v it e d i n f e re n c e , a n y f o r m a l g r a m m a r o f E n g l is h ) is

a p s y ch o lo g ica l t h eo r y o r a b io lo g i ca l t h eo r y o l t h e s t r u c tu r e o f an a s -y c t-

u n i d e n t if ie d m e n t a l o r g a n . G e n e r a li z e d p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e g r a m m a r w a s o v e r

ta k e n b y t h e v e r y s im i la r h e a d - d r iv e n p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e g r a m m a r , w h i c h h as


19/288


s er ve d a s a f r a m e w o r k f o r s o m e o f t h e m o s t e x p l ic it a c c o u n t s o f p a r t ic u l a r

a re a s o f E n g l is h g r a m m a r - s e e G i n z b u r g a n d S a g ( 20 01 ). N o c l a im s a r e m a d e

f or p sy ch o lo g ica l r ea l i ty t h e r e e it h e r , th o u g h th e acc o u n t co u ld b e t h e b as i s fo r

a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m h a n d l in g s u c h d a t a . A n d o t h e r m o d e l s , s u c h a s D i k 's

Fu n c t io n a l G r am m ar a n d V an V al in s ( o r ig in a l l y Fo l ey an d V an V a lin 's ) Ro le

a n d R e f e re n c e G r a m m a r , m a k e n o c l a im t o p s y c h o lo g i ca l re a l i ty e it h e r.

Data and theoryG o o d , r e li a b le d a t a a r e e q u a l ly c r u c i a l t o d e s c r ip t iv e s y n ta x a n d t o f o r m a l s y n

tax . (W e w i ll u s e f o r m a l r a th e r t h an t h eo r e t i ca l '; w e h av e b een a r g u in g t h a t

d es c r ip ti v e l in g u i s t ic s a ls o r e s t s o n t h e o r y an d w h a t a ll t h e d i f fe r en t s ch o o l s o f

't h e o r e ti c a l l in g u i st ic s h a v e i n c o m m o n i s t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f s o m e f o r m a l

f ra m e w o r k .) W h a t c o u n t s a s g o o d r el ia b le d a t a? N o t j u s t t h e i n t u i ti o n s o f t he

a n a ly s t o r o f n a t iv e s p e a k e r s w h o a r e a s k e d i f th e y f i n d p a r t i c u l a r s e n t en c e s

accep t ab l e o r n o t . T h e an a ly s t s i n tu i t i o n s c an b e l ed a s t r ay b y p r e f e r en ces fo r

t .i i s o r tha t ana lys i s o r theory .

M u c h o f th e f o l lo w i n g d i s c u s s io n d e a l s w i th E n g l is h s t r u c t u r e s , b u t o n e

g o a l o f l i n g u i s t i c s i s t o d ev e lo p co n cep t s t h a t ap p ly t o a l l l an g u ag es . I t i s

ex t r eme ly d i f f i cu l t t o co l l ec t r e l i ab l e d a t a an d an a ly s es f r o m l an g u ag es t h a t

c n e d o e s n o t k n o w w e ll, o r d o e s n o t k n o w a t a ll, a n d f o r w h i c h o n e re lie s o n

e t h e r p e o p l e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n a n a l y s i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f

h ead i n co n n e c t i o n w i th co g n i t iv e / co n s t r u c t i o n g r am m ar , C r o f t (2 0 0 1 , p. 24 6 )

c o m m e n t s t h a t a g r e e m e n t g i v e s c o n f l i c t i n g e v i d e n c e f o r h e a d h o o d a c r o s s

l an g u ag es . I n s o me l an g u ag es , h e s ay s t h a t t h e h ead n o u n ag r ees w i th t h e

G eni t ive M od i f ie r ( in i t ia l cap i ta l s as in C rof t s t ex t ) , w hi le in o th er s the

G e n i ti ve M o d i f ie r a g re e s w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n . T h i s d i s ti n c t i o n w i ll b e d i sc u s s ed

i n t h e se c t i o n o n h e a d s a n d d e p e n d e n t s / m o d i f i e rs ; w h a t i s r e l e v a n t h e r e is th e

B u l g ar ia n p h r a s e u s e d b y C r o ft t o e x e m p l i fy a G e n i ti v e M o d i f ie r a g r e e in g w i th

t n e h e a d n o u n . C o n s i d e r ( 10).

( 1 0 ) S e s t r - i n a - t a k O St a

s i st e r -g e n ( s g - a r t . f s g h o u s e

t h e s i s t e r ' s h o u s e

T h e w o r d sestrinato i s n o t a G e n i t i v e M o d i f i e r . I t i s n o t a n o u n b u t a n

ad jec t ive , a lbe i t a possess ive ad jec t ive , an d i t i s n o t in th e gen i t ive case . (Such

possessive a d jec tiv es a re fo u n d in th e S la vic lan g u ag e s gen e ra lly . T h e y o c c u r

r eg u la r ly , t h o u g h n o t f r eq u en tly , in w r i ti n g , b u t a r e r a r e i n s p o n tan eo u s s p eech .


20/288


a t lea s t i n Ru s s ian a n d B u lg a r i an .) A s an ad j ec ti v e , sestrina f o ll o w s th e I n d o -

E u r o p e a n p a t t e r n o f a g r e e i n g w i th i ts h e a d n o u n . S c a t t o n ( 1 9 8 4 , p p . 3 1 6 - 1 7 ) ,

t h e s o u r ce o f C r o f t s ex am p le , l ab e l s seslriiuitu a possess ive ad jec t ive der ived

f r o m a n o u n . A s h e n o t e s , a n o t h e r p o s s es si ve c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s ts o f t h e

p o ssessed n o u n fo llo w ed b y a p re p o s itio n a l p h ra s e c o n ta in in g th e p o ss esso r

r .oun : kii i ta n a sestrata h o u s e - th e o f s i s te r - th e , t h e s i s te r ' s h o u s e .

S a m p s o n ( 20 0 7 , p p . 1 6 - 1 8 ) h i g h l ig h t s t h e w a y in w h i ch e r r o n e o u s i n t u

i t io n s can b e co m e d a t a t h a t o th e r li n g u i s t s t ak e a s s o l id . 1 Ie c i te s t h e c l a im b y

R oss t h a t w h e n a v e r b i n E n g l is h h a s a p r e f i x i t c a n n o t t a k e a n o n - n o m i n a l

c o m p l e m e n t , a c l a i m t h a t w a s t a k e n u p b y R o e p e r a n d S i e g e l a n d t h e n b y

A r on o fT a n d o t h e r s . A s e a r c h w i t h G o o g l e s h o w e d S a m p s o n t h a t R o ss c la i m

v,ra s w r o n g ; ex a m p les s u ch a s ov e rindu lge in som e th ing a n d reaf f irm tha t such

M id such tu r n e d o u t t o b e q u i te tr e q u e n t .

Peo p le s i n tu i t i o n s a r e ev en l e ss re l iab l e f o r s p o k en l an g u ag e . L ab o v ( 1 9 7 5 ,

pp. 3 4 - 6 ) in te rv ie w e d sp e a k e rs o f P h ila d e lp h ia E n g lish w h o m h e h a d o b se rv ed

u s in g ex a m p l e s s u c h a s John is sm o k in g a lo t a n y m ore, i n w h ich a n y m o re is

eq u iv a l en t t o i s co n t in u in g t o o r 't h e s e d ay s . T h e s p e ak e r s d e n i ed u s in g s u ch

e x a m p le s a n d d e c l a r e d l h a t th e y w o u l d h a v e n o id e a w h a t i h e v m i g h t m e a n i l

t i e y h e a r d t h e m . R e l at iv e c l a u s e s s u c h a s There are som e people can t s top ta lk -

inga rc s t an d a r d i n p r e s en t a t i v e ex i s ten t i a l co n s t r u c t i o n s i n s p o k en E n g l i s h all

ev e r i h e E n g l i s h - s p eak in g w o r ld . T h ey a r e p e cu l i a r i n t h a t t h e r e la t iv e c l au s e

cant s top talking h a s n o r e l a t i v i ze r , a l t h o u g h th e mi s s in g w ho w o u l d b e th e

s u b j ec t o l t h e r e la t iv e c l au s e . T h e s t an d a r d s to r y i s th a t s u c h r e la t iv e c lau s es

m u s t b e in t ro d u c e d b y a w h w o r d su c h a s w h o o r which o r b y t ha t .T h e a u t h o r

a sk e d s e v er a l tu t o r i a l g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s in t h e 1 98 0s w h e t h e r t h e y h a d h e a rd

s u c h e x a m p l e s o r t h o u g h t t h e y w e re p o s s i b le s t r u c t u r e s o f E n g li sh . A ll t h e

s tu d e n ts d e n i e d h a v in g h e a r d t h e m a n d w e re o f th e o p i n io n t h a t th e y w e re n o t

p o ss ib le s t ru c tu r e s o l E ngli sh .

T h e p a r t ic u l a r d i f fi c u lt y h e r e is t h a t s p e a k e r s o f E n g li sh ( a n d p r e s u m a b l y

t i i s a p p l ie s to t h e sp e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s t h a t h a v e sp o k e n a n d w r it te n

v a r ie ti es ) d o n o t h a v e r e li a b le i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t r e g u l a r s y n t a c ti c p a t t e r n s i n th e

s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h o f s p e ak e rs o f s t a n d a r d E n g l is h , n e v e r m i n d n o n - s ta n d a r d

v a r ie ti e s. A n ex a m p le w h ich t h e au th o r h as d i s cu s s ed e ls ew h er e ( M i l le r . 2 0 1 0)

c o n c e rn s t h e u s e o f sa tv e r s u s si t t ing a n d s toodver sus s tanding . C o m m e n tin g

c n t h e u t t e r a n c e t he p i lo t w as sa l i n one o f t he s ea ts , C a r te r a n d M c C a rt hy

( 19 9 7 , p . 34 ) r em ar k t h a t t h e s p ea k e r s p o k e Y o r k s h ir e d i a l ec t an d t h a t s t an d a r d

Engl i sh r equ i res w as si t ting. I n co n t r a s t , t h e r e s ea rch b y C h es h i r e e t a l. (1 9 9 3 ,

p p . 7 0 a n d 71 ) s h o w e d th a t BE sa t / s tood w a s w i d e s p r e a d a n d c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f


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'a g e n e r a l n o n - s t a n d a r d o r s e m i - s ta n d a r d v a r i e t y o f E n g li sh . T h e u n c l e a r s t a

tu s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is r e fl ec ted i n T r as k 's ( 2 0 0 1 , p p . 2 5 2 , 2 7 3 ) d es c r ip t io n

c f was sa t a s co l l o q u i a l B r i ti sh E n g l is h ' an d o f w as s tood as reg ion al Br i t ish

English.

Bu r ch f i e ld ( 1 9 8 1 ) , w r i t i n g l o r t h e BBC, d ec l a r ed was sat/s tood there

u n a c c e p t a b le i n a n y c i rc u m s t a n c e s ; 2 0 y e a r s o n , t h e s t r u c t u r e i s w i d e l y u s e d b y,

f or e x a m p l e , r e p o r t e r s o n t h e B B C N ew s a t Ten ( th o u g h n o t b y t h e p re s e n t e rs ,

v /h o r e a d firo m a u t o c u e s ) a n d s e e m s t o b e c h a r a c t e r is ti c o l u n p l a n n e d s p e e c h

( in c l u d i n g th a t p r o d u c e d b y s p e a k e r s o f s t a n d a r d E n g li sh , c o n t r a r y t o th e

o p i n i o n o l C h e s h i re e t a l. ) M a n y s t r u c t u r e s c o n s i d e r e d n o n - s t a n d a r d m a y b e

n is c la s s if ie d ; r a t h e r th a n b e i n g n o n - s t a n d a r d , t h e y m a y b e n o r m a l i n t h e

s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e c h o f a ll s p ea k e rs .

T h e c o n s t ru c t i o n h a s r e ac h e d n e w s p a p e r w r it in g , as s h o w n b y t h e e x a m p l e s

in ( 11 ) a n d ( 12).

( 1 1 ) S a t b e t w e e n a b e a m i n g T o n y B la ir a n d S i r B o b G e l d o f , E t h io p ia 's P n m e

M i n is te r, M e l e s Z e n a w , p ic tu r e d , co u l d h a r d ly h a v e w s h e d fo a s tr o n g e r

e n d o r s e m e n t

Th e In d e p e n d e n t , 1 7 O c t o b e r 7 0 0 7

{ F r o m W e s t' s fa v o u r it e l e a d e r to g r a v e - d i g g e r o f d e m o c r a c y )

( 1 2 ) 1 h e s a m e c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n s a id f o r J o h n H e c k , s a t a lo n g s i d e h i m o n t h e

b e n c h .

T h e H e r a l d , F rid a y S p o r t, 2 3 M a y 2 0 0 8 , p . S

( 1 3 ) is t ro m a d i a lo g u e i n a n o v e l s e t i n t h e e a r ly 1 9 30 s. T h e s p ea k e r i s t h e

w i fe o f a C h u r c h o f E n g l an d v i c a r a n d d e f in i te l y a s p e a k e r o f s t a n d a r d E n g li sh .

(A s J im an d I ^ s l e y M i lr o y h av e rep e a t ed ly s a id , t h e r e i s f a r m o r e v a r i a t i o n in

s tandard E n g li sh t h a n t h e a r b i t e r s o f u sa g e i m a g i n e . )

( 1 3 ) ' M y d e a r H ila ry , h o w k in d o f y o u ! Y e s , in d e e d - 1 c a n d o w i t h a ll t h e w h i te

f l o w e r s I c a n g e t . T h e s e a r e b e a u t i fu l a n d w f t a r a d e l i c io u s s c e n t ! D e a r

t h in g s ! I t h o u g h t o f h a v i n g s o m e o f o u r p l a n ts s t o o d a l o n g t he re in f r o m o f

A b b o t T h o m a s , w i th s o m e t a ll v a s e s a m o n g t h em

D o r o t h y S a y e r s ( 1 9 3 4 ) , Th e N i n e Ta i l o rs, p 5 9

m t h e H o d d e ' a n d S t o u g h t o n e d it io n , f ir st p u b li sh e d

a s a F o u r S q u a r e e d i ti o n , 1 9 5 9 , 1 4 t h im p r e s si o n 1 9 8 7

G e t ti n g t h e d a t a r i g h t is i m p o r t a n t f o r v a r i o u s e n t e r p r is e s , n o t j u s t

M in im a l is m . T h e i n d i r ec t q u e s t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n ex em p l i fi ed i n (2 ) ( 8 ) f ig u r ed

in t e st s g iv e n t o n o n - n a t i v e s p e a k e rs o f E n g li sh i n 2 0 0 3 - 0 4 a s p a r t o f a r e s e a rc h


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p ro je c t in N e w Z e a la n d . T h e p a r t ic ip a n ts in th e e x p e r im e n t w e re c o u n te d as

h a v in g m a d e a m i st ak e i f th e y u s e d t h a t c o n s t r u c t io n . P a r ti c ip a n t s w h o 'm a d e

a m i s t a k e m i g h t i n f e r th a t m a n y n a t iv e s p e a k e rs a ls o m a d e t h a t m i s ta k e o r

w o u l d b e l e ft p u z z l in g o v e r w h y t h e y c o u l d n o t u s e i n t h e E S O L cl a ss ro o m

a c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e y r e g u la r ly h e a r d a n d sa w . A n d t h e r e s u lt s o t t h e e x p e r i

m e n t a n d t h e i r i n t e rp r e t a t io n w o u l d n o t b e o f t h e m o s t re lia b le .

Data and analysis

TH clefts without wh words

T h e c o l l e c ti o n o f g o o d s p o k e n d a t a v i a g o o d r e c o r d i n g s a n d r e li a b le t r a n s c r i p t io n s i s t h e f i rs t s te p i n a n a l y s i n g t h e s y n t a x o f s p o n t a n e o u s s p e e ch . T h e s e c

o n d s t ep , ac tu a l l y an a ly s in g t h e s y n t ax , i s b es e t w i th t r ap s . I n t h i s s ec t i o n , w e

co n s id e r th r e e s e t s o f tr ick y ' co n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t o cc u r r eg u l a rly , ev en f r eq u en t ly ,

i n s p o n ta n e o u s s p o k en l an g u ag e : T I I c l e ft s, e x c e p t c l a u s e s a n d r e p o r t e d s p ee c h .

T o a rr iv e a t an an a ly s i s b as e d o n ev id en ce , it i s e s s en t i a l t o k n o w th e s y n t ax o f

s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h i n d e t a i l a n d t o b e a b l e t o a p p l y th e r e co g n iz e d

c r i te r i a f o r, i n t h e s ec o n d cas e , s u b o r d in a t e c lau s es . E v en a n an a ly si s p r o d u ce d

u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t io n s m a y n o t b e r o c k s o l id . C o n s i d e r th e f o ll o w i n g e x c e r p tf ro m a d i a lo g u e in C a r t e r a n d M c C a r t h y ( 19 9 7 , p . 7 3 ) . T h e l a s t li n e c o n t a i n s a

c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t w i l l b e t r e a t e d a s a T H c le ft . T h e T H c le f ts s tu d i e d i n th e

l it e ra t u re a r e o f t h e f o r m T h a t s w he re An dre w w ork s, T ha t ' s w hy y o u shou ld

p h o ne hera n d This i s w ha t I m i s talk ing about .( S e e C a l u d e 2 0 0 8 f o r a n o v e r

v iew o f r ecen t w o r k o n T H c le fts .)

( 14 ) A : I s 11 n o t e r n i c e a t a l l?

B : O h s o m e o f t h e t h i n g s a r e d e l i c io u s y e s . B u t it 's a lo n g w a y f r o m h e r e

A : J u s t g o t to b e ca r e f u l w h a t yo u c h o o s e .

B : . . . Y o u c a n t c h o o s e . H e ju s t c o o k s t h e m a m e a l . I f t h e y r in g u p a n d s ay

t h e y 'r e g o i n g , h e s e r v e s a m e a l.

A : W h e r e i s it t h e n ?

B : B a t t e r s e a .

A : Is t h a t S a l l y li v e s t h e r e o r s o m e t h i n g ?

C o m m e n t i n g o n t h e l a st li n e. C a r t e r a n d M c C a r th y ( 1 9 9 7, p. 7 6 ) s t a te t h a t

th e c h u n k Is th a t S a lly lives th ere o r s o m e th in g ! is a c o m b i n a ti o n o f th r e e q u e s

tions: (a) Is t h a t(w he re S a lly liv es)7.- a f a ls e s t a r t ; ( b ) D oes S a lly l ive there? - n o t

fu lly fo rm ed as a resu l t o f the p rev iou s fa l se s ta r t ; ( c ) Is ( i t) S a lly ( w ho ) lives

theri C a r t e r an d M cC ar th y s an a ly s is is m i s tak en . N o te f ir st t h a t t h ey s ay


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n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e i n t o n a t i o n a n d r h y t h m . A r e th e r e h e s it a ti o n s? H o w d o t h e y

k n o w th e s p e a k e r m a k e s a fa ls e s t a r t? W h a t d o t h e y m e a n b y th e i r re m a r k t h a t

( b) is n o t f u ll y f o rm e d ? W h a t e v i d e n c e d o t h e y h av e t h a t t h e y c s - n o q u e s t io n

is in the spea ker s m ind , g iven th a t lives ag re e s i n p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r w i th

Sal ly a n d t h a t t h e u t te r a n c e c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g c o r re s p o n d i n g t o does o r a p a r t

c f does'*.

Is th a t S a lly lives there o r som eth in g? is a r e g u l a r c o n s t r u c t io n o f s p o k e n

English. T h a t c o n t r a s t s w i t h it , a s i l l u s t ra t ed i n ( 1 5 ) f r o m Sw an ( 2 0 0 5 ,

F p . 5 8 4 - 8 5 ) .

( 1 5 ) a . S o s h e d e c id e d t o p a i n t h e r h o u s e p in k . I t u p s e t t h e n e i g h b o u r s a b it

b S o s h e d e c id e d t o p a i n t h e r h o u s e p i n k T h a t u p s e t t h e n e ig h b o u r s

a b it

S w a n co m m e n t s t ha t t h a t is m o r e e m p h a t ic t h a n if , n o t s u r p r i s in g g iv e n

t i a t i t i s a d e i c t ic f o r p o in t i n g a t en t i t i e s d i s t an t f r o m th e s p eak e r. I t is u s ed t o

h ig h l ig h t s i t u a t i o n s co n v ey ed b y a N P p lu s a p a r t i c ip l e , a s i n ( 16 )( 1 8 ). W i th a

p as t p a r t ic ip le , t h a t p o i n t s a t t h e r e s u l t o l s o m e a c t io n o r p r o c es s . ( S e e t h e

d i s cu s s io n o f Pe r f ec t an d Res u l l a ii v es i n C h a p te r 6.)

( 1 6 ) A t h a t l i t s t a rt e d n o w ?

B t h a t l s it t h a t 1 s it g o i n g

M i ll e r -B r o w n C o r p u s , c o n v e r s a t io n 7 1

( 1 7 ) T h a t ' s d i n n e r s o r te d .

T V a d v e r t is e m e n t , IT V , a u t u m n 2 0 0 9

( 1 8 ) S 1 A - 0 1 5 ( B ) : 6 Y e a h w h a t w e t h o u g h t w e 'd d o is O x f o r d e n d s o n I t hin k

t h e t e n t h a n d u rn E d i n b u r g h u s u a ll y s ta r t s a b o u t t w o d a y s

a f t e r O x f o r d s o w h a t I th o u g h t w e ' d d o i s t ra v e l u p a n d

s e e if m a y b e s ta y m a y b e i n o n e p l ac e o n t h e w a y u p to

E d i n b u r g h a n d t h e n t a k e a b o u t t h re e d a y s t o c o m e b a c k

a n d lo o k a t a c o u p l e o f p la ce s

S 1 A - 0 1 5 ( A ) 1 2 Is th a t by train

S 1 A - 0 1 5 ( B ) : 1 B N o b u s

M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s , A u s t ra l ia n I C E,

S I A p r i v a t e d i a l o g u e , c o n v e r s a t io n 15

Is th a t b y tra in is a n e m b r y o c le ft , e q u i v a l e n t t o Is th a t b y tra in th a t y o u re

going to Ed inburgh , w i th t h e c lc f t h i g h l i g h t in g t r a i n s a s o p p o s e d t o c a r s , b us es

an d p l an es o r ev en b ik es . (1 9 ) co n t a in s a f u ll c l e ft w i th that .


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( 1 9 ) S 1 A - 0 2 0 ( B ) . 1 4 6 N o I' m n o t t h e o n e t ha t's d e p r i v in g y o u

S 1 A - 0 2 0 ( B ) : 1 4 7 X is t h e o n e th a t's d e p r i v in g y o u

S 1 A - 0 2 0 ( A ) ; 1 4 9 S h e 's n o t d e p r iv in g m e o f a n y th in g

S 1 A - 0 2 0 ( B ) . 1 5 0 W e l l s o yo u ' re g e t t i n g it m o r e t h a n a* o n c e o r t w e e a w e e k

S 1 A -0 2 0 C A ) . 1 5 2 O h n o n o e v e r

S I A - 0 2 0 ( B ) :1 5 4 E v e r

S 1 A - 0 2 0 A ) : 1 5 5 Y e a h P ro b le m o t t im i n g t h is w e e k

S 1 A -0 2 0 (B ): 1 5 6 O h r ig h t w a s t h a t o n l y la s t w e e k t h a t s h e c a m e o v e r

f o r d i n n e r

M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s . A u s t r a li a n I C E ,

5 1 p r iv a t e d i a l o g u e , c o n v e r s a t io n 2 0

T h e in t e r ro g a t iv e c le ft w as th a t o n ly la st w e e k tha t she c am e ov e r fo r d inne r

i s r e la ted to the dec lara t ive c lef t t h a t ivns only las t week that she came over

f i r d in ner. T h e a n n ex c l au s e , to u s e Q u i r k e t al.s t e r m ( Q u i r k e t a l . , 1 98 5,

pp. 1 3 8 6 -7 ) , h a s th e c o m p le m e n tiz e r tha t : tha t she cam e over for d inner . In

c o n t r a s t , th e t h a t c le f t i n ( 20 ) h a s a n a n n e x c l a u s e w i t h n o c o m p l e m e n t i z e r.

( 2 0 ) S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( A ) : 1 5 I S t a rt a t t h e b e g i n n in g H e r h e r f ir s t h u s b a n d W h o 's X 's

f a t h e r w a s a b i t o f a b a s t a r d r ea lly

S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( A ) : 1 5 4 H e w a s r e a lly u rn r e a lly t ig h t

S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( B ) : I 5 5 O h n g h t ie o hS 1 A - 0 8 4 ( 8 ) 1 5 6 I s t h a t t h e o n e w h o d i ed o r d i d h e r h u s b a n d d ie

S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( A ) ' 1 5 7 Y e ah

S 1 A - 0 8 4 ( A ) : 1 5 8 N o W e i l t h a t w a s b o t h o f th e m d i e d

M a c q u a r ie C o r p u s . A u s t r al ia n I C E ,

S I A p r iv a t e d i a l o g u e , c o n v e r s at io n 8 4

T h e c h u n k t h a t w a s b o t h o f t h e m d i e d i s eq u iv a l en t t o I t w as b o th o f th e m w ho

died, w h i c h i n t h e c o n t e x t is to b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s I t w a s n ' t th e c a s e t h a t o n e

h u s b a n d l e ft h e r a n d t h e o t h e r o n e d i e d - t h e y b o t h d i ed . (C f . Th at was both c f t he m tha t d i e d .) G o i n g b a c k t o C a r t e r a n d M c C a r th y s d ia l o g u e , w e c a n n o w

in t e r p r e t Is th a t S a lly li ves th ere o r s o m e th in g a s th e i n t e rr o g a t i v e o f that is

Sally lives there. T h e r e l a t i v e c l au s e lives there lacks a relat ivizer , but th is is

t yp ic a l o l s p o k e n E n g li sh . T h e r e i s n o n e e d t o a p p e a l t o a t a ls e s t a r t a n d a

n i x i n g - u p o f th r e e s tr u ct u re s .

Exceptclauses: main or subordinate?

T h e s a m e d i a lo g u e c o n t a i n s a n o t h e r s e q u e n c e o l w o r d s w h o s e s y n t a c ti c st a tu s

is no t s t r a ig h t fo rw ard . I t is in ( 21 ).


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(2 1 ) A I s u p p o s e it 's a l o n g w a y t o g o f o i d i n n e r t h o u g h i sn ' t it?

B . It is o n a w e e k d w e e k n i g h l

A : E x c e p t h e t a n g o s t r a i g h t f r o m w o r k

C a r te r a n d M c C a r th y ( 1997 ,p . 7 6 ) t r e a t l ixcept he can go s t ra ight f ro m work

a s a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s t a n d i n g o n i t s o w n b u t d o n o t e x p l a i n w h y t h e y

c o n s i d e r i t s u b o r d i n a t e . A t t h is p o i n t , w e m a k e a n o t i c e a b le d e t o u r t o l o o k a t

t i e s y n t a c ti c p r o p e r t ie s o f s u b o r d i n a t e c la u s e s a n d t h e n a t t h e i r d i s c o u rs e

p ro p e r tie s . T h e o u tc o m e o f th e e x a m in a t io n w il l b e th a t Except he can go

s tra ight f rom work i s to b e a n a l y s ed a s a m a i n c la u s e . T h e f in i te s u b o r d i n a t e

d a u s e s i n a g iv en s e n te n c e a r e t o s o m e e x t e n t g r a m m a t ic a l ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f

t i e m a i n c l a u se ; t h e m a i n c la u s e d o e s n o t c o n t r o l t h e c h o i c e o l v e r b a n d o t h e rc o n s t it u e n t s n o r t h e c h o i c e o f p a r t ic i p a n t r o l e s, t en s e , a s p e c t a n d m o d a l v e rb s.

( T h e c h o i c e s m u s t m a k e s e m a n t i c s e n s e , b u t t h a t is a d if fe r e n t q u e s t io n . )

C o m p a r e t h e v a r i a n ts o l t h e c o m p l e m e n t c la u s e i n ( 2 2).

( 2 2 ) W e h e a r d t h a t t h e ir t e a m w i l l w i n t h e le a g ue / is w i n n i n g t h e l e a g u e /h a s w o n

t h e l e a g u e / m i g h t w i n th e l e a g u e / m u s t h a v e w o n t h e le a g u e / h a o b e e n

b e a t e n in t h e fi n a l^ w a s d e m o r a l iz e d

I n ( 2 2 ), t h e la s t c o m p l e m e n t c l a u se is a c o p u l a c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e p e n u l ti ma te o n e i s p as s iv e an d t h e r e s t a r e ac t i v e , b u t w i th d i f f e r en t t en s es an d

a s p e ct s. N o n e o l t h is d e p e n d s o n t h e m a i n c la u s e . S u b o r d i n a t e c la u s e s a re

h o w e v e r s u b j e c t to a n u m b e r o f c o n s t r a in t s th a t d o n o t a p p l y t o m a i n c la u se s.

Fo r in s t an ce , ma in c l au s es can b e d ec l a r a t iv e , in t e r r o g a t i v e o r im p er a t i v e , as

s h o w n i n ( 23 ).

( 2 3 ) a . T h e se c r e t ar y s e n t a n e - m a i l t o m y c o l l e a g u e

b D i d t h e s e cr e t a ry s e n t a n e - m a i l t o m y c o ll e ag u e ?

c S e n d a n e -m a i l t o m y c o l le a g u e !

R e la tiv e c la u s e s, a d v e r b ia l c la u s e s a n d m o s t t y p e s o f c o m p l e m e n t c la u se

m u s t h av e d ec l a r a ti v e s y n t ax , a s s h o w n in (2 4 ) .

( 2 4 ) a . * B e c a u s e d i d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d t h a t e - m a i l, m y c o l le a g u e r es ig n ed .

I B e c a u s e t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n t .)

b ' T h e e - m a il w h i c h d i d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d w a s v e ry a bra sn /e . |. .

w h i ch t h e s e cr e ta r y s e n t . . ,|

c . " I f ea re d t h a t w o u l d t h e s e c r e t a r y s e n d t h e e - m a i l. (I f ea re d t h a t th e

s e c r e ta r y w o u l d se n d t h e e -m a i l 1


26/288


O n e t y p e o f c o m p l e m e n t c l a u se is t h e i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n . T h e c la ss ic

i n d ir e ct y e s - n o q u e s t i o n s o f w r it te n E n g lis h h a v e t h e w o r d o r d e r o f d e c l a ra

tive cla us es - We asked i f the secre tary ha d sent the e w ai l . I n m o r e f o r m a l

t ex ts / / c a n b e r e p la c e d b y whether , a n d t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u se b e c o m e s p a rt ly

in t e rr o g a t i v e i n it s w o r d o r d e r , h av in g a w h w o r d a t t h e I r o n t . T h e c l as s ic i n d i

r ec t w h q u e s t i o n s a ls o h a v e d e c la r a ti v e w o r d o r d e r a p a r t f ro m t h e w h w o r d a t

the f ron t : We aske d w ho had se n t t he e m a i l. (8) are ex am ple s o f ind irect

c u c s t io n s f r o m m o d e r n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n E n g lis h a n d c e r t a in w r it te n te xt

t y p es . T h ey h av e t h e w o r d o r d e r o f i n t e r r o g a t iv e c lau s es . T h i s r a i se s t h e q u es

t io n o f h o w s u b o r d i n a t e t h e s e c la u s e s a r e , b u t o u r c o n c e r n h e r e is s i m p l y t o

s ig n a l t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a n e x c e p t io n t o t h e r u l e th a t s u b o r d i n a t e c la u se s

h ave d ec l a r a ti v e w o r d o r d e r .

S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u se s a r e li m i t e d i n o t h e r r es p e c ts a n d e x c l u d e c e rt a in

c o n s t ru c t i o n s . C o n s i d e r ( 2 5 ).

P r ep o s i ti o n a l p h r as e fr o n t in g

( 2 5 ) a . I n t o t h e r o o m c a m e th e s e c re t ar y ( C f . T h e s e cr e ta r y c a m e in t o

t h e ro o m 1

b . S h e s a t h a t in t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s e cr e ta r y

c * T h e p e r so n w h o In to t h e ro o m c a m e w a s th e s ec re ta ry .d . ' B e c a u s e i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s ec re ta ry , e v e r y o n e s to p p e d t alk in g .

e . ' W h e n i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e s ec re ta ry , e v e ry o n e st o p p e d ta lk in g

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s a p r e p o s i t io n a l p h r a s e i n f i rs t p o s i t io n f ol lo w e d b y

t he m a i n v e r b f o ll ow e d b y t h e s u b j e c t N P . I t c a n o c c u r i n d e c l a ra t iv e m a i n

c l au s es a s i n ( 2 5 a ) , co m p lem en t c lau s es a s in ( 2 5 b ) , b u t n o t i n r e la t iv e c lau s es

as in (25c) n o r in adv erb ia l c lauses as in (25d ,e) .

N e g a t i v e f r o n t in g

( 2 6 ) a . N e v e r h a d h e b e e n s o o f fe n d e d . (H e h a d n e v e r b e e n s o o f f e n d e d )

b . T h e y r e a p e d t ha t n e v e r h a d h e b e e n so o ff en d e d .

c T h e p e rs o n w h o n e v e r h a d b e e n so o ff e n d ed w a s S i r T h om a s ,

d . B e c a u se n e v e r h a d Sir I h o m a s b e e n s o o f fe n d e d , e v e n M r Y a l e s le ft.

In (26a) , neveris a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e c l a u s e, f o ll o w e d b y t h e f in i te v e r b h ad

a n d t h e s u b j e ct N P he. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is a c c e p ta b le i n m a i n c la u s e s a s in

( 2 6 a ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s i n ( 2 6 b ) , b u t n o t i n r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s a sin ( 26c ) n o r ad v e r b i a l c l au s es a s i n


27/288


T a g Q u e s t io n s

( 2 7 ) a . T h e C h a i r m a n h a b i tu a l ly a l e lo o m u c h r ic h f o o d , d i d n ' t h e ?

b . * W e r e a li ze d t h a t t h e C h a i r m a n h a b i tu a l ly a t e t o o m u c h r ic h f o o d ,

d i d n ' t he ?

c . T h e p e rs o n w h o a t e t o o m u c h f o o d d i d n ' t h e . v as th e C ha ir m a n .

d . " B e c a u s e t h e C h a i r m a n a t e t o o m u c h fo o d d i d n ' t h e . h e w a s d an g e r o u sly

o b e s e

T h e s t r u c t u r e in ( 2 7 a ) c o n s i s ts o f a d e c l a ra t iv e c la u s e . W e real ized tha t the

C ha i rman hab i tua l l y a t e t oo m uc h r ic h food ,w i th a q u e s t io n t a g g e d o n a t th e

en d , did n ' t he?T a g q u e s t io n s d o n o t o c c u r in a n y ty p e o l s u b o r d i n a t e c la u se .

N o te th a t in a n e x a m p le su c h a s E d m u n d k n ew t h a t th e C h a i rm a n w a s d an ge r-

ously obese, didn't he? t h e t a g q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o p a r t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e ,

E d m u n d kn e w , a n d n o t to was da ngerou sly obese .N o t e a l so t h a t t h e e x a m p l e s

in ( 27 ) a r e t o b e ta k e n a s w r it te n l a n g u a g e a n d t h a t s p o k e n u t te r a n c e s m u s t b e

s u p p o s e d t o c a r r y a s i n g le i n t o n a t i o n p a t te r n a n d t o h a v e n o b r e a k s. T h e la t te r

s t ip u l a t i o n i s n e c e ss a ry b e c a u s e s p e a k e r s d o p r o d u c e u t t e r a n c e s s u c h a s because

te was dangerous ly obeseo r because he a te too m uch food, b r eak o ff t h e u t t e r

a n c e , a s k t h e t a g q u e s t i o n isn ' t he o r d idn ' t he a n d t h e n , h a v i n g r e ce i v e d a n

a n s w e r, g o b a c k t o t h e m a i n c l a u se . T h a t t y p e o f i n t e r r u p t e d s y n t a x is n o t re l

ev an t f o r p r e s en t p u r p o s es .

T h e d a t a i n (2 3 ) ( 2 7 ) s u g g es t th a t t h e r e i s a h i e r a r ch y o f s u b o r d in a t i o n .

C o m p l e m e n t c la u s e s a r e t h e l e a st su b o r d i n a t e a n d a l lo w P r e p o s i ti o n F r o n ti n g ,

N eg ative F ro n t in g a n d , d e p e n d in g o n th e h e a d v e rb , in te r ro g a tiv e s t ru c tu re s .

Re la tiv e c lau s es an d ad v e r b i a l c l au s es a r e m o s t s u b o r d in a t e . T h e y ex c lu d e a ll

t .i c co n s t r u c t i o n s i n (2 3 ) ( 2 7 ) , to g e th e r w i th i n t e r ro g a t iv e an d im p er a t i v e

s t ruc tu res .

T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a d v e r b ia l c la u s e s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e i s a ff e cte d b y th e i r

t y p e an d b y t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n s en t en ces . A s ( 2 8 ) s h o w s , ad v e r b i a l c l au s es

c f r e a s o n c a n p r e c e d e o r f o ll o w t h e m a i n c la u s e . W h e n t h e y p r e c e d e t h e

m a i n c l au s e , t h e y e x c l u d e n e g a ti v e f ro n t in g a n d p r e p o s i t io n f r o n t i n g b u t n o t

w h e n t h e y f o ll o w it . T h i s s u g g e s ts t h a t i n t h e f o r m e r p o s i ti o n t h e y a re m o r e

s u b o r d in a t e .

( 2 8 ) a . E v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk i n g b e c a u s e i n c a m e t h e s e cr e ta r y

b B e c a u s e in c a m e t h e s e c re t a r y e v e r y o n e s t o p p e d t a lk in g

A d v e r b i a l c l a u s e s o f c o n c e s s i o n d o n o t b e h a v e t h e s a m e w a y : c o m p a r e

'A l though in came the secre tary , everyone cont inued ta lk ing a n d 'Ev e ry one


28/288


cont inuai ta lk ing a l though in came the secre tary . A d v e r b i a l c l au s es o f l ime

i n tr o d u c e d b y w h e n p r e s e n t a d i ff e r e n t p r o b l e m , a s s h o w n b y ( 2 9 ) a n d ( 30 ).

( 29 > a . " W h e n in t o t h e r o o m c a m e th e s e cr e ta r y e v e r y o n e w a s ta l k in g ,

b . E v e r y o n e w a s t a l k in g w h e n i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e se cr et ar y.

( 3 0 ) a . W h e n i n t o t h e r o o m c a m e t h e se c re ta ry , e v e ry o n e h a d j u s t s t o p p e d

ta lk ing.

b . E v e r y o n e h a d j u s t s t o p p e d t a l k in g w h e n in t o t h e ro o m c a m e th e

s e c r e t a r y .

I t h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d t h a t s e q u e n c e s o t m a i n c l a u s e + a d v e r b i a l c l au s e o f

r eas o n o r ad v e r b i a l c l au s e o f t ime ( w h e n ) c o m e c l o s e t o b e i n g c o n j o i n e dc l au s es, t h a t i s, c l au s es o f eq u a l s t a tu s . T h i s p r o p o s a l s eem s o n t h e r i g h t li nes,

p a r t ic u la rly w h e n , a s in th e (b ) e x a m p le s , w h e n c a n b e r e p l ac e d b y an il then,

t h at i s , b y a n e x p r e s s io n t h a t o v e r t ly c o n j o i n s t h e t w o c l a u s e s a n d f it s w i th th e

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