Joe Leadbeater

Critical Positions on Advertising

Word Count: 2892

“Advertising doesn't sell things; all advertising does is change the way people

think or feel' (Jeremy Bullmore). Evaluate this statement with reference to

selected critical theories”

Bullmore (1998) also believed there were two forms of advertising: ‘1)

advertising that people go looking for and 2) advertising that goes looking for

people’. I have decided to look at the second aspect, as Karl Marx said 'the

product becomes a commodity…it is exchanged for a symbol which

represents it as exchange value’(Marx, 1867).

O’Shaughnessy, J, & O’Shaughnessy, raised the point that ‘Persuasion is

becoming more important in advertising. A major reason is that competition is

finding it easier to erode any functional or price advantage attached to the

product’ (O’Shaughnessy, J, & O’Shaughnessy, 2004, p1). Steward Ewan’s

concept of the ‘commodity self’ is brought forward. One does not buy a

product based on its function; it is consumed based on the lifestyle it appears

to portray. This is further emphasized in the Preface of ‘Persuasion in

Advertising’: ‘if the target audiences do not have the ‘right’ perspective, this

can be changed – not by logic but by the offer of a more appealing

perspective, by emotional appeal to their values or by indirect persuasion via

rhetoric’ (Cialdini, 1998, p172).

What better example could there be than the superficial fragrance market,

which thrives on connotations of glamour, envy and wealth. The sale of the

product itself is flawed through visual advertising, since you cannot ‘see’ a

smell.

For this reason, I have chosen to analyse two Chanel No 5 advertisements.

The first was produced in 1979, just preceding the 80’s, a decade

characterised by extravagance. Thatcher was in power, the ultimate in

sexual equality. Women achieved as much as men, and the income to

match. They became equal breadwinners in the household, and were no

longer ‘kept’ at home. This is shown in fashion, and in particular, the

workplace. Women wore tailored suits that not only accentuated their

femininity, but also with padded shoulders, resembled the natural physical

form of men. There was a huge rise in disposable income earned by women,

which perfume companies understood perfectly well. With independence

came a rise of self-esteem, and an increase in the consumption of luxury

goods.

The advert, entitled ‘Share The Fantasy’ (Figure 1), shows high saturation

imagery of a beautiful, empowered woman lying in front of a royal blue pool.

Instantly, we are shown an object of beauty. This is often shown in advertising,

as Cialdini wrote: ‘It is apparent that good-looking people enjoy an enormous

social advantage in our culture. They are better liked, more persuasive, more

frequently helped, and seen as possessing better personality traits’ (Cialdini,

1998, p172). The second Chanel No 5 advert, entitled ‘There You are’ (Figure

2) conveys the same message, but through a much more obvious public

figure, Brad Pitt. John Berger agrees with Cialdini: ‘glamour is supposed to go

deeper than looks, but depends on them, utterly’ (Berger, ‘Ways of Seeing -

Advertising, www.youtube.com). Glamour is a recent phenomenon. In the

heyday of oil painting and fine art, this did not exist. There were ideas of

grace and elegance, but these are fundamentally different. The key

difference between glamour and beauty is envy. Berger says in his book ‘The

state of being envied is what constitutes glamour’ (Berger, 1972, p142). So if

we consume these products, people will envy us, therefore making us

glamorous. Consciously, we look at these role models and admire, but

subconsciously, we aspire to be them. We see them as a lifestyle choice we

desire, and consumption of the product as a solution.

Berger states in his television series ‘envy becomes common in a society that

moved towards democracy, and then stopped half way. Their status is

theoretically open to anyone, but enjoyed only by a few’ (Berger, ‘Ways of

Seeing - Advertising, www.youtube.com). We are given an example of a

better life to live, be it lying by a beautiful swimming pool next to the perfect

sexual partner, or being directly spoken to by Brad Pitt. The connotations are

similar for the same product, despite the ads existing in entirely different social

and political contexts, showing that Chanel are reinforcing the same idea,

even after roughly thirty years.

Berger goes on to say ‘things that publicity sells are in themselves neutral, just

objects. And so they have to be made glamorous, by being inserted into

contexts that are exotic enough to be arresting, but not close enough to us to

offer a threat’ (Berger, ‘Ways of Seeing - Advertising, www.youtube.com). A

fragrance only has one practical function; to make you smell a certain way.

Chanel inserts it into a context of a lifestyle that none of its potential

consumers lead, but give us the idea that we could live it. We do not

necessarily feel that our lives will change entirely and we will gain direct

wealth, but we gain aspects of power and envy from our peers. Berger

summarises this ‘it proposes to each of us that we transform ourselves, our lives

by buying something more…. it will make us in some way richer-even though

we will be poorer by having spent our money’ (Berger, ‘Ways of Seeing -

Advertising, www.youtube.com).

The product is given a purpose due to its context, but is still sold without a

direct purpose given to the consumer. Pitt delivers an abstract speech with

no explicit meaning. ‘Share Your Fantasy’ contains the same ambiguity, with

the female briefly uttering ‘I am made of blue sky, and golden light, and I will

feel this way forever’, neither of which states the functional value of the

product. This is often used in advertising, as Farbey wrote: ‘the stimuli we

perceive are often ambiguous. It’s up to us to determine the meaning based

on our past experiences, expectations and needs’ (Farbey, 1998, p19).

Essentially, we are still given a context, but we relate it to our own. We do this

through the process of considering past experiences, and evaluating if the

consumption of the product will benefit our future.

Past experiences are often used to sell, and these aren’t always necessarily

visual. One example is the common belief that the smell of coffee can help

sell a house. Solomon explains this through an example of ‘Folgers’, a US

coffee company: ‘Researchers for Folgers found that, for many people, the

smell of coffee summons up childhood memories of their mothers cooking

breakfast, so the aroma reminds them of home. The company turned this

insight into a commercial in which a young man in an army uniform arrives

home early one morning’(Solomon, 2008, p10). The product is being sold on

the memories it provokes. You are not being sold coffee for its function; you

are sold a nostalgic memory. A website for a property mortgage company

even suggest smell as a selling point ‘there are some very important things a

seller can do to improve the chance that the buyer will be impressed with

what they see . . . and smell’. Coffee is the most recommended of smells, as

‘Coffee aroma is responsible for all coffee flavour attributes’. Interestingly,

they also recommend ‘a batch of cookies’, or ‘baking bread’ (Bills, 2011, Let

Coffee Sell Your Home, propertymortgageinvestment.com).

Solomon explains, ‘We process fragrance cues in the limbic system, the most

primitive part of the brain and the place where we experience immediate

emotions’ (Solomon, 2008, p10). So the feelings we experience when a

certain smell reaches our nostrils are innate. There is no way of avoiding a

reaction to a smell, be it good or bad. Marketers have learnt to tap into this,

and use certain common past experiences to trigger a feeling about a

product. Obviously the usage of “peel n’ sniff” perfume samples in magazines

promote the smell of the product, but the above example shows how the

smell of one commodity can sell another.

Scent alone can drive the sales of a product: ‘Mars used scent technology to

spread the aroma of chocolate around its M & M’s World retail outlets, and it

put Pedigree dog food – scented stickers in front of supermarkets and pet

stores (presumably to attract hard-core pet lovers and their furry friends)’

(Solomon, 2008, p10). You could argue that the products are being sold on

their physical qualities. This is entirely true, since ‘90 per cent’ (Hirsch, 2010,

Taste is Actually Smell, dailyherald.com) of what we taste is smell. However, I

am arguing that we cannot escape this form of marketing influence. A

reaction to smell is innate, and it is human instinct to desire something that

holds a certain smell. Visual marketing and its influence may become

apparent and conscious, whereas you can be influenced by scent and not

even know it.

Solomon states ‘Ad companies spend around $80 million per year on scent

marketing: the Scent Marketing Institute estimates that number will reach

more than $500 million by 2016’ (Solomon, 2008, p10). If this much is currently

spent on scent marketing, with it hugely increasing, then it must be successful.

The future of its influence seems alarming, intimidating and something to fear.

Advertising often plays on a notion of fear in order to attract you towards

consumption, as Berger explains, ‘the anxiety on which publicity plays is the

fear that having nothing you will be nothing’ (Berger, ‘Ways of Seeing -

Advertising, www.youtube.com).

Berger also explains its influence on men: ‘it promotes the illusion that a man’s

ability to consume is directly related to his sexual mobility’ (Berger, 1972,

p140). Traditionally, and instinctively, men feel as if they should provide for

their family and household. If they cannot provide the products that their

family ‘need’, then they feel emasculated. Solomon suggests that this ‘need’

can be split into three categories: ‘need for affiliation’, ‘need for power’ and

‘need for uniqueness’ (Solomon, 2008, p35).

‘Affiliation’ relates to a feeling of loneliness. One judge’s others on their

commodity self, and makes a comparison to their own. They feel as if they

should match the commodities of others, or consume the same things in order

to bond socially.

‘Power’ is focussed at men. When the right commodities are not within reach,

a male can feel weaker, and feel as if they have a lack on control. Often

these relate to technology and a constant perpetuation to ‘keep up to date’

with products. Not only do marketers catch onto this, but also the design of

products themselves. Products are increasingly made to have a ‘planned

obsolescence’. Newly marketed products peak in consumption, then start to

break, repair or superseded by a more ‘modern’ version. As this happens, a

new product is introduced, solving the problem of feeling ‘out-dated’.

‘Uniqueness’ serves the need to assert one’s individual identity. An example

of this could be an old slogan of perfume company ‘Cachet’, which read ‘as

individual as you are’ (Figure 3). You are made to believe that through the

process of consumption you are in the process of rebellion. If you were to buy

anything else, you are buying into the same lifestyle as everyone else, which is

consciously considered a bad thing. People who fit into this category

consciously seek others to think higher of them, and tend to be ‘older,

affluent and highly confident’ (Solomon, 2008, p35). Solomon gives the

example of a Subaru commercial that seeks to target role – relaxed

customers, a man proclaims, ‘I want a car… Don’t tell me about wood

panelling, about winning the respect of my neighbours. They’re my

neighbours. They’re not my heroes’ (Solomon, 2008, p133). This theory seems

to go against the norm of trying to fit in. Interestingly, this is specific to the

Western culture, whereas in a Japanese society, there is emphasis on

“collective well – being and group loyalty over individuals’ needs” (Solomon,

2008, p35). Nahai also agrees with this ‘people from collectivist cultures (such

as Indian or China) are more likely to rely on the actions of their peers to

inform their decisions than those from a more individualist country (such as the

UK)’ (Nahai, 2012, p174). Role – relaxed consumers are often in the minority,

so marketers tend to only direct them with certain products.

However, the majority of us see our lives as lacking in comparison with our

peers, and the solution to be through consumption. Advertising manipulates

us into believing that if we consume, our lives will change for the better.

Berger describes this process as a ‘fear, often the fear of not being desirable,

of being unenviable. It suggests you are inadequate as you are, but it

consoles you with a promise of a dream’ (Berger, 1972, p147). We see

consumption as a step up of the life we already exist within. With each

purchase, we feel closer to an ideology of a better life. We never seem to

realise that we are stuck in limbo, ‘endlessly deferred’ (Berger, 1972, p147),

and through the process of constantly re-evaluating our lives; we are never

fully satisfied with what we have.

Dettol (figure 4) use induced fear to their consumers in order to sell their

products. The commercial begins with ‘Fact. Some bacteria are almost

indestructible. It can even survive in lava. So think how easily the bacteria in

your kitchen can survive’. The image of unrealistic lava – like bacteria is

shown, with sharp Horror film style violin sounds in the background. Reification

is used to show the bacteria almost as a monster. Then, exactly half way

through the advert, we are shown a solution to the problem that we all

apparently face. The music changes, the product appears and the scene

seems to light up.

Having been shown the ‘awful reality’ in which we live, instantly, we are

shown a solution: ‘The purpose of publicity is to make the spectator

marginally dissatisfied with his present way of life. Not with the way of life of

society, but with his own within it. It suggests that if he buys what it is offering,

his life will become better’ (Berger, ‘Ways of Seeing - Advertising,

www.youtube.com). Not only do we see the products usage, but we are also

shown a situation where a mother is seen bonding with her son having

provided a safe environment. We are given the message that if we purchase

this commodity that not only will we have a clean kitchen, but our children

will firstly love us, and secondly, be safe from this ‘deadly’ bacteria. The

product has been reified as the ‘hero’ of the household. You can see this in

other cleaning products, famously ‘Mr Muscle’.

Through commodity fetishism we assume Dettol is safe. The assumption is

made that the killing of bacteria will have a direct correlation to the increase

or safety of our health. We see the product as a way of protecting our

children against harmful and deadly bacteria, but never seem to consider

the safety and strength of the product itself.

Dianthus, an online medical centre, wrote on their blog ‘we are constantly

exposed to bacteria in every part of our environment, and we have immune

systems that are rather good at dealing with them. If we are to believe that

wiping our kitchen surfaces with antibacterial products such as Dettol will

improve our health, and if Dettol are going to make that claim in their

adverts, then we need to see evidence that it is true’ (Jacobs, 2010, Dettol

Protects: Facts or Fiction? , dianthus.co.uk). Dettol use the word ‘Fact’

instantly at the start of their advert, which we assume that we can rely on. In

reality, ‘No clinical trials have been done, however; and, Dettol is not

approved for this indication by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’

(Jacobs, 2010, Dettol Protects: Facts or Fiction?, dianthus.co.uk).

Advertising not only creates a false perception of our needs (‘Dettol kills 99.9

% bacteria’, therefore that’s what we need), but also masks a way of life we

could live with, and be satisfied with. Commodity fetishism is used to create a

false reality where everything is perfect. This isn’t done just through the

promotion of one product, but the constant reinforcement of branding and

advertising that surrounds us. Twenty five thousand print adverts are

produced each year in the UK, and this figure is growing rapidly. If each of

these commodities is promoting a new way of life, then false reality is

produced.

Whilst more and more adverts are produced, our perception of a perfect life

is constantly updated, with our previous opinions feeling out-dated. Marketing

works in a way in which we forget the past expectations we held of our

commodities. This is done so we struggle to reminisce and compare how

much our lives have actually changed.

Both Dettol and Chanel have been producing the same products for well

over half a century, but constantly reinventing how they are marketed. We

are bombarded with new adverts, new brands, and never reminded of the

old, unless it is used as a marketing strategy to promote the new. Advertising

doesn’t sell commodities on their function; it sells on experiences, anxiety and

pressure. As the consumer, we don’t realise it, and if it were brought forward

consciously, then yes, we would avoid it. But since it’s hidden behind a mask,

it does not frustrate us, and the ignorance doesn’t seem to hurt us. We live in

a western world where capitalism and consumerism work hand in hand.

Without consumerism culture we would not be anywhere near as developed

or as rich in our resources, technology or trade.

Visual References:

Figure 1: Director: Ridley Scott, ‘Share The Fantasy - CHANEL N°5’, 1979 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVwvmozG6-A

Figure 2: Director: Joe Wright, ‘There you are - CHANEL N°5 Part 1’, 2012 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGs4CjeJiJQ

Figure 3: Context : Cosmopolitan , Cachet – ‘As Individual As You Are’, 1979 Figure 4: ‘Dettol – Complete Clean’, 2010 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DCOSFTugYZM

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