Critical & Cultural Critical & Cultural Theories of Mass Theories of Mass CommunicationCommunication

Baran & Davis (2003) Chapter Baran & Davis (2003) Chapter 9, Pgs 220-2519, Pgs 220-251

Griffin (2000) Chapter 19Griffin (2000) Chapter 19

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Culture in media researchCulture in media research Macroscopic vs Microscopic TheoriesMacroscopic vs Microscopic Theories Critical TheoryCritical Theory The rise of the cultural theories in The rise of the cultural theories in

Europe.Europe. Marxist TheoryMarxist Theory Neomarxism Neomarxism The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt School Textual & Literary Criticsm Textual & Literary Criticsm

Political Economy Theory Political Economy Theory The debate between cultural The debate between cultural

studies & political economy studies & political economy theorists.theorists.

Cultural studies Cultural studies Symbolic InteractionSymbolic Interaction Social Construction of Reality Social Construction of Reality

TheoryTheory

Introduction:Introduction: Limited effects theory focuses on whether Limited effects theory focuses on whether

mediamedia contentcontent can have an immediate & can have an immediate & direct effect on specific thoughts & actions direct effect on specific thoughts & actions on individuals. on individuals.

Researchers seek evidences for these Researchers seek evidences for these effects through survey & experiments. effects through survey & experiments.

There is also another way we can study There is also another way we can study effects by examining social change through effects by examining social change through understanding understanding culture.culture.

Culture Culture

CultureCulture is the learned behavior is the learned behavior of a given social group.of a given social group.

Media has become the primary Media has become the primary means by which many of us means by which many of us experience or learn about the experience or learn about the world through this media. Mass world through this media. Mass media theory viewed these media theory viewed these changes with an alarming rate. changes with an alarming rate.

American media had become highly American media had become highly effective promoters of capitalism, effective promoters of capitalism, individualism & free enterprise individualism & free enterprise

(Hegemony). The new media (PC, (Hegemony). The new media (PC, internet, camcorders etc) are internet, camcorders etc) are biased towards individualism & biased towards individualism & market economy rather than market economy rather than collective & state control.collective & state control.

Critical theoristsCritical theorists argued media argued media influence was the result of influence was the result of complex, social political & cultural complex, social political & cultural development & the risk of these development & the risk of these individuals were being influence individuals were being influence by the dominant professional by the dominant professional ideology. ideology.

About this time cultural theorists About this time cultural theorists focus their concerned on focus their concerned on media media influence on cultural studiesinfluence on cultural studies. That . That the focus on the use of the media to the focus on the use of the media to create forms of culture that create forms of culture that structure our everyday life both at structure our everyday life both at the the microscopicmicroscopic ( (interpretive interpretive theoriestheories) & ) & macroscopic macroscopic ((structural theoriesstructural theories))

These theories (These theories (interpretive interpretive & & structural theories) structural theories) argued that the argued that the eliteselites effectively use the media to effectively use the media to propagate propagate hegemonichegemonic cultureculture in in order to maintain their dominant order to maintain their dominant position in the society.position in the society.

Hegemony Hegemony

Hegemonic cultureHegemonic culture is a culture is a culture imposed from above or outside that imposed from above or outside that serves the interest of the dominant serves the interest of the dominant social positions.social positions.

Hegemonic cultureHegemonic culture led to the led to the development of the development of the Political EconomyPolitical Economy TheoriesTheories. This is because these theories . This is because these theories place priority on understanding how place priority on understanding how economic power provides a basis for economic power provides a basis for ideological & political power.ideological & political power.

The political economic theories The political economic theories directly challenge the status quo directly challenge the status quo by exposing elite manipulation of by exposing elite manipulation of media and criticizing the media and criticizing the hegemonic culture.hegemonic culture.

Macro vs Micro Macro vs Micro theoriestheories

Macro theoriesMacro theories more concerned with the more concerned with the social order is effected. social order is effected.

Mico theoriesMico theories more concerned with more concerned with questions involving the everyday life of questions involving the everyday life of average people. They attempted to average people. They attempted to understand what is going on in the world understand what is going on in the world around them. They involved themselves around them. They involved themselves with mundane, daily & trivial issues. E.g with mundane, daily & trivial issues. E.g they wanted to know to what extend the they wanted to know to what extend the mass media has been incorporated in the mass media has been incorporated in the routine daily life without creating serious routine daily life without creating serious disruptions. disruptions.

A. Critical TheoryA. Critical Theory This theory openly exposing certain values This theory openly exposing certain values

to evaluate & criticize the to evaluate & criticize the status quostatus quo , , providing the alternative ways to providing the alternative ways to interpreting the social roles of mass media. interpreting the social roles of mass media. e.g. they identified there exist constraints e.g. they identified there exist constraints on media practitioners that limit the ability on media practitioners that limit the ability to challenge established authority. to challenge established authority.

Critical theory often analyzes specific Critical theory often analyzes specific social problem. E.g. media content often social problem. E.g. media content often reinforces the status quo & undermines reinforces the status quo & undermines effort for constructive social change. effort for constructive social change.

STRENGTH:STRENGTH: Politically based action–oriented Politically based action–oriented Uses theory & research to plan Uses theory & research to plan

change in the real world.change in the real world. Asks big questions on media Asks big questions on media

control & ownership.control & ownership.

WEAKNESSES:WEAKNESSES: Too political . Call for action too Too political . Call for action too

subjective.subjective. Lack scientific verification. Based Lack scientific verification. Based

on observation.on observation. Use controversial research Use controversial research

methods.methods.

The rise of cultural The rise of cultural studies in Europestudies in Europe In Europe the development of grand In Europe the development of grand

social theory (Marxists theory) influences social theory (Marxists theory) influences social sciences & humanities. social sciences & humanities.

The Grand Social Theory (referring to The Grand Social Theory (referring to Marxism) highly ambitious & microscopic Marxism) highly ambitious & microscopic that attempts to understand and predict that attempts to understand and predict important trends in culture & society.important trends in culture & society.

B. Marxist TheoryB. Marxist Theory

Marxist theoryMarxist theory arguing that the arguing that the hierarchical class system is at the hierarchical class system is at the root of all social problems & must root of all social problems & must be ended by a revolution of the be ended by a revolution of the proletariat (workers) This theory is proletariat (workers) This theory is in response to theory of Capitalism in response to theory of Capitalism who maximized personal profits at who maximized personal profits at eh expanse of the workers.eh expanse of the workers.

Marx argued that hierarchical class Marx argued that hierarchical class system was the root of all social system was the root of all social problems & must be ended by a problems & must be ended by a revolution of the workers. He revolution of the workers. He believed that the elites dominated believed that the elites dominated society through the control of means society through the control of means of production (factories, labor, land –of production (factories, labor, land –industrialized society) which are the industrialized society) which are the basebase of this society. of this society.

He also argued that the elite control He also argued that the elite control power over the culture or power over the culture or ‘‘superstructuresuperstructure’ & that this control of ’ & that this control of culture that misled average people & culture that misled average people & encourage them to act against their own encourage them to act against their own interest. e.g. use of ads to promote interest. e.g. use of ads to promote products that some consumers cannot products that some consumers cannot afford. Ads aspire ‘hollow’ expectations afford. Ads aspire ‘hollow’ expectations beyond their affordability of most beyond their affordability of most consumers. Thus, these aspirations consumers. Thus, these aspirations create frustrations & disillusions.create frustrations & disillusions.

C. NeomarxismC. Neomarxism

Is the hybrid from the Marxist idea it tend to Is the hybrid from the Marxist idea it tend to focus the concern more on the focus the concern more on the superstructure superstructure (control over culture) (control over culture) issues and ideologies rather on production issues and ideologies rather on production functions (labor, factories, land, capital etc).functions (labor, factories, land, capital etc).

Using Using textual analysistextual analysis & literary criticism on & literary criticism on highhigh culture culture (high value- music, arts, (high value- music, arts, literature, poetry, movie) an attempt to literature, poetry, movie) an attempt to help people become more humane & help people become more humane & civilized. civilized.

D. The Frankfurt D. The Frankfurt SchoolSchool Another hybrid of Marxism and this Another hybrid of Marxism and this

theory argue in support of the theory argue in support of the high high cultureculture that the elite used to that the elite used to strengthen their personal power in strengthen their personal power in society.society.

The Frankfurt school had a direct The Frankfurt school had a direct influence on American society because influence on American society because of the rise of the Nazis forced its Jewish of the rise of the Nazis forced its Jewish members into exile especially to the U.S. members into exile especially to the U.S. & U.K. This ideology find new homes at & U.K. This ideology find new homes at few American universities.few American universities.

In Britain during 1960’s & 1970’s two In Britain during 1960’s & 1970’s two neomarxist theory emerged: The neomarxist theory emerged: The British Cultural Studies & Political British Cultural Studies & Political Economy Theory. These ideas derived Economy Theory. These ideas derived from literary criticism, linguistics, from literary criticism, linguistics, anthropology, history.anthropology, history.

These theories attempted to trace These theories attempted to trace elite domination over culture, to elite domination over culture, to criticize the social consequences of criticize the social consequences of the domination, & demonstrate how the domination, & demonstrate how it continues to be exercised over it continues to be exercised over minority groups or subcultures minority groups or subcultures (Murdock, 1989; William, 1967, (Murdock, 1989; William, 1967, 1974; Hall, 1982; Habermas, 1971, 1974; Hall, 1982; Habermas, 1971, 1989)1989)

Hall (1982) argued that mass media Hall (1982) argued that mass media in liberal democracies can best be in liberal democracies can best be understood as pluralistic public understood as pluralistic public forum in which various forces forum in which various forces struggle to shape popular notions struggle to shape popular notions about social existence. In this forum about social existence. In this forum new concepts & social reality are new concepts & social reality are negotiated & new boundary lines negotiated & new boundary lines were drawn.were drawn.

In other words this theory In other words this theory promote the idea that media promote the idea that media may provide a place where the may provide a place where the power of the dominant elite can power of the dominant elite can be challenged. be challenged.

E. The Political E. The Political Economy Economy Theory Theory This theory argues for the control This theory argues for the control

of the economic institutions such of the economic institutions such as banks, stock markets & then as banks, stock markets & then try to show this control affects try to show this control affects many other social institutions, many other social institutions, including mass media (Murdock, including mass media (Murdock, 1989; Gerbner, 2001; Schiller, 1989; Gerbner, 2001; Schiller, 2000).2000).

Political economists examined how Political economists examined how economic constraints limit or bias the economic constraints limit or bias the form of mass culture that are produced form of mass culture that are produced & distributed through the media. They & distributed through the media. They are less concerned with investigating are less concerned with investigating how mass culture influences specific how mass culture influences specific groups but are more concerned with groups but are more concerned with understanding how the process of understanding how the process of content production and distribution are content production and distribution are constrained. constrained.

e.g. why do some form of culture e.g. why do some form of culture dominated prime time TV schedules dominated prime time TV schedules where as other form are not where as other form are not presented. Can these reasons be presented. Can these reasons be linked to the interest of economic linked to the interest of economic institutions? What about TV3 institutions? What about TV3 M’sian Idol or Mentor, Astro’s Ria M’sian Idol or Mentor, Astro’s Ria Acadamy Fantasia and TV1 ‘Bintang Acadamy Fantasia and TV1 ‘Bintang RTM? What do you think? SMS etc.RTM? What do you think? SMS etc.

The debate between The debate between Cultural Studies & Political Cultural Studies & Political Economy TheoristsEconomy Theorists

1. 1. Cultural theorists tend to ignore Cultural theorists tend to ignore the larger the larger social & political social & political context in which media operates.context in which media operates.

2. They concentrate how popular 2. They concentrate how popular culture contents is culture contents is consumed by consumed by individuals & groups.individuals & groups.

3. The found that average 3. The found that average people interpretation people interpretation of of media content in ways that media content in ways that would serve the elite interests.would serve the elite interests.

4. They are not interest in4. They are not interest in influencing social policy. influencing social policy.

1.1. Political Economy theorists Political Economy theorists central central concerned with larger social concerned with larger social order & order & elite’s ownership of media.elite’s ownership of media.

2. These theorists have argued the 2. These theorists have argued the growing privatization and growing privatization and

centralization centralization of the media ownership of the media ownership around the around the world. world.

3. They are interested in policy 3. They are interested in policy changes. changes.

Cultural Studies: Cultural Studies: Transmissional vs Ritual Transmissional vs Ritual PerspectivesPerspectives

Carey (1989) noted two types of perspectives Carey (1989) noted two types of perspectives or approaches on cultural studies. or approaches on cultural studies.

1. The 1. The Transmissional perspectiveTransmissional perspective view view mass communication as merely the process mass communication as merely the process of transmitting messages from a distance for of transmitting messages from a distance for the purpose of the purpose of controlcontrol. e.g. first persuade, . e.g. first persuade, attitude change, behavior modification, attitude change, behavior modification, socialization through the transmission of socialization through the transmission of information , influence or conditioning. – ad information , influence or conditioning. – ad commercials persuade us to purchase commercials persuade us to purchase products & services, political campaign products & services, political campaign persuade us to vote. persuade us to vote.

2. The Ritual Perspectives view of mass 2. The Ritual Perspectives view of mass media as the representation of shared media as the representation of shared belief where reality is produced, belief where reality is produced, maintained, repaired & transformed. maintained, repaired & transformed. Communication is used as a symbolic Communication is used as a symbolic process. e.g. a commercial sells more than process. e.g. a commercial sells more than

transportation. It sells image, status, transportation. It sells image, status, position, taste, life style, values, position, taste, life style, values,

norms, norms, position of the company, position of the company, market market dominance, an acceptable culture dominance, an acceptable culture

etc. etc.

The common questions asked before The common questions asked before from these theorists were:from these theorists were:

(a) how culture organized themselves, (a) how culture organized themselves,

(b) how people negotiate common (b) how people negotiate common meanings meanings to the culture & to the culture & how they are bond by it & how they are bond by it &

(c) how media systems interact with (c) how media systems interact with it. it.

But, But,

The new questions asked now were The new questions asked now were no longer on the issue on whether no longer on the issue on whether media have certain effects on the media have certain effects on the audience but rather audience but rather what kinds of what kinds of people we are, we have become, people we are, we have become, or we are becoming in our mass or we are becoming in our mass mediated world. mediated world.

F. Symbolic Interaction F. Symbolic Interaction This is a theory that people gave meaning This is a theory that people gave meaning

to to symbolssymbols & these & these meaningsmeanings then then control those people (Herbert Mead control those people (Herbert Mead (1934).(1934).

It addresses the questions of how people It addresses the questions of how people

use culture to learn.use culture to learn.

We learn social roles through interactions, We learn social roles through interactions, through experiences in daily life. Over through experiences in daily life. Over time we internalize the rules and adjust time we internalize the rules and adjust our actions accordingly. e.g. traffic rules our actions accordingly. e.g. traffic rules Traffic symbols and use of colours to Traffic symbols and use of colours to name few.name few.

What about quality? Once What about quality? Once internalized these roles provide internalized these roles provide us with a powerful means of us with a powerful means of controlling our actions. In times controlling our actions. In times our identity becomes bonded our identity becomes bonded with the expected roles that we with the expected roles that we aspire to be. aspire to be.

Mead’s offer another important Mead’s offer another important insight of socialization by using insight of socialization by using symbols.symbols. Human consciously learn Human consciously learn socialization through the use of socialization through the use of symbols to represent unseen symbols to represent unseen phenomena. Using symbols we phenomena. Using symbols we can can create vivid representations of create vivid representations of the past and we can anticipate the past and we can anticipate the future. the future.

In Mead’s (1934) In Mead’s (1934) Mind, Self, and Mind, Self, and SocietySociety he argued that we use he argued that we use symbols to create our experience symbols to create our experience of consciousness (Mind), our of consciousness (Mind), our understanding of ourselves (self) understanding of ourselves (self) and our knowledge of the larger and our knowledge of the larger social order (society) social order (society)

Applying to the information Applying to the information processing theory symbols processing theory symbols (schemas) enable us mentally (schemas) enable us mentally gives interpretation of the gives interpretation of the information we takes in. The information we takes in. The mind, self and society serve as mind, self and society serve as filtering mechanism for our filtering mechanism for our experiences. experiences.

Symbolic interactionism explains Symbolic interactionism explains that our actions based on our that our actions based on our response to symbols. A person response to symbols. A person understanding of the physical understanding of the physical reality based on the reality based on the interpretation of the mind, self interpretation of the mind, self and society that we have and society that we have internalized. internalized.

E.g. Colours of the American flag E.g. Colours of the American flag during the time of the crisis signal during the time of the crisis signal different messages. To the Serbs in different messages. To the Serbs in Kosovo, North Vietnamese & Iraqi the Kosovo, North Vietnamese & Iraqi the American flag represent oppression, American flag represent oppression, to the Somalis (1992) it means aids in to the Somalis (1992) it means aids in terms of food & medical care etc. terms of food & medical care etc.

What about the M’sian? What is your What about the M’sian? What is your perception? perception?

Mead’s work relevant to Mead’s work relevant to communication scholars are follows:communication scholars are follows:

1.1. Cultural symbols are learned Cultural symbols are learned through interaction.through interaction.

2. The overlapping of shared meaning 2. The overlapping of shared meaning means that means that individuals who learn that individuals who learn that culture should be able to culture should be able to predict the predict the behavior of others in behavior of others in that culture.that culture.

3. Self usually defined largely 3. Self usually defined largely defineddefined

with the environment. with the environment.

4. The extent to which people is4. The extent to which people is

committed to a social identity willcommitted to a social identity will

determine the power of that determine the power of that identity to influence his behavior.identity to influence his behavior.

Faules & Alexander (1978) supported the Faules & Alexander (1978) supported the idea that symbolic interaction behavior idea that symbolic interaction behavior are the results of shared meanings and are the results of shared meanings and values between participants. He offered values between participants. He offered three propositions:three propositions:

1.1. People interpretation & perception People interpretation & perception of the of the environment depend on environment depend on communication.communication.

2.2. Communication is guided by the Communication is guided by the concept of concept of self, roles & situations & self, roles & situations & these concepts these concepts generate generate expectations in the environment.expectations in the environment.

3.3. Communication consisted ofCommunication consisted of

complex complex interactions, such as interactions, such as

action, interdependence, action, interdependence, mutual mutual

influence, relationship & influence, relationship & situational situational factors using factors using signssigns for eg.for eg.

E.g. “ E.g. “ Proton Proton is not just an is not just an automotive automotive

company. It is actually a corecompany. It is actually a core

activity within the Malaysian activity within the Malaysian

manufacturing sector.’manufacturing sector.’

Datuk Azlan Mohd. HashimDatuk Azlan Mohd. Hashim

Chairman of ProtonChairman of Proton

Star 26/07/05Star 26/07/05

Natural signNatural sign – referring to nature – referring to nature Artificial signsArtificial signs – referring to – referring to

elements of construction like shake elements of construction like shake hands.- a gesture of friendliness etc hands.- a gesture of friendliness etc which can produce highly which can produce highly predictable responses. What about predictable responses. What about traffic lights? traffic lights?

Social Construction of Social Construction of Reality Reality Cultural studies theories have Cultural studies theories have

one thing in common i.e. the one thing in common i.e. the assumptions that our experience assumptions that our experience of reality is constantly under-of reality is constantly under-going social construction because going social construction because people share common sense of people share common sense of meaning about its reality. meaning about its reality.

SummarySummary

At the end of this lesson you At the end of this lesson you should have learned the following should have learned the following topics:topics:

Culture in media researchCulture in media research Macroscopic vs Microscopic Macroscopic vs Microscopic

TheoriesTheories Critical TheoryCritical Theory

The rise of the cultural theories The rise of the cultural theories in Europe.in Europe.

Marxist TheoryMarxist Theory Neomarxism Neomarxism The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt School Textual & Literary Criticism Textual & Literary Criticism

Political Economy Theory Political Economy Theory The debate between cultural The debate between cultural

studies & political economy studies & political economy theorists.theorists.

Cultural studies Cultural studies Symbolic InteractionSymbolic Interaction Social Construction of Reality Social Construction of Reality

TheoryTheory

Thank youThank you