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dil A |lI,Critical Approaches Importantin the Study of Literature

I number of critical theories or approaches for understanding and intt'rllpreting literature are available to critics and students alike.l Many t'ltltese were developed cluring tl-re twentieth century to create a discipline of litt'rarry studies comparable with disciplines in the natural and social scienct'sl,iterary critics have often borrowed liberally from other disciplines (e.g', history, psychokrgv', politics, anthropology) but have primarily aimecl at devt'loping literature as a study in its own right.At tl-re heart of the various critical approaches are many fundamcnt.rlquestions: What is literature'? What does it do? Is its concern only to tell sttrries, or is it to express emotions? Is it private? Public? How does it get its idea:'across? What rnclre does it dcl than express ideas? How valuablc was literattrn'in the past, and how valuable is it now? Wl'rart can it contribute to intellectrral, artistic, and social history? To what degree is literature an art, as oppost'(lto an instrument for imparting knowledge? How is literature used, and horland why is it misused? What theoretical and technical expertise may be invoked to enhance literary studies?

Questions such as these inclicate that criticism is concerned not only witlrreading and interpreting stories, poems, and plays but also with establishingtheoretical understanding. Because of such extensive aims, you will under-stand that a full explanation and illustration of the approaches would fill tht'pages of a long book. The following descriptions are therefore intended as n0more than brief introductions. Bear in mind that in the l-rands of skilled crit-ics, the approaches are so subtle, sophisticated, and complex that they are nolonly critical stances but also philosophies.Although the various approaches provide widely divergent ways to studvliterature and literary problems, they reflect major tendencies rather than ab-solute straitjacketing. Not every approach is appropriate for every work, nclrare the approaches always mutually exclusive. Even the most devoted prac-titioners of the methods do not pursue them rigidly. In addition, some of tht'rsomt of thc approaclres dcscribed in this chapter are prcsentcd more simply in Chapter 1 aslr.rsic sttrcly techniclucs for writing about literary works.264

t ttltrrtl \1t1't',,1,11' lttt1"'11,1,'1 nt lltt ',lt!'ltt ttl I tlttttlntt.rlrlrro.r(1r,",,rr,'rnorr"'u:.('r lrrt'n,lly"llt,rttolltt'tslot tt'ttititttVlrt'sol tltst,'ttr'\,. lir,rrlt'r',rr,r',rl lt',r:;1,rrrosltt'itit'sIlrt'r't'lorctakcaParticlrlitritl-rproat'hlrttIulilizt'nrt'llrotls llr,rl 1t't'lrrrit'ally bclrlng to one or rrlore of thc othcr ap-lrlo,rt ht's. A t ritic strcssing the topical/historical approach, for example',rrriglrt intnrrltrcc the closc stucly of a work that is associated witl'r the nlethodol tlrc Ncw Criticism. Similarly, a psychoanalytical critic might include de-t.rils about archetypes. In short, a FTeat deal clf criticism is prngmatic or cc/trc-/lt' rtrther than rigid.The approacl-res to be cor-rsic'lered here are these: moral/intellectual, top-ical/historical, New Critical/formalist, Structuralist, feminist, economic de-terminist/Marxist, psychological/psychoanalytic, archetypal/symbolic/rnythic, deconstructionist, and reac-ler-response.The object of learning about the.se appnraches, like everything else in thisbook, is to help you develop yollr own reacling and writing. Accordingly, fol-lowinp; each of the descriptiorrs is a l-rricf ptrragraph showing howHawthorne's story "Young Clooclnran llrowtr" (Appcndix C) might be con-sidered in the light of the partic-ular a1-,;''r'1r.1.1r. l lrt' illustrativc pirrtrgraph fol-lowing the discussicln of strttctttralisrrr, lirr t'ritttrlrlt', sltows arr applicatittn ofthe structuralist approach to Coorlnran Ilrorvrr irrrtl lris sloly, ,rrttl so itlso withthe feminist approacl-r, the economic dctclrninis[ ,rpp11v.11 lv, ,rtrrl (lrt' olht'rs.Wheneveryouaredoingyourownwritingalrotrtlitt'r'.rtu11',v()u,rlt'lt't'r'lottst'the various approaches as part or all of yottr assipttrnt'ttt, il yott lx'lit"',t' Ilrt'irp-proach may help you.

Moral/IntellectualThe moral/intellectual critical approach is concerned with coutent irncl values (see also Chapter 8). The approach is as old as literature itself, for litcra-ture is a traditional mode of imparting morality, philosophy, ancl religion. Theconcern in moral/intellectual criticism is not only to discover meaning btrtalso to determine whether works of literature are both true and significntrt.

To study literature from the moral/intellectual perspective is thcrcforc 1odetermine whether a work conveys a lesson or a message arrd whcthcr iI carrhelp readers lead better lives and improve their understanding of thc worlt'l:What ideas does the work contain? How strongly doers the work brirrg lorthits ideas? What application do the ideas have to the work's charirctcrs ancl sit-uations? How may the ideas be evaluated intellectually? Morally? l)iscus-sions based on such questions do r-rot imply that literattrrc is prir.narily amedium of moral and intellectual exhortation. Ideally, rnoral/irrtcllcctual crit-icism should differ from sermonizing to the degree that rcirtlcrs should al-ways be left with tl-reir own decisions about whether to assinrilatc the ideas ofa work and abclut whether the ideas-and values-arc pcrs()ltally or moral-ly acceptable.

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.rtr(r \y,1,, ,,,1, ' tSoPlristit.ttt'tl tritits lr.rvt'sorrrt'lirrrt's tlt'nrt',rttt',1 lltt'n)()t,tl/trll('llt'r ltt,tl()l)pr()irch ()11 thc gr()unr'ls thtrt "l-ucssilgc htllltillll" rt'tltttt's.l w()l'l\'s,rll islitv.lluo by treating it like a sermon or political spccch; btrt thc appro.rr lt will lrt'valuable as long as readers expect literature to be applicablc to thcir ()\ 'lr liv('s.Example"Young Cicrodman Brown" raises the issue ttf how an institution designccl forhuman ele.vation, such as the religious system of colonial Salem, can bc so ru-inous. Docs the faiiure result from the system itself or from the people whomisunclcrstand it? Is what is true of religion as practiced by Brown also trueof social and political institutions? Should any religious or political philoso-plry be given greater credence than good will and mutual trust? One of thenra jor virtues of "Yrung Goodman Brown" is that it provokes questions likethese but at the same time provides a number of satisfying answers. A par-ticularly important one is that religious and moral beliefs should not be usedto justify the condemnation of others. Another important answer is that at-tacks made from the refuge of a religion or group, such as Brown's Puri-tanism, are dangerous becausc the judge may condemn without thought anclwithout personal responsibility'.

Topical/HistoricalThe topical/historical critical approach stresses the relationship of literatureto its historical period, and for this reason it has had a long life. Althoughmuch literature may be applicable to many places and tirnes, much of it alsodirectly reflects the intellectual and social worlds of the authors. When was thework written? What were the circumstances that produced it? What major is-sues does it deal with? How does it fit ir-rto tl'Le author's career? Keats's poem"On First Looking into Chapman's Homet" for example, is his excited re-sponse to his reading of one of the major literary works of Western civiliza-tion. Hardy's "Channel Firing" is an acerbic response to continued armamentand preparation for war during the twentieth century.The topical/historical approach investigates relationships of this sort, in-cluding the elucidation of words and concepts that today's readers may notimmediately understand. Obviously, the approach requires the assistance offootnotes, dictionaries, library catalogues, histories, and handbooks.A common criticism of the topical/historical approach is that in the ex-trcme, it deals with background knowledge rather tharl with literature itself.It is possible, for example, for a topical/historical critic to describe a writer'sI i lt', the period of the writer's work, and the social and irltellectual ideas of thetirrrt'-all without ever considering the meaning, importance, or value of thelvork itself.A rcaction against such an unconnected use of historical details is the so-, ,rllt'tl Ncw Historicism. This approach justifies the introduction of historical

t ttlttrtl \1t1't"'1,11, 1trr1,"r1,,,,1 ttr llt'.',ltr'lrt ttl I tlttttlntt )tliI'tr,rtt'lr',11'1' l'1' tttllr',r,tltttr', tl rvillr llrt'tttttlt'tslitntlirrt ol p.rrtit'ular tt'xts. Iit'.rtl-('r'r; ()l r\r'n()l(l'., "l )ovt'r'lit,,rt'1r," lor t'xaurplc, somertinrcs find it difficlrlt to fol-Iorv llrt' rrrtirrrirrr3 ol Arrroltl's statcme.nt "Thc Sea of Faith/Was once, too, at theIrrll." I lislorital Lrackgror-rrrd has a definite role to play here. InArnold's timelhcrc cle veloped a rnethod of treating the Bible as a l-ristorical document ratherthirn divinely irrspired revelation. Tl-ris approach has beer-r called the Higher('riticism of the Bible, and to many tl-roughtful people of the time it unde.r-rnitred the concept that the Bible was divine, infallible, and inerrant. Thc.re.frtrethe "Sea of Faith" was thought to be not at full but rather at ebb tide. Becausethe introduction of such historical material is designed to facilitate the reacl-ing of the pclem-and also the reading of other literature of the periocl-tl-reNew Historicism represents an integration of knowledge and interpretation.As a principle, New Historicism entails the accluisition of as much historicalinformation as possible, because onr knowlerdge of the relationship of litera-ture to its historical period carl never be conrpk'tc. Tlre. practitioner of New His-toricism must always seek new infornrirtiorr orr thc gnrunds that it will befound to be relevant to literary works.

Example"Young Coodman Brown" is an allegorical stolv Irv Nirtlr,rrrit'l I l,rn,llrorrrt'(1804-1864), a New England writer who probctl tlt,t'plv irrto tlrt' r't'l,rtion-ship between religion arrtl guilt. His ancestors hacl bt't'rr irrvolvt'tl irr rt'li-gious persecutions, including the Salem witch trials, antl ht', livine l5() ycarsafterward, wanted to analyze the weaknesses aucl unccrtaintit's ol tht' sin-dominated religion of the earlier period, a traditiorr of wlrich lrt' lvas a rc-sentful heir. Not surprisingly, therefore, "Your-rg Gooclmatr lJrolvrr" ttrkesplace in Pnritan colonial Salem, ancl Flawthon-rc's impliecl jtrtlgntcnts arethosc of a severe critic of hort' the harsh olcl religion destnryed pcrsonaland family relationships. Although the immecliate concerns of the story be-krng to a vanished age, Htrwthorne's treatment is still valuable because it isstill timely.

New Critical/FormalistNew Criticism has been a clot.nitrant forcc in contemprorary literary sttrrl ics. ltfocuses on literary texts as frtrrlirl works of trrt, ancl for this rcasorr it can bcseen as a reaction against thc topic.rl/historical a;rpnr.rch.'['lre rlbjtttiorr raisedby New Critics is that as topical/historit'irl tritit's consitlt'r litt'rary history,they evade direct contact with actrrirl It'xls.The inspiration for tl're New Criticirl/fornr.rlist criticirl itpproach wasthe French practice of explicttiott dc tct'lt,.r rrrt'tlrotl that crrrPlr,rsizcs detailedexamination and explanation. Thc New ('ritit'isnr is .rI its rltrst bril]iant inthe formal analysis of smaller units such as t.ntilt'l)()('nrs ancl short pas-sages. For the analysis of larger structlrrcs, tho Ncw ('riticisrn also utilizes

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\1,1,, 11,1, ' t,l nuntL)Cr tlf teChnitlr-teS tlt.rL lr.rvt'Irt't'tt I'r'1,, lr',1 ,r" lltt'l"t:'l:' r'l ' ll'r1)lr'1" llllhis book' Discussions of poirrt of vit'w' lottt" 1'l"l ' lt'tt'tr lt't' 'ltttl :'lr ll( llll("iqrexamplc,areformalwaysoiloclkirrgatlilt'r,rltrtt'llt,rl,ttt'tlt'tivt'tl ltorttthe Ner,v ('r'iticism.-fhr'.riqr of the formalist study of literature is to provitlt'tt'.ttlt'rs ttol ottlv!viIlt tlt(' lttealts of explaining the cc)ntent of works (what, s;-rt'cifically, tlot's 'trt,.r.ls siry?) but also lvith the. insights neede(l for evaluatilrg the artistic cltlirlirr' ,,1 iniiviclual $,orks iurd writcrs (irow well is it said?). A major

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l)(,t(('i\,(,stlistirrgrrrslrittqtyPl'5()1"1',t(lltlttl,tt:, oll,tttt',tt,rt',t'llr,rl,ll1'l('(llllt'lllitr r,.rriotrs tVl-rcs ol litcrattrrc. SlrPpo5l', lot'r'...utt1,lt', Ilt.tl yort('l)( ()lllll('l ()l)('lling p.rssages like the fclllowing:Once upon a time a young prince fell in love with a young princcss. I It'tlt''cided to tell hcr of his love, and early one morning he left his castlt'on ltiswhite clr"-rrgcr, riding toward her castle home high in thc mountaius.Early that morning, Alan had found himself thinking about Anne. He harlbc.li0r't'tl lrcr when she strid shc krved him, but his feelings about her werc notccrtairr, arrcl l-ris thinking had left him still Llnsure.'Ihc i,r,orcls oi these two passages create different and distinct frames of rt'fcr

enc,t'. ( )rre is a fairy tale of the past, the other a modern internalized reflectionol' lt't'lirrg. The passages therefore demonstrate how language itself fits inttrprt.tlctermined patterns or structures. Similar uses of language strtlctures callbt' associated with other types of literature.ExampleYour.rg Goodman Ilrown is ar hero r,vho is passive, not active. He is a zLtitnt'ss,aracciucr rather than a doer. His only action-taking his trip in the forest-oc-curs at the story's beginning. After that point, he no longer acts but insteadis acted upon, and i'ris reactions to what he sees around him put his life's be-liefs to a test. Of course, marly protagonists undergo similar testing (such irsrescuing victims and overcoming particularly terrible dragons), and ti-reyemerge triumpl-rant. Not so with Goodman Brown. He is a responder who al-lows himself kr be victimized by his own perceptions-or misperccptions.Despite all his previotts expericnces with his wifc and with tl-re good peopleof his village, ire generalizes too hastily. He lets the single disillusioning er-perience of his nightmare govern his entire outlook ttn others, and thus he failshis test and turns his entire life into failure.

FeministThe feminist critical approach holds that most of our literature presents amasculine-patriarchal view in wl'rich the role of women is negated or at bestrnirrimized. As an adjunct of the feminist movement in politics, the feministcritique of literature seeks to laise consciousness about the importance andulriclue nature of women in literature.Specifically, the feminist view attempts (1) to show that wliters of tradi-lionirl literature have ignored women and have also transmitted misguided,rntl prcjudiced view-s of them, (2) to stimulate the cleation of a critical milieullr,rt n'flccts a balalced view of the lature and value of women, (3) to recov-t,r' llrt. rvorks of past women writers and to encourage the publication of pre-:;t,rrl rvorrlt'lr writers so that the literary canon can be exPanded to recognize'\\'( )r n('n .rs thinkers and artists, and (4) to urge transformations in the language

l/,1,' tr,/t r \ I ttltrttl \111,r,',1'11' lttt1,,,t1',,,1 ttt lltr'',lttrltl ttl I tlltttltttt:,o,r:, lo t'lrrrrrn,rlr.nt(.(llllt(,:.,rrr,l ittcrltrirlitit's tlr.tt It.tvt'rcsttltetl lrollt t't'tltttt-it'soI I r r rr',r r rsl l( l r r('r'l t,t,r ttt I,t ttl i lt'rrrirrisI scnsitivity.

Irr lolrrr, tlrt' lt'rrrirrisl perspective recluires the evaluation of literary workslronr tlrt'starrrlpoirtt of the presentation of women. For works such as "TheNecklace" (story) "I'atterns" (poem), and The Benr (play), a feminist critiqueIocuses on how such works treat women and also on either the shortcomingsor enligl'rtenment of the author as a result of this treatment: How importantare the female characters and how individual in their own right? Are theycredited with their own existence and their own character? In their relation-ships with men, how are they treated? Are they given equal status? Ignored?Patronized? Demeaned? Pedestalized? How much interest do the male char-acters exhibit about women/s concerns?

ExampleAt the beginning of "Young Cottclnrarr llrowtr," Brown's wife, Faith, is onlyperipheral. In the traditiont-rl patrii'rrchal spirit o[ wifc-as-adiunct, she asksher husband to stay at home arrd takc his jotrnrcy irt anothcr tir-rrc. Flt-rwthornedoes not give her the intelligence or ciigrritv, ltolvt'r,t'r, to lt't ht'r cxpliritr hcrconcern (or might he not h;rve been intcrt'stt'tl in wlr,rt sltt' hirrl to sav?) arrclshe therefore remains in the backgrourrd witlr Ircr pink lt.ril riblrtttt its ht'r tlistinguishing symbol of submissive inferiority. Dtrrirtg tltt' rrritl lort'sI s.tt,tttit rit-ual she appears again and is given powcr, but only Iltt'p1;11'1'1' (o titttst'ltt'rhusband to go astray' once she is led in as a ttovict'itt tht'Pr'tttit't'ol tlt'-monism, her husband falls right in step. Unforttrnately, lry following hcr,Brown can conveniently excuse himself from gr-rilt by clirinring that "shc"had made him do it, just as Eve, in some traditional vicws 0f tht' fall of hu-mank:ind, compelled Adam to eat the apple (Genesis 3:16-17). Hawtlrorne'sattention to the hero, in otirer words, permits him kr neglect thc possibility ofa heroine.

Economic Determinist/MarxistThe concept of cultural and economic determinism is one of the major polit-ical ideas of the nineteenth cerltury. Karl Marx (1818-1883) emphasized thatthe primary influence on life w.ts ccotlomic, and he saw society as an oppo-sition between the capittrlist arrd working classes. The literature that cmcrgcdfrom this kind of analysis featrrrcs incliviclurrls in the grips of thc class strug-gle. Often called proletarian literirturc, it enrph.rsizt's pcrs()lrs ol' thc lowerclass-the poor and oppressed who spcrrrl tlrt'ir livt's itr t'rtcllt'ss tlrutlgcry andmisery, and whose attempts to risc irbovt'tlrt'ir tl isirtlv(lrttilg('s Ltstlally resultin renewed suppression.Marx's political ideas were never wiclely.r(('('pt('(l irr the Urrited Statesand have faded still more in the aftennath oi thc political breirkup of the Scl-viet Union, but the idea of economic clctcrnrinist.tr (antl the rclated term socialDarrttinisrtt) is still credible. As a result, llLrch litcrirtLrrc calt be judged from

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l'/; l/,/,, ,,,/r ' I,tlt ('( ()ll()llll( l)('lsl)('( ltVt't't't'lt lllotrl',ll llt| r',,rllrtllllr ( I lll(:' lll,l\ ll(|l Itt'l\4,rr rr,rrr Wlr,rl i:;lll('('(()'()rrrit sl,rltts.l llrr',lr,rt,r, l,'r:,'Wlr,rl lt,t;,1't't1. l, lltr'ttt,l:,,rrr':rrrllol llrissl,rlrrs?llolvtlotlrt'_ylitrt,,rr',,rrrr:.1 ('(()n()nli(,trttl ;rrtlilit,rl o,l,l:,,'Wlr,rl ollrt,r torrrl itiorrs stt'r)ll1i11g frtlnr tltt'il t'l.tss tlot's tltt'lvlilt'r t'tttlrltitsizt'(t'.ri., ]roor t'cltrcirtion, poor nutrition, po()r hcrrltlr r'arr', irt.tcletlttirtt'o1.r1xrt'[11nitv) I 'lir wltat extent cloes the work fail by overlookirrg the ec()llorttic, s()e i.ll,irncl political implications of its material? ln what other ways does ccottotlir'tlt'terminism affect the work? How should readers consider the story irrtoclay's developed or underdeveloped world? Seemingly, Hawthorne's storv"Young Goodman Brown," which we have used for analysis in these discussions, has no economic implications, but an economic determinist/Marxistcritical approach migl-rt take the following turns:

Example"Yourrg Goodman Brown" is ;r fine story just as it is. It deals with the falsevalues instilled by the skewed acceptance of sin-dominated religion, but itoverkroks the economic implications of this situation. One suspccts that thereal story in the little world of Goodman Brown's Salem should be aboutsurvival and the disruption that an alienated member of society can pro-cltrce. After Brown's condemnation and distrust of others forces him inttrhis own shell of sick imagination, Halvthorne docs not consicler how sucha disaffected character would injure the economic and public life of thetown. Consider this, just for a rnoment: Why would the people frorn whomBror,vn recoils in disgust want to deal with him in busirress or personal rnat-ters? [n towtr meetings, r,vctuld they want to follow his opinitns on crucialissues of public concern and invcstmer-rt? Wotrld his preoccupation with sinand damnation make hinr anything morer than a horror in his clornestic life'?Would his r'vife, Faith, be ablc to cliscuss lrousehold managcrnent it'ith him,or how to take care of thc. children? All these questions of course are point-ecl toward anotlrer story-a skrry tlrat Hawthorne dicl not rvrite. They alsoindicate the shortcomings of Flawthorne"s approach, bc'cause it is clear thtrtthc- major result of Young Goodman Brown's selfisl'r preoccupation withevil would be a serious disruption of thc- economic and poiitical affairs ofhis small communitv.

Psycholo gical/PsychoanalyticThe scientific study of the mind is a product of psychodyllamic theory as es-tablished by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) arrd of the psychoanalytic methodpracticed by his followers. I'sychoanalysis provided a new key to the under-standing of character by claiming that behavior is caused by hidden and un-rrlrsc-ious motives. It was greeted as a revelation with far-reaching implicationsIor all intellectual pursuits. Not surprisingly it had a profound and continu-irrq t'l.l't'ct on post-Freudian literature.

t trlrtrtl \1r1t11t'1,11' 1trt11r11,1111 rtt lltt',ltttltl ttl I tlt tttluttlrr,r,l,lrlron. rl,, l,r'l'rrl,rlily prorlttt't'rl il l-rsyr'holtlgicirl,/psycho;uralytic ap-

l)r'o,rt lr lo r rrlrr r:,nr.' sorlrt't ritit's use the approach to explain fictional char-,rt lt'r's, ,rs rn llrr, lirrrtl urirrk interpretation by Freud and Ernest Jones thatShirkcsPt',rt,'s I lar.rrlet suffers from an Oedipus complex. Still other critics useit as a wiry of analyzing authors and the artistic process. For example, |clhn Liv-irrgstirn Lowes's stwdy The Rosd to Xanndu presents a detailed examination oftlrc mind, reading, and neuroses of Coleridge, the author of "Kubla Kl-ran."Critics using the psycl-roanalytic approach treat literature somewhtrt like:ir.rformation about patients in therapy. In the work itself, what are tl-re obviotrsand hidden motives that cause a character's behavior and speech? FIow muchbackground (e.g., repressed cl-rildhood trauma, adolescent memories) doesthe author reveal about a character? How purposeful is this information withregard to the character's psychokrgical condition? How much is important inthe analysis and understanding of thc character?In tl-re consideration of autlrors, critics utilizing the psychoanalytic modelconsider questions like these: What pirrtir'rrlar lifc cxperiences explain char-acteristic subjects or preoccupations? Wirs lht'ittttltor's lifc happy? Miserable?Upsetting? Solitary? Social? Can thc clcirth oi s()nr('()n(' in thc atrthor's familybe associated with melancholy situt-rtirlns in tlrat iruthor's work? All clevenbrothers and sisters of the English poct Thotnirs (irity, lor t'xittnplt', clicc'l be-fore reaching adulthood. Cray was the only orrc to srtrvivt'. lrr his grot'lry, (l1nyoften deals with death, and he is therefore consiclcrcd ottc ol tlrt' "( iravt'yitrdSchool" of eighteenth-century poets. A psychoanalytical critit' nrighl rlirkcmuch of this connection.

ExampleAt the end of "Young Coodman Brown," Hawthorne's mtrjor character is nolonger capable of normal existence. His nigl-rtmare should be read as a sym-bol of what in reality would have been lifekrng mental subjection to the typeof puritanical religion that emphasizes sin ancl guilt. Such preoccupation withsin is no hindrance to psychological health if the preoccupied people are con-vinced that God forgivc's them and grants them mercy. In their dealings withothers, they renrain hcalthy as long as they believe that other people havethe same sincere trust in tlivine forgiveness. If their own faith is weak and un-certain, however, ancl if they cattuot believe in forgiveness, then they are like-ly to transfer their own gtrilt re.rlly ir fonn of pcrsonal tertrr-to othcrs.They remain conscions of their owr.r sirrs, btrt they fincl it e'asy to c'lainr thatotlrers are sinful-even thosc n'ho arc sPirittritlly spotlcss, ittttl t'vt'u tht'ir owtrfamily, wl-ro should be dearest to tlrt'nr. Wlrt'n this pr()c('ss of plojt'ction ortransference occurs, such peoplc havt' r'rt'att'tl tlrt' ratiortalt' ol' r'tttrrlcttrtritrgothers because of their own guilt. -l-he prit'r'that tht'y piry is a lilt'of gloom,a fate that Hawthorne designates for (itxrtlnran lllown alter tlrt'nightmareabout demons in human form.

rScc also Chapter 4, "Writing About Character: Thc I'coplt' itt l.itt'r.ttttrt'

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)71 l1 '1 ','v,,1, ' IArcltctyp.r l/Sy nt lrolir'/M y I h ic

'l'hc archetypal/symbolic/mythic critical .rppro.rt'lr, tlt'r'ivt'tl llorrr llrt' n,or l.ol theSwisspsychoanalystCarl Jung(1875-l9(rI),pn'srrppost'sth.rIhrrrrr.rrrlilt'is built up out of patterns, or archetypes ("first molds" ()r "l i rst pa ttt'rns" ) t lr,r lare similar througl-rout various cultures and historical times.rlTht'rrpproat h issimilar to the structuralist analysis of literature, for both approachcs str('ssthe connections that may be discovered in literature written in differerrt tinrt'sand in vastly clifferent locations in the world.h-r literary evaluation, the archetypal approach is used to support the clainrthat the vcry best literature is grounded in archetypal patterns. The archt'typal critic therefore looks for archetypes such as God's creation of human

be irrgs, the sacrifice clf a hero, or the search for paradise. How does an individ rra I story, poem, or play fit into any of the archetypal patterns? What truthsdocs this correlation provide (particularly truths that cross historical, nation-al, irnd cultural lir-res)? How closely does the work fit the archetype? Whatvariations can be seen? What meaning or meanings do the connections have?The most tenuous aspect of archetypal criticism is Jung's assertion that thcrecurring patterns provide evidence for a "universal human consciousness"that all clf us, by virtue of our humanity, still retain in our minds and in ourvery blood.Not all critics accept the hypothesis of a universal human consciousnL.ss,but they nevertheless consider the approach impclrtant for comparisons anc'lcontrasts (see Chapter 14). Many human situations, such as adolescence,dawning love, the search for success, the reconciliation with one's mother anclfather, and the encroachment of age and death, are similar in structure and carrbe analyzed as archetypes. For example, tl-re following situatior-rs can be seenas a pattern or archetype of initiation: A young man discovers the power of lit-erature' and understarlding (Keats's "On First Looking into Chapman'sHomer"); a man determines the importance of truth ancl fidelity amidst un-certainty (Arnold's "Dover Beach"); a man and woman fall in love despitetheir wislres to remain independent (Chekhov'sThe Besr); a woman g.rinsstrengtl'r and integrity because of previously unrealized inner resources (Mau-passant's "Tlle Necklace"). The archetypal approach encourages the analysisof variations on the same theme, as in Glaspell's Trit'lcs and Hardy's "TheThree Strangers" when important characters conceal details that are relevantto a criminal investigation (one sort of initiation) and also, as a result, asserttheir own individuality and freedom (another sort of initiation).

ExampleIn the sense that Young Goodman Brown undergoes a change from psycho-logical normality to rigidity, the story is a reverse archetype of the iuitiationritual. According to the archetype of successful initiation, initiatcs scck to

I llttttl \1t1tt,,,1,11, .11t1,,,11,1111 ttt lltr'',ltt,l11 ttl I tlt.tttlntt.(lr'nrol',lr.rll llrr'rr rvorllunt':,:, lo ltt'r'onlt'lrrll llt'tlgt'tl tttt'ttt[rt'ts ol so1 11'1y.lllr.rrr.r, lrrr', rrr I l,'rn,.r '. I )rl.tl:;:.r'.tl,lor t'xanrplt', is a yotrng nran who itr the(('lri,r.ol llr,,t'1tr, r',ot'sllrrrlrththcinitiationritualsof travel,discussion,andlr,rtllt'. ltrrl irr "\irtrrrg (looduran Brown" we see initiation in reverse, for just.rs Ilrt'rt, is ln arthetype of successful initiation, Brown's initiation letrds himin[o lailrrre. In the private areas of life on which happiness clepencls, he fallsshort. Hc sces evil in his felkrw villagers, condemns his ministet and shrinkscvcn from his own family. His life is one of despair and gloom. His suspi-cions are those of a Puritarr of long ago, but the timeline'ss of Hawthoruc'sstory is that tl-re archetype of misunderstandirrg and condcmnation has notchanged. Today's headlines of r.niscry and war are prodtrced by the san.rckind of intolerance thart is exhibitecl by Coodrlan Brown.

DeconstructionistThe deconstructionist critical approi.rch lt, lr it'h tlt'constructionists explainnot as an approach but rathcr as a l-rt'rlornrarrt t' w'.rs tlt'r,r'lopc'cl lry the FrenchcriticJacquesDerrida (b. 1930). Irr tlrt' l()70s,rrrtl l()li{)s iI lrt't.rntt'ir nrajorbutalso controversial mode clf criticisnr. As a litt'r',rly Ilrt'oly, tlr't orrsllrrr'lionisnrproduces a type of analysis tha t stresst's a rrrlrigrr i t y,r r rtl t ort l r.,rtl it l iott.Amajorprincipleof deconstructionisur is that Wt'slt'r'rr tltorrrilrl lt,ts [rt't'trIogocantric; that is, Western philosopl-re'rs have bast'tl tlrt'il irlt',rs ort lltc as-sumption that central truth is knowable and elrtirc (this vit'lv is irtr'or'rct'[, irt'-cording to a deconstructionist). The deconstructionist vicw posits instt'.rtl tltaIthere is no central truth because circumstances and time, which .tlc t'lt.tngt'-able ar-rd sometimes arbitrary, govern the world of the intellect. 'l'his irn.rlysisleads to the declaration "All interpretation is misinterpretation." "fhat is, lit-erary works cannot be encapsulated as clrganically unified entireties, anrltherefore there is not ond corract interpretation but only interltretntiLtns, each oncpossessing its own validity.In "deconstructing" a work, therefore, the deconstructionist critic raisesquestions about what other critics have claimed about the work: ls a poemaccepted as a model of classicism? Then it also exhibits qualities of romanti-cism. ls a story about a young Native American's flight from school cotl-monly taken as a criticism of modern urban life? Then it may also bc tirketr irsa story of the failure of youth. ln carrying out such criticism, derconslrttctiotr-ist critics place heavy emphasis on the ideas contained in terms strch is /trtl-birtalence, discrepnncy, enigma, unccrtuitrty, delusion, itrtlccisiotr, irnrl /rlck o/resolu t ion, among others.The deconstructionist attack on "correct," "privileged," or "accepted"readings is also related to the principle that language, ancl thcrcfore litera-ture, is unstable. "Linguistic instability" means that thc tnrtlcrstanding ofwords can never be exact or comprehensive because thcrc is it ncver-endingplarl between the words in a text and their many shaclcs oi nreaning, includ-ing possible future meanings. That is, the words do not rcntttitt constant and'ivrrrl,olisnr is llso considered in Chapter 10.

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'.t7lt l1'1 ',',,,1, ' 'Prrrrlttr't',r tlt'linitt'nl('.rlill1l lrttt instt',rrl r,rll l,rrllr llrc lro:.,,ilrilily ol 'nrlnul('sulrstiltrlittrrs" ()l rll('anirrg. li.rr'lr work ol lilt'r',rlrrri'r:, llrcrllort',rrrrlrir',rrorrs,rrr,lurr('('rtiriltbccrrttseitsfull ntcilnirlgiscottslirtttlv rlr'lr'ttr'rl.Ilrisrrrlirrilt'p1,11'1;1selrlirtltic tension renders language unstablc.rrrtl rrrirkt's (()l'l('([ or'.rttr'ptt'tlreaclings impossible.A number of critics have found the deconstructionist p()siti()lr cltrsivt'and vague. They grant that literary works are often ambiguclus, trncertirirr,and apparently contradictory, but they explain tl'rat the cause of these corrditions is not linguistic instability but rather authorial intention. They alsopoint out tlrat the deconstructionist linguistic analysis is derivative, ullori!,-inal, ancl irrcorrect. In addition, critics claim that the deconstructionist linguistic position does not support deconstructionist assertions about linguistir'instability. Critics also draw attention to the contradiction that deconstrtrctionisrl cannot follow its major premise about there beirrg no "privilegetlrt'atlings" because it must recognize the privileged readings in order to in-validate or "subvert" them.

ExampleThere are many uncertainties in the details of "Young Coodman Brown." Ifone starts with the stranp;er on the path, one might conclucle that he could beBrown's father because he recognizes Brown immediately and speaks to himjovially. On the other hand, the stranger could be the devil (he is recognizedas such by Coody Cloyse) because of his wriggling walking stick. After dis-appearing, the stranger also takes on the characteristics of an omniscient cu'ltleader and seer because at the satanic ceiebration he knows all the secret sinscommitted by Brown's neighbors and the community of greater New Eng-land. Additionally, he might represent a perverted conscience whose aim isto mislead and befuddle people by steering them into the holier-than-thoujudgmentalism that Brown adopts. This method would be truly cliabolical-b use religion in order to bring people to their own damnation. That tl-restranger is an evil force is thcrefore clear, but the pathways of his evil are notas clear. He seems to work his mission of damnation by reaching souls likethat of Coodman Brown through means ordinarily attributecl to conscience.If the stranger represents a satanic corrscience, what are we to suppose thatHawtlrorne is asserting about what is considerec-l real conscience?

Reader-ResponseTl-re reader-response critical approach is rooted tn pthenomenolog,y, a branch oipl-rilosophy that deals with the understanding of how things appear. The phe-nomenological idea of knowledge is that reality is to be found not in the ex-tcrrral world itself but rather in the our perceptiln of the external world. Thatis, all tl-rat we human beings can know-actual knowledge-is our collectiveirrrtl personal understanding of the world and our conclusions about it.

;\:,,r , ,)1r.,(,rlu{,n( ('ol llrt'1rlrt'ttotttr'ttologicalctttrccprt, rctrcicr-rcsp-rt)tlsc [llc-or v lrol,lr. llr,rl llrt' rt',rtlt't'is it trcccssary tlrirci party in the author-text-readerr t'l,rlionslr iP Ilr,r I t orrstitutcs the literary work. The work, in other words, is notlr rlly t rcatt'tl trutil rctrdcrs make a translctiott with it by assimilating it and ac-t ttrrlizirrg it in the light of tl-reir own knowledge and experience. The represen-t,rtivc rlucstions of the theory are these: What does this work mean to me, innry preserlt intellectual and moral makeup? What particular aspects of mylil'c can help me understand and appreciate the work? How can the work im-prove my understanding and widen my insights? How can my incre.lsirrg trrl-clcrstanding help me understand the work more deeply? The theory is that tlrefree interchange or transtrction that such cluestions bring about leads towt-rrclinterest and growth so that rcadcrs (-an assimilate literary works and accePtthenr as part of lht'ir lives.As an initial way of reading, thc rcaclcr-response method rnay be per-sonal and anecdotal. In adclitiorr, by strt'ssing rosp()nse rather thar-r interpre-tation, one of the leacliug expont'rrts ol.tht' rrtt'tlrocl (Sttrnley Fish) has raisedthe extrerne question about whcther [t'xls, lry tlrt'tttst'lvcs, havc objective iden-tity. These aspects have bccn citerl as lrotlr.r sltorttotttittg altcl atr intrttttse-quentiality of the method.It is therefore irnportant to strcss th.rt tlrt' rt';ttlct' 11'sl)()lls(' Iltt'ot'V i5 rr/rr'rl.It permits beginning readers to bring thcir owtt [rt'tsott,tl t't'.tr'tiotts lo litt'r-ature, but it also aims to increase their clisciplint'.rrrtl sl.ill.'lltt'tttolt'tlt.ttreaciers bring to literature tl-rrough tl'reir intercsts arrtl tl ist iPlilrt'tl slrltl it's'the more "competent" and comprehensive their rt.sponses w,ill [rt'. With t'u-mulative experience, the disciplined reader will habitually arlitrst Io ttt'wworks and respond to them with increasing expertise. If the r,vorks rt'tlttirt'special knowledge in fields such as art, politics, science, pl-rilosophy, rt'li-giorl, or mclrality, tllen competent readers will seek out such knowledge trntlutilize it in developing their responses. Also, because students expericncemany similar intellectual and cultural disciplines, it is logical to conclude thntresponses will tend not to diverge but rather to coalesce; agreements resultnot from personal but from cultural sirnilarities. The reader-response theo-ry, then, can and should be an avenue toward informed and detailed un-derstanding of literature, but tl-re initial emphasis is the transacfirrn bctweenreaders and literary works.

Example"Young Goodman Brown" is worrisome because it shows stl clistrrrbinglythat good intentions may cause harmful results. I think that a pt'rsorr witl'rtoo high a set of expectations is ripe for disillusionment, iust :rs (ltxrclmanBrown is. When people clon't measure up to this persotl's staltclarcl of per-fection, they can be thrown aside as thottS;h they are worthlt'ss. "['hey may begood, but their past mistakes make it impossiblc. for thc pcrsott witl'r high ex-per:ttrtions to endure them. I have seen this situation ()ccur artt()l1g sonte of my

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!'tH 1,p,1,, ,,,1, , ,IttIttrl',,rn(l,r((1il,iln1,ilr((':,, l),ttlir rrl,rrlV ttt rrrlrr.rrrlrr rIl,rlrorr:,lrr;r:, (,oorllrr,ilrlitirtt,n rrr,rl.t's llrt,s.rrlt.l.irrtl ol nrrs;rrtlr',nrt'rrl, r.\l)r.( lntt', l)(,ll(\ liorr,rrrrl lrrlrritttlsttttl wll('tl llr'lt'.rrttsabouI llar'r,s. lt is rrol llr,rl ltt,r:, nol ,t gootl rl,trr, Itt't.rrrst' ltt' is slror,r,n at thc starrt as .t f-le rs()ll ol [rt'lit,l ,rrrtl stability. I lt'un( ritically accepts his nightmare revelation that cvcryone clsc is cvil, lrow-('vcr, and he finally distrusts everyone because of this baseless suspici()n.lle cannot look at his neighbors without avoiding them like an "anathenrr,"and he turns away from his own wife "without a greeting" (paragraph T0).Brown's problem is that he equates being human with being unworthy. Bysuch a distorted standard of judgment, all of us fail, ancl that is what makesthe story so disturbing.

,t B Ft,The Use of References and Tensesin Writing About Literature

Jn establishing evidence for the points you make in your essays and essayIexaminations, you constantly need to refer to various parts of stories, plays,and poems. You also need to incltrde shorter and longer quotations and to keepthe time sequences straight within thc works you are writing about. In addi-tion, you may need to refer to biographical anc-l historical dctails that have abearing on the work or works v()Lr irrc strrdying. So that yottr own writing mayflow as accurately and naturally t.rs 1-rossilrlt', iI is nrosl inrPo11,lt'1 ior yot-t kt beable to integrate these references anrl tinrt'tl islint'lions clt'lrly alrcl t'.tsily.

Integrating Passages and ldeas into Your EssayYour essays should reflect your own thought irs y()u str-rcly anrl analyzc thccharacteristics, ideas, and qualities of an author's work. lrr a typical tl iscttssitluof literature, you are constantly introducing paraphrase, cluotations, generarlinterpretations, observations, and independent applications of everything youare discussing. It is not easy to keep these various elements integrated and tokeep confusion from arising (see also Chapter 18, page 253).

Tread Carefully to Distinguish Your Thoughts from Those of Yout AuthorOften the major problem is that it is hard for your reader to figure out when VOUrideas have stopped and your rtrrtlrur's have begun. You must thereforc arrangeyour scntences to make the distinctiotls clcar, but yclu must also blencl ytlur ma-terials so that your reader may folklw yorr casily. Let us sce itn cxi.tttrprlc of howsuch problems may be handlecl. I lcrc, tht' writcr lrt'ing c]isctrsscr'l is the Victo-rian poet Matthew Arrrold (1822-1uus)''l'ht' P'15s'1gt' rlr()vcs irotn reference toArnold's ideas to the essay writer's ittclcl-rclltlctrt applicatitln of the ideas.

[1] In his poem "Dover Beach," Matthcw Artroltl statt's that in past times re-ligious faith was accepted as absolutc trtrth. l2l 'lo sytnlrolize tl-ris idea herefers t9 the ocean, which surrounds all larntl, atrtl tltc srrrl', which constantly