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Transcript of Criminology chapter 06
CRIMINOLOGY
TODAYAN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION
sixth edition
By FRANK SCHMALLEGER
Pearson Education, Inc.
CRIMINOLOGY
TODAYAN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION
sixth edition
By FRANK SCHMALLEGER
Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 6Social Structure
Theories
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
3
Major Principles of Sociological Theories• Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society, and
social roles are the focus of criminological study
• Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the causal nexus from which crime develops
• Society’s structure and its relative degree of organization or disorganization are important factors contributing to the prevalence of criminal behavior
• Specific behavior of a given individual cannot be predicted, but statistical estimates of group characteristics and of the probability that a member of a given group will engage in a specific type of crime are possible
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
4
Major Principles of Sociological Theories• Social structure theories examine
institutional arrangements within a social structure and social processes as they affect socialization and have an impact on social life
• Macro focus: stress types of behavior likely to be exhibited by group members
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
5
Key Sociological Explanations of Crime• Social structure theories:
Crime is the result of an individual’s location within the structure of society
• Social process/social development theories: Crime is the end product of various social processes.
• Conflict theories: Crime is the product of class struggle
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
6
Definition of Social Structure Theories
• Look at formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as the root causes of crime and deviance
• See the negative aspects of social structure as producers of criminal behavior
• Highlight arrangements within society that contribute to low SES of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
7
Types of Social Structure Theories
• Social disorganization theory (ecological approach
• Strain theory
• Culture conflict theory (cultural deviance theory)
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
8
Social Disorganization Theory
• Associated with the ecological school of criminology
• W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki – Found crime rates rose among displaced
persons– Suggested cause was social disorganization
resulting from immigrants’ inability to successfully transplant norms and values from home cultures into the new one
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
9
Chicago School
• Social ecology movement– Focused on how the structure of society adapts to the quality of
natural resources and to the existence of other human groups– Developed disease model based on social pathology
• Aspects of society may be somehow pathological and produce deviant behavior among groups and individuals who are exposed to such conditions
• Social disorganization and pathology may arise when a group is faced with significant social change
• Robert Park and Ernst Burgess – Saw American cities caught up in swift social change – ideal focus
for study of social disorganization– Viewed cities as having five concentric zones, each with unique
characteristics and populations
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
10
Chicago’s Concentric Zones
Figure 6-1
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
11
Shaw and McKay• Applied concentric zone model to the study of juvenile
delinquency
• Found offending rates remained constant over time within zones of transition– Criminal activity associated with urban transitional zones– Typified by social disorganization, turmoil, lower property values,
poverty, lack of privacy
• Cultural transmission: Traditions of delinquency are transmitted through successive generations of the same zone
• Key contribution of ecological school: society has a major influence on human behavior
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
12
The Criminology of Place
• Environmental criminology– Emphasizes the importance of geographic location and
architectural features as they are associated with the prevalence of victimization
– “Hot spots” of crime
• Broken windows thesis (Wilson and Kelling)– Physical deterioration and unrepaired buildings lead to
increased concerns for safety among area residents– Led to increase in “order maintenance policing” and
crackdown on quality-of-life offenses
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
13
The Criminology of Place
• Defensible space– The range of mechanisms that combine to bring an
environment under the control of its residents– Architectural changes that enhance barriers, define
boundaries, and remove criminal opportunity can reduce the risk of crime
• Location can be as predictive of crime as the lifestyles of victimized individuals or social features of victimized households
• Places can be criminogenic
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
14
Strain Theory
• Strain:The pressure that individuals feel to reach socially determined goals
• Anomie (Robert K. Merton)A disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate goals
• Crime results from attempts to achieve legitimate goals through illegitimate means
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
15
Goals and Means Disjuncture
Table 6-1
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
16
Relative Deprivation
• Messner and Rosenfeld blame crime on inconsistencies in the American Dream
• Relative deprivation:The economic and social gap that exists between rich and the poor who live in close proximity
• Distributive justice:An individual’s perception of his or her rightful place in the reward structure of society
• Types of relative deprivation– Personal– Group
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
17
General Strain Theory (GST)
• Robert Agnew reformulated strain theory into a comprehensive perspective
• Crime seen as a coping mechanism enabling those who engage in it to deal with the socioemotional problems generated by negative social relations
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
18
Central Propositions of GST
• Strain refers to events and conditions that are disliked by individuals
• Strains increase the likelihood of particular crimes primarily through their impact on a range of negative emotional states
• Those strains most likely to cause crime (a) are perceived as high in magnitude or (b) as unjust; (c) are associated with low self-control; and (d) create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
19
Central Propositions of GST
• The likelihood that individuals will react to strains with criminal behavior depends on a range of factors influencing the individual’s (a) ability to engage in legal coping, (b) costs of crime, and (c) disposition of crime
• Patterns of offending over the life course, group differences in crime, and community and societal differences in crime can be partly explained in terms of differences in the exposure to strains conducive to crime
• Crime can be reduced by reducing individuals exposure to strains that are conducive to crime and reducing their likelihood of responding to strains with crime
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
20
General Strain Theory
• GST expands upon traditional strain theory– Widens focus to include all types of negative relations
between individual and others– Strain may have a cumulative effect on delinquency– Gives a more comprehensive account of adaptations to
strain– More fully describes wide variety of factors affecting
choice of delinquent adaptations to strain
• GST has been further refined to incorporate the possible existence of biological factors that may make some individuals particularly susceptible to effects of strain
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
21
Culture Conflict Theory
• Thorsten Sellin– Root cause of crime found in different values about what
is acceptable or proper behavior– Conduct norms provide the valuative basis for human
behavior and are acquired early in life through childhood socialization
– Clash of norms between variously socialized groups results in crime
• Types of culture conflict– Primary: a fundamental clash of cultures– Secondary: smaller cultures within the primary one clash
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
22
Subcultural Theory
• Subculture:A collection of values and preferences communicated to participants through a process of socialization
• Subcultural theory:Sociological perspective emphasizing the contribution made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
23
Focal Concerns
• Walter Miller identified existence of a lower class culture:– A long established, distinctively patterned
tradition with an integrity of its own– Behavior that upholds lower class norms may be
seen by the middle class as deliberately nonconforming
• Violation of middle-class norms is a byproduct of actions primarily oriented to the lower-class system
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
24
Focal Concerns
• TroubleGetting in, staying out, dealing with trouble
• ToughnessConcern with masculinity
• SmartnessAbility to outsmart or con others and avoid being duped
• ExcitementSearch for thrills
• FateThe concept of luck, being lucky
• AutonomyTaking care of oneself, not getting pushed around
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
25
Delinquency and Drift
• Sykes and Matza
• Members of delinquent subcultures also participate in the larger culture
• Offenders use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate shame and guilt associated with violating social norms
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
26
Techniques of Neutralization
Figure 6-2
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
27
Delinquency and Drift
• Delinquents tend to drift between crime and conventional action – choose the most expedient
• Use techniques of neutralization to keep from being alienated from larger society
• Soft determinism:Delinquents are neither forced to make choices nor entirely free to make choices
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
28
Violent Subcultures
• Ferracuti and Wolfgang
• Violence is a learned form of adaptation to problematic life circumstances
• Learning to be violent takes place within the context of a subculture emphasizing violence over other forms of adaptation
• Group’s value system constitutes a subculture of violence
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
29
Violent Subcultures
• Southern subculture of violence– Certain violent crimes may be more acceptable in
the southern U.S. than in northern parts of the country
– Violence may be a traditional tool to maintain social order
• Black subculture of violence– Created by generations of white-on-black violence– Seek status through ability to harm, intimidate,
dominate others
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
30
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Cloward and Ohlin (1960) - blended subcultural thesis with strain theory
• Two types of socially structured opportunities for success– Legitimate – Illegitimate
• Members of lower-class subcultures may be denied access to legitimate opportunities
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
31
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Illegitimate opportunity structure– Pre-existing subcultural paths to success not
approved of by the wider culture
• Delinquent behavior results from– Ready availability of illegitimate opportunities– Replacement of cultural norms with expedient
subcultural rules
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
32
Delinquent Subcultures
• Criminal subcultures:Criminal role models readily available
• Conflict subcultures:Status through violence
• Retreatist subcultures:Drug use and withdrawal from wider society
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
33
Types of Lower Class Youth
• Type I:Desire entry into middle class by improving their economic position
• Type II:Desire entry to middle class but not improvement in economic position
• Type III:Desire wealth without entry to middle class
• Type IV:Dropouts who retreat from mainstream through drug and alcohol use
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
34
Reaction Formation
• Albert Cohen– Youth held accountable to norms of wider
society through “middle class measuring rod” of expectations
– Not everyone is prepared to effectively meet such expectations
• Reaction formation:The process in which a person openly rejects that which he wants, or aspires to, but cannot obtain or achieve
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
35
The Code of the Street
• Elijah Anderson– Contemporary street code stresses a
hyperinflated notion of manhood resting on the idea of respect
– Street culture’s violent nature means a man cannot back down from threats
• Decent vs. street families
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
36
Gangs Today
• Modern gangs are involved in serious and violent crimes
• Gangs can be big business– Traditional criminal activities– Drug dealing
• Distinctions between gangs and violence
• Co-offending especially prevalent in the lives of gang members
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
37
Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories• Chicago Area Project attempted to reduce social
disorganization in slum neighborhoods by creating community committees
• Mobilization for Youth provided new opportunities and tried to change the fundamental arrangements of society, addressing the root causes of crime
• War on Poverty tried to reduce crime rates by redistributing wealth in American society
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
38
Critique of Social Structure Theories
• Some argue the inverse of the “root causes” argument – suggest poverty and social injustices are produced by crime
• If so, addressing poverty and social inequity as the root causes of crime is and ineffective crime prevention strategy
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
39
Critique of Ecological Theories
• May give too much credence to the notion that spatial location determines crime
• Seems unable to differentiate between social disorganization and the things it is said to cause
• Many crimes occur outside of socially disorganized areas
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
40
Critique of Strain Theories
• Original formulation less applicable to modern society
• Delinquents do not report being more distressed than other youth
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
41
Critique of Subcultural Theories
• Seen as lacking in explanatory power
• Seen as tautological (circular)
• Hs been criticized or being racist
Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 6/eFrank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2004, 2002, 1999, 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
42
Other Critiques of Social Structure Theories• Social structure theories link low SES to high
delinquency – not supported by empirical studies
• Overemphasis on environments creates bias against looking elsewhere for possible causes
• Cannot predict which individuals, or which proportion of given population, will turn to crime