Criminal Violence in the United States

Sources of Information/Data/TrendsSpecific Violent Offenses

Questions about Violence

• How much violence is there in the United States?• Is violence increasing, decreasing or stable?• How do we compare to other nations? • Specific forms of violence• Homicide • Robbery• Rape• Assault

Sources of Information on Criminal Violence

• Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) data• Homicide, Robbery, Aggravated Assault • National Crime Victimization Study (NCVS)• Assaults, Robbery, Sexual Assault • Other data• Self-reported crime (less serious forms)• School safety report

NCVS Trends for Violence

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://bjs.gov

Source: Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008(U.S. Department of Justice, 2011).

Current UCR Data• Crimes “known to the police”• Expressed in rates per 100,000 citizens

2011 Data for U.S. and Minnesota(http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr)

Homicide Rape Robbery Aggravated Assault

14,612 4.7 83,425 27 354,396 113 751,131 241

74 1.4 1,664 31 3,386 63.4 6,701 125

The Crime/Violence Decline

•How do we explain the crime decline?•What were your thoughts about cases of

homicide? • Can they explain why homicide and

other serious violence decreased? •Why do 68-70% of Americans think

crime is getting worse? •Gallop Poll, 2006-2011

Homicide

▪ Definition: the taking of life by another human

▪ Classification▪ Justifiable homicide▪ First-degree murder▪ Second-degree murder▪ Voluntary manslaughter▪ Involuntary manslaughter

Homicides in Context • Demographics • Roughly 90% of homicides perpetrated by males, and

80% of victims are male• Almost all homicides (90%) are within race, and most

(about 70%) are classified nonstranger• African Americans disproportionally likely to be victims

and perpetrators

• Circumstances • The most common circumstance for homicide is an argument • 68% of homicides caused by firearms (largely handguns)

• Neighborhood level differences• The ecology of violence, social disorganization

“Its about homicide dummy!”

• The United States has a higher homicide rate than other industrialized countries• The difference in firearms death is apparent (5 to 10

higher)• Also more 2-3 times more likely to murder without

firearms • Victimization surveys from other countries indicate that

we are similar to other countries in our level of nonlethal violence• Canada, Great Brittan, Australia

• An aside: property crime is lower in the U.S. than many other industrialized countries

Country Homicides (per 100,000) 2004

United States 5.9Chile 5.5Cuba 6Kenya 6.7Canada 1.5Japan 0.5Germany 1France 1.6Rwanda 26.6El Salvador 56.4Colombia 61.1

Explaining America’s High Homicide Rate: Usual Suspects

1. Firearm availability2. Economic inequality3. Frontier culture/legacy of violence

Firearm Availability

▪ Strong predictor of homicide rates ▪ U.S. household handgun ownership: 30%▪ Most other industrialized nations: 1–14%▪ U.S. non-gun homicide rate: 2.5 times

higher than other industrialized nations▪ U.S. gun-related homicide: 7.5 times

higher than other industrialized nations

The Gun Control Debate

▪ Federal Gun Control Act ▪ Dealers must be licensed, document sales, refrain from

selling guns to prohibited buyers, etc

▪ Brady Bill: Mandatory 5-day waiting period, Background checks

▪ Little evidence that they reduce homicide▪ Secondary guns market is completely unregulated.▪ Firearms can be purchased illegally.▪ Firearms may be stolen or borrowed

American History

▪ Sociocultural tradition of violence? ▪ American Revolution▪ Slavery▪ Civil War▪ Treatment of Native Americans

▪ Criticism: other nations with cultural histories of violence have low homicide rates today (Japan)

Economic Inequality

▪ Institutional anomie theory, Elliott Currie’s “market society”

▪ High level of economic inequality ▪ Low level of social support

▪ Criticism = why does this effect homicide and not other forms of violence? U.S. similar to Canada and others for assaults and such.

Columbine, Sandy Hook, Aurora…

• As “Public Mass Shootings”• “School Shootings” and school violence

Public Mass Shootings

• Public Mass Shootings in the United States: Selected Implications for Federal Public Health and Safety Policy• Congressional Research Service, www.crs.org, March 2013

• What counts? • Public Places x 4 or more deaths

• How many occur?• 78 public mass shootings have occurred in the United

States since 1983 • 547 Deaths (1000+ Casualties)

Violence in Schools

• Key Publication • Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2011

(2012). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Education

• Violent Deaths at Schools• Other Violence at Schools

Violent Deaths in School

Violent Victimizations

Rape and Sexual Assault

▪ Rape▪ Unlawful sexual intercourse by force

or without legal or factual consent• Debate on “force,” and issues of

“initial consent”

▪ Sexual assault▪ Defined as: any forced or coerced

sexual intimacy

Rape Information

▪ One of the most underreported crimes▪ The way rape or sexual assault is

defined impacts estimates• Force vs. Coercion, Rape vs. Sexual

Assault▪ Certain types of rape are reported

disproportionately• Stranger vs. Acquaintance

Rape & Sexual Assault Estimates

▪ U.S. rape rate ▪ 63 per 100,000 women (UCR)

▪ National Violence Against Women survey▪ 18% of women and 3% of men experienced

(completed or attempted) rape over lifetime▪ At higher education institutions, as high as

20 to 25% of women over college career

▪ Rape most likely perpetrated by non-strangers

Date Rape

▪ In the context of dating arrangement ▪ One of the most underreported rapes▪ Largely unrecognized until the 1980sDate-rape drugs

▪ Examples: GHB, Rohypnol, and Ketamine▪ Render the victim physically helpless▪ Make the victim unable to remember

Marital Rape

▪ Only recently legally recognized▪ Greatly underreported▪ Estimates 8–23%▪ Strong relationship between battering

and marital rape

Explaining Rape and Sexual Assault

▪ Motivation of the offender ▪ Sex?▪ Violence (sex as a weapon)?▪ Political/cultural dominance?

Feminist Explanation

▪ Rape = violence, not sex▪ Maintain control and dominance▪ Consequence of deep-seated social

tradition▪ Male dominance & Female exploitation

▪ Cross-cultural studies find a relationship between gender inequality and rape

Feminist Explanation II

▪ Rape myths influence male behavior▪ Women secretly desire to be raped,

Women who dress or act seductively are asking to be raped, When a woman says “no” to a sexual advance, she actually means “yes.”

• Masculine sex role socialization▪ Aggressive, Forceful, Avoid being

empathetic, Not relationship oriented

Social Learning Perspective

▪ Sexual aggression learned ▪ Behavior shaped by balance of

▪ Role models▪ Reinforcement/punishment ▪ Attitudes and values • Rape myths, other cognitive distortions as

“negative reinforcement” • Socialization to sex roles• Lack of social skills to express sexuality

normally

Pornography and Rape

▪ Reasons to suspect connection▪ Reflection of patriarchy ▪ Makes women’s

inequality/submission sexy▪ Reinforces rape myths ▪ Provides role modeling for sexual

violence▪ Yet, no clear evidence to support this

theory

Rape and Correctional Intervention

▪ Aversion therapy ▪ Chemical castration ▪ Cognitive-behavioral programs

▪ Eliminate cognitive distortions▪ Teach cognitive skills

▪ Self-control▪ Problem solving▪ Anger management• EMPATHY

The Criminal Justice Response to Rape (1 of 2)

▪ Often difficult for the victim (“Re-victimize”)▪ Must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that

a crime occurred▪ Police officers: interrogation▪ Defense attorneys: must advocate for defendant▪ Prosecutors: represent the state, must build

solid case, difficult to prove coercion

The Criminal Justice Response to Rape (2 of 2)

▪ Hospital as key institution for investigation▪ Medical examination ▪ Collection of physical evidence▪ Reluctant partner

▪ Proposed solution: rape crisis center▪ Primary interface between victims and other

agencies▪ Sole focus on victim support

Robbery

▪ Taking of another person’s property by force or threat of force

▪ Statistics▪ Decreasing since the early 1990s ▪ 30% of all serious violent crimes

recorded

Characteristics of Robbery/Robbers

▪ Majority perpetrated by a stranger▪ May involve multiple offenders ▪ Often interracial crime▪ Majority young, African-American, male ▪ Common locations of robberies

▪ Street (43%)▪ Restaurants/stores (15%) ▪ Residences (14%)

Explaining Robbery (1 of 2)

▪ Primary motivation: money and/or property

▪ Secondary motivations ▪ Maintain a street reputation of “bad

ass” ▪ Fuel participation in street culture▪ Psychological thrill▪ Intimidation▪ Revenge

Robbery and Rationality (1 of 2)

▪ Rational approach to robbery▪ Less time than alternatives ▪ Yields cash▪ Avoids middlemen ▪ Prey on vulnerable victims

(especially those involved in crime)

Robbery and Rationality (2 of 2)

▪ Situational crime prevention▪ Target-hardening techniques▪ Individuals should avoid being

vulnerable targets▪ Travel in groups▪ Avoid displaying cash in public places▪ Refrain from criminal activity

Assault (1 of 2)

▪ Aggravated assault ▪ Unlawful attack to inflict injury on a

person▪ Usually involves a weapon

▪ Simple assault▪ Does not involve a weapon ▪ Does not result in serious injury

Assault (2 of 2)

▪ Estimated 40–60% of assaults reported▪ Reasons for not reporting

▪ Assault involves family members▪ Fear of reprisal▪ Failure to view the assault as serious▪ Desire to keep the matter private

▪ Characteristics of assault ▪ Perpetrators overwhelmingly young males▪ Similar to homicide

Explaining the Violence Drop▪ Police tactics▪ Increase in prison populations ▪ Economic conditions▪ Changes in demographics▪ Cultural shift ▪ Role of illicit drugs

BE SKEPTICAL OF A “SINGLE” CAUSE