Crime Control Theory

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Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.publishing as Pearson [imprint]

Kawalan Jenayah


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auses o r me Punca-puncaJenayah

Why does a person commit a crime?What causes crime and deviance? ( jenayah dan sisihan)

Are people basically good?

Why are some people violent and aggressive? ( ganas danagresif)

Are people motivated only by self-interest? ( didorong oleh

kepentingan diri sendiri)Criminologists search for answers to those types of

questions. ( masih kajian mengenai perkara tersebut

dilakukan olih pakar2 kriminoloji ).


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Criminology Kriminologi -kajian jenayah serta penjenayah

Criminology seeks to find the cause of crime and deviantbehavior.

Crime ( Jenayah)

violation of the criminal law for which there is no legal justification.

Deviance ( Sisihan / melencong)

Violation ( melanggar) of social norms ( norma / amalan biasa) that specify appropriate or proper behavior under a

particular set of circumstances (often includes crime).


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Theory Testing

Theory testing involves developing hypotheses based on

the theorys predictions. ( Semua teori perlu diuji)

If the predictions are validated by observation, thetheory gains greater acceptability ( ramalan disahkan

oleh pemerhatian)

Hypotheses ( hipotesis kajian ) are tested using research

methods standardized, systematic procedures.


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Goal of Research and Theory Building

To provide models that allow for a better understandingof criminal behavior and that enhance the developmentof strategies which allow us to address the problem of

crime.


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Categories of Theory of Crime

Explanations of criminal behavior ( perlakuan jenayah ) fall into eightgeneral categories.

Classical (traditional / conventional)Biological berkaitan biologiPsychobiological berkaitan psikologi dan biologiPsychological berkaitan psikologiSociological berkaitan sosialSocial Process proses sosialConflict - konflik

Emergent ( muncul )Interdisciplinary theories, or integrated theories, could possibly be aninth category.


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Classical School idea on Crime

The principle of Utilitarianism. The greatest happinessprinciple.

Bentham says, "it is the greatest happiness of the greatestnumber that is the measure of right and wrong"

(Maksud prinsip tsb adalah kebahagiaan yang paling besar

dinikmati olih jumlah terbesar masyarakat adalah ukuran benar

dengan yang salah )


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Cesare Beccaria: Crime and PunishmentIn 1784, Beccaria published Essays on Crimes andPunishment. Beccaria:

Was considered controversial at the time. Is referred to as the founder of the Classical School

of criminology ( pengasas sekolah klasik ) Felt punishments should be more humanitarian. Called for the end of physical punishment and the

death penalty . (hukuman fisikal dan hukuman

mati ) Believed that punishment should fit the crime and

not be excessive. ( hukuman harus sesuai jenayah )


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Jeremy Benthams Hedonistic Calculus hedonistik (menyeronokan diri)

Concept developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748 1832)

The exercise of free will would cause an individual to avoid

committing a crime as long as the punishment outweighedthe benefits ( hukuman lebih berat dpd faedah/kesronokan )

Bentham called this philosophy utilitarianism.

Agreed with Beccaria that punishment had to be swift

and certain as well as just to be effective


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The Neoclassical Perspective

Neoclassical criminology is rooted in the

classical school.

Places greater emphasis on rationality and

cognition ( memikir ) than classical criminologists

Examples: Rational choice theory ( pilihan secara rasional )

Routine activities theory ( aktiviti rutin/biasa )


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Social Policy and Classical Theories

Classical theories form the basis of many

criminal justice programs.

High crime rates call for punishment to get evenand to prevent future crime.


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Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

Phrenology, study of the shape of the head and its

relationship to human behavior, focused on the head

and brain in what Gall called cranioscopy .

The brain is the organ of the mind.

The brain consists of localized faculties or functions.


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Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

The shape of the skull reveals underlying

development (or lack of development) of areas

within the brain.

A personality can be revealed by a study of theskull.


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Cesare Lombroso(1835-1909): Atavism

Lombroso the founder of the Positivist School ofcriminology borrowed the term atavism from thework of Charles Darwin.

Atavism implies that people are born criminals and arecharacterized by features thought to be common in earlierstages of human evolution.Examples of stigmata: long arms, large lips, crooked nose,large amount of body hair, eyes of different colors, earslack defined lobes, etc


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Characteristics of PsychobiologicalTheories

Focus is on the relationship of the following to

criminal behavior:

1. DNA2. environmental contaminants

3. nutrition

4. hormones5. physical trauma

6. body chemistry in human cognition and behavior


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Chromosome Theory

The links between chromosomes and crime were

first explored in the 1960s.

1965 Patricia Jacobs discovered supermales, men with an extra Y chromosome (XYY). She

found that supermales were more common in

prisons than in the general public.


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Biochemical Factors and Imbalances

Bio-criminology attempts to link violent or

disruptive behavior to eating habits, vitamin

deficiencies, genetics, and other conditions which

impact body tissues.For example, some studies have linked crime to: Hypoglycemia Allergic reactions to foods High levels of caffeine and sugar Testosterone levels


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Heredity and Other Physical Factors

Adoption and twin studies have shown:Children adopted at birth have shown a tendencytoward criminality of biological parents.

Identical twins separated at birth indicate that theyexhibit a greater similarity in terms of criminalitythan do fraternal twins.

Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) argue thatinherited traits combine with environmentalfactors to produce crime.


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Social Policy and Biological Theories

Policies look to modify body chemistry tochange behavior.

Example: Medication


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Characteristics of Psychological Theories

1. The individual is the main unit of analysis.2. Personality is the major motivational element.3. Crimes result from inappropriately conditioned

behavior.4. Abnormal mental processes may

have a number of causes. Diseased mind

Inappropriate learning Improper conditioning


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Behavioral Conditioning

Behavioral conditioning is a psychological principle

which holds that the frequency of any behavior can

be increased or decreased through reward,punishment, and/or association with other stimuli.

This was popularized through the work of Ivan

Pavlov (1849 1936) whose work with dogs won him a

Nobel Prize.


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Freudian Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856 1939) identified threeelements of the personality:

1. Id2. Ego

3. Superego

Psychoanalysis sees personality as a complex

composite of interacting mental elements.


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Freudian Psychoanalysis

Crime can result from: A weak superego Sublimation/dislike of ones mother The death wish


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Psychopathology and Crime

Psychopathology studies pathological mentalconditions (mental illness).Psychopath Defining characteristic is theinability to imagine how other think and feel It is possible for the psychopath to inflict pain

without appreciation for the victims suffering. Psychopathic people are likely to become criminal

at some point.


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Causes of PsychopathyCauses are unclear1.Somatogenic causes malfunctioning central

nervous system brain abnormalities2.Psychogenic causes

Rooted in early interpersonal experiences


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The Psychotic OffenderPsychosis is another form of mental disorder.

Psychotics are people who are said to be out of touch with

reality.

Some psychotics are classified as

schizophrenic people with disordered or disjointed

thinking in which they make abnormal logical

connections between things.

Psychosis can lead to crime.


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Psychological Profiling

An attempt to derive a composite picture of an

offenders social and psychological characteristics

Taken from the crime committed and the manner inwhich it was committed

New area includes hostage negotiation


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Social Policy and Psychological Theories

Policies are primarily individualistic and oriented

toward individualized treatment and therapy

plans designed to reduce a persons dangerousness.


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Characteristics of Sociological Theories

1. Social groups, social institutions, thearrangement of society, and social roles are allappropriate for study.

2. Group dynamics, group organization, andsubgroup relationships form the causal basis ofcriminality.

3. The structure of society and the relative degreeof social organization or social disorganizationare important factors contributing to criminalbehavior.


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Characteristics of Sociological Theories

Particular sociological theories may give greater orlesser weight to:

The clash of norms and values among variously

socialized groups

Socialization and the process of association between

individuals

The existence of subcultures and varying types of

opportunities


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Social Ecology Theory

In the 1920s, Park and Burgess mapped

Chicago based on the citys social

characteristics.

They developed the Concentric Zone Theory.

Concentric zones are likened to a bulls eye with the center

of the city being the target.


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Social Ecology Theory

Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime.

Crime increased as one moved towards center of

the city, with the highest crime rates in the zone of transition, where there was a lot of poverty,

illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, and

illegitimacy (social disorganization).

Social disorganization leads to crime.


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Anomie Theory

Emile Durkheim (1858 1917) introduced the term

anomie (normlessness) in the late 1800s.

Robert K. Merton (1910 2003) defined anomie as adisjuncture between societal goals and legitimate

means.

He developed a typology of adaptations.


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Anomie Theory - Characters

Conformist accepts goals and means(law abiding)Innovator accepts goals, rejects means

(property/white-collar offenses)Retreatest rejects both goals and means(addiction/victimless crimes)Ritualist rejects goals, accepts means(repetitive/mundane lifestyle)Rebel rejects goals and means andsubstitutes his own goals and means

(political crime)


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Sub-cultural Theory

Cohen (b. 1918) reaction formation, lower class

youths rejection of middle class values, leads to the

development of gangs and reinforces the subculture.

Miller Lower class priority concerns of trouble,

toughness, excitement, smartness, fate, and

autonomy lead to crime.


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Subcultural Theory

Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate

opportunity structure allows delinquent youths to

achieve success outside of legitimate ways.

Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined the term subculture

of violence after examining homicide rates in

Philadelphia in the 1950s. Here, violence is a traditional, and often accepted, method

of dispute resolution.


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Social Policy and Sociological Theories

Social programs are instituted to change cul tur al

conditions and societal arrangements that lead

people into crime.


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Characteristics of Social Process Theories

They highlight the role of social learning

They are often the most attractive to policymakers

They are consistent with popular cultural and

religious values


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Differential Association

Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950), in his third

edition of Principles of Criminology (1939),

viewed crime as a product of socialization.Crime is learned. It is learned by the same

principles that guide learning of law abiding

behavior of conformists.


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Principles of Differential Association


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Social Process Theories

Social Learning Theory:

a perspective that says people learn how to behave

from others whom they have the opportunity toobserve.


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Social Learning Theory

Ronald L. Akers and Robert L. Burgess applied

learning theory constructs to the theory of

differential association.Their theory of differential reinforcement is called

social learning theory.

Primary learning takes place through operant conditioning.


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Restraint Theories

Restraint theories focus on Constraints those forces

that keep people from committing crimes.

Contrasts other theories that look to why peoplecommit crimes.


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Containment Theory

One restraint theory, offered by Walter Reckless

(1899-1988) is containment theory.

There are two types of Containment :

1. Outer elements outside of individual (friends, law,

family, social position) control behavior.

2. Inner those elements psychological in nature

(conscience, positive self-image, tolerance) control

behavior.


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Social Control Theory

Travis Hirschi emphasized the bond betweenindividuals and society as the primary

operative mechanism

Elements of the social bond include:

1. Attachment (to others)

2.Commitment (to appropriate lifestyles)

3. Involvement (in conventional values)

4. Belief (in correctness of rules of society)


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Techniques of Neutralization

In Techniques of Neutralization (1957), Gresham Sykesand David Matza developed rationalizations that allow

offenders to shed feelings of guilt and responsibility

The techniques are:1. Denial of responsibility

2. Denial of injury

3. Denial of victim4. Condemnation of condemners

5. Appeal to higher loyalties


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Labeling Theory

Labeling theory sees continued crime as a consequence

of the limited opportunities for acceptable behavior that

follow from the negative responses of society for those

defined as offenders.

First introduced by Frank Tannenbaum (1938)

Focused on societys power to define an act or individual

as bad


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Labeling Theory

In 1963, Howard Becker suggested that:a.Criminality is not a quality inherent in the act or

the person. b.Crime results from social definition through law of

unacceptable behavior.c.Deviance is created by society.


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The Life Course Perspective

Social development theories represent an integrated

view of human development that points to the

process of interaction among and between

individuals and society as the root cause of criminal

behavior .


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The Life Course Perspective

An example, put forth in 1993 by Sampson and Laub, is

the life course perspective.

Crime is linked to turning points in ones life.

Turning points are transitional periods during which one

can either walk toward or away from crime.


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Characteristics of Conflict Theory

Conflict perspective: maintains that crime is

the natural consequence of economic and other

social inequities.

Key elements are:

1. Society is composed of diverse social groups.

2. Conflict among groups is unavoidable because of differing

interests and differing values.

3. Group conflict centers on exercise of political power.

4. Laws further the interests of the lawmakers.


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Radical Criminology

Radical criminology sees crime as produced bythe unequal distribution of wealth, power, andother resources.

Poverty and discrimination leads to frustration and

pent-up hostilities expressed through crime.

Karl Marx (1818 1883) assumed lower classesare always exploited by the owners of the

means of production.False class consciousness the poor are trained tobelieve that capitalism is in their best interest.


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Peacemaking Criminology

Peacemaking criminology holds that crime control

agencies and citizens should work together to

alleviate social problems and human suffering, and

thereby reduce crime.

Rooted in both western and eastern philosophies.

Social control must also focus on victims andvictimization.

Popularized by Richard Quinney and Hal Pepinsky.


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Social Policy and Conflict Theories

Many suggest that the only real way to producechange is through revolution. Modern thinkers believe that we need a middle-of-the-road solution, as revolution is unlikely tooccur in the U.S. Such solutions include: Increasing job opportunities Reducing prison overcrowding Prosecuting corporate crimes

Restructuring the bail system Promoting community corrections


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Feminist Criminology

Feminist criminology emphasizes gender issuesand seeks to develop appreciation of the role ofwomen in crime causation, victimization, andcrime control.

Rita Simon Women and Crime (1975) and Freda Adler Sisters in Crime (1975)

Explain differences in gender crime rates as due primarily tosocialization rather than biology

Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-LindEmphasizes need for a gender -aware criminology


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Constitutive CriminologyConstitutive criminology studies the process by which

people create an ideology of crime that sustains the notion

of crime as a concrete reality.

George Herbert Meads symbolic interaction theory

William Thomas

An acts significance depends on the intentions behind it

and the situation in which it is interpreted.

Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic

People shape their world while also being shaped by it.


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Postmodern Criminology

Examples:Chaos analysisDiscourse analysis

Topology theoryCritical theoryRealist criminologyConstitutive theoryAnarchic criminology


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Crime Control Theory

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