Creating “Language-Accessible” Secondary School Classrooms ... · Julia Starling 2011 1; Lost...

Julia Starling 2011 1

;

Lost for Words: Lost for Life? City University, London 2011

Faculty of Health Sciences Speech Pathology

Creating “Language-Accessible” Secondary SchoolClassrooms Through Professional Collaborations.

Julia StarlingSpeech-Language Pathologist/PhD student


Who are we talking about, and what dowe know about them?

7-16% of secondary school students with persistent PrimaryLanguage Impairment (LI): affecting the understanding

and/or use of language in both oral and written languagedomains

• Academic failure (Conti-Ramsden et al. 2009; Snowlinget al. 2001 ).

• Overlap of language and literacy difficulties (Smart etal., 2001; Stothard et al., 1998)

• Psycho-social and behavioural problems (Brownlie etal. 2004;Clegg et al., 2005)

• Juvenile offender populations (Bryan, 2007; Snow &Powell 2004).


Recommended models of service delivery

1. Professional literature: collaborative, school-basedservices, including teacher training to facilitateinclusive support (Ehren, 2002; Elksnin, 1997; Gascoigne,2008; Law et al. 2002; Shaddock, 2007).

2. Government reports:Removal of barriers to learning for young people withSLCN (e.g. Bercow, 2008)

3. Professional development research:Sustained, site-based professional development forteachers presented by “outside experts” leads topositive effects on student outcomes (Guskey & Yoon,2009)


Clinical directives

Best-practice guidelines:

• Strategy-based interventions (e.g. Hollingsworth,1993)

• Written expressive/receptive languagesupport (e.g. Wong et al., 1996)

• Vocabulary enrichment (e.g. Beck et al., 2002)

• Graphic organisers (visual aids) (e.g. Mastropieriet al., 2003)

(Summary in Starling et al. 2011)


Sharing expertise

Teachers are the experts in acquiring anddisseminating curricular information; they canprovide topical information regarding curricular goalsand content, ensuring any intervention has immediateacademic relevance and opportunities for practiceand generalisation.

SLPs have expertise in the expression andreception of information; they can provide specificinformation regarding individual students’communication and learning support needs, as wellas training in general strategies applicable toteachers’ grade and subject needs.


Looking at things from a differentangle

LI persists into adolescence, but there are many barriers toproviding effective supports

Most adolescents with LI attend mainstream secondary schools.However….

80-85% of instruction is language-based (Brent et al 2001): oral andwritten language for curricular instruction, across subjects andgrades

The language of the secondary classroom can be complex (e.g.Whitmire, 2001).

The result is…..Students with LI are often disadvantaged in understanding

curricular content; disengaged in oral interactions;disempowered in expressing knowledge through writing(e.g.Starling et al.,in press 2011)


One solution?Creating “language-accessible” secondary classroom

environmentsSLTs empower secondary teachers in providing

inclusive support to students with LI in their classes.

How? By training teachers in the development and useof modifications to mainstream secondary teachers’oral and written instructional language.

So that: Teachers can facilitate improved access tocurricular instruction for their students with LI.


Why?

So that students with additional learning needs such as LIwill be better able to:

• Access the curriculum i.e. attend to, process, retainand use presented information

• Be more engaged in learning by increasing their directparticipation in class activities

• Demonstrate a better understanding of curriculumcontent on assignments, projects and tests

• Develop and use a broader and more “robust”vocabulary

• Feel better and more confident about themselves asable learners

• Be less at risk of developing psycho-social problems


Program developed and piloted at a Sydney secondaryschool in 2006, a joint project of the University ofSydney/NSW Dept of Education.

Subject of an RCT, with the aims of:

Evaluating the efficacy of a teacher training program.

Evaluating the sustainability of the ideas presented in thetraining program.

Evaluating the impact of the training program on thelanguage abilities of secondary school students with LI.

Language In Classrooms


The program

• Mainstream secondary teachers were trained by an SLTin the development and application of oral and writteninstructional language accommodation and modificationtechniques.

• Training occurred weekly, one-on-one, over the periodof a school term (10 weeks).

• Strategies used by trained teachers in their regularclasses, thereby addressing needs of students with LIinclusively, across subjects and grades.

• Additional professional development provided forwhole-school teaching staff.


Study participants

22 experimental/22 controlYear 8: age range 12y 10m - 14y 3m34m/10fIdentified by school staff, LI confirmed byscreening (verbal/non-verbal assessment)

44 students withLI (secondarycohort)

7 experimental/6 controlTeachers of identified Year 8 studentswith LIAcross disciplines: Maths, English,Science, Physical Education, History,Agriculture

13 mainstreamteachers (primarycohort)

Randomised allocation toexperimental/control conditionGovernment, co-educationalPopulation matched

2 secondaryschools


Results: Teacher outcomes

When compared to teachers who had notreceived the training (control group):

• Trained teachers took up and used programtechniques in their classroom teaching practices

• Ideas shared with teaching colleagues• Use sustained over a period of time


Student outcomesWhen compared to students whose teachers had not

received the training (control group):

• Students demonstrated an improvement in their WrittenExpression and Listening Comprehension scores to alevel of significance

• No significant change in their Reading Comprehensionand Oral Expression scores.


Implications of results.

• High degree of teacher use and application of theLINCS Program techniques.

• Positive impact on language abilities of students withLI: written expression and listening comprehension.

• Ideas applicable to secondary school teachers from arange of teaching disciplines.

• Use sustained over a period of timewithout further direct support.

• Collaborative sharing of ideasacross the whole school.


Quotes from teachers

• “Because (the students) can understand better, they canperform better”.

• “They’re not so scared of big words as before theintervention.”

• “They love to write, I just couldn’t believe it! It’s a Mathslesson and they actually enjoy writing about the specificterms and what they know!”

• “The (program’s) brought back the awareness that somekids, behaviour-wise, may play up simply because theycan’t do the work”.

• “Some teachers have actually used (the ideas) with adifferent year group and found that they worked reallywell.”


The language of adolescence• Abstract language: inferential, analytical, problem

solving• Figurative language: idioms, metaphors, proverbs• Social language: Formal/informal codes (including

“electronic communication”), peer group, slang,sarcasm, jokes, innuendo, opinions, discussions,arguments, debate

• Academic vocabulary: Literate (more formal) Technical Instructional Written expression: essays, reports, analyses,

expositional, comparative studies, creative writing Metalinguistic development: Ability to use words to

describe words (e.g. definitions)


The language of instruction

Spoken and written language provides the building blocksfor conveying information to students, and testing theirknowledge and progress.

“Build The Field”: developing students’ knowledge through Prior knowledge (word and world knowledge) Use of context, resources Glossaries, definitions Brainstorming Text deconstruction Students’ supported and independent reconstructions


Q: What makes it difficult for you to learn asubject?

-The way they speak-Saying it too fast

-It gets confusing-Too much stuff to remember

-He answers questions too quickly and we still don’t learn

-She gives us words all the time that Idon’t understand

-I don’t know about anything but I can’tgo and read about it

-I just don’t get it!


Q: What makes it easier?

-Extra explains and repeats-Tell us clearly and slowly

-Make it interesting with pictures-Give us time to work it out so wecan try our best

-She writes it and tells me too-Having someone explain what I have to do

-A good teacher explains real good, some teachers make it more confusing!


The language-accessible classroom:

Reducing the complexity of teachers’ language: oral and writtenWritten information that students can process by

themselvesPrioritising essential vocabulary with descriptions

that are relevant and use-able Increasing visual supportsReducing the speed of delivery/increasing time for

processing and production


Language modification strategies:The LINCS Program

Teachers’ oral language

•Slower speech rate, or bettervoice projection•Facing the class, not the board•Repetition of key facts

Teachers’ writtenlanguage

•Modifying the language ofworksheets, assignments andtests.•Changing the sequence ofpresented information e.g. textand questions layout

Information processing

•Breaking down texts: Mappingcentral idea, associatedfacts/details•Supplementing verbal/printinformation with visuals

Direct vocabularyinstruction

•Identification of key vocabularyfor new topics (“10 Key Words”)•Interactive creation of relevantdescriptors/definitions


Some examples of strategy applications

English: Step-by-step structures for essaywriting, with models.

Structuringstudents’writing

Science: Visual planner onto board at startof each lesson, for teacher and studentreference

Increaseduse of visualaids

History: Interactive mapping of mainpoint/associated facts taken from historytext.

Accessingtext

“10 Key Words”: all teachers identifying the10 essential words/terms before starting anew topic, for direct instruction.

Vocabularyinstruction

ApplicationStrategy


Direct vocabulary instruction:Why is vocabulary important for secondary

school students?For comprehension of curriculum content,

instructions and explanations in class.For communicative competence: for “Getting their

message across” in oral and written expressionFor reading/writing: students are better able to

identify and write words if these words are alreadyin their oral vocabulary.

For application in a range of written texts,including work sheets, assignments, tests andexams.

For active engagement in classroom-basedlearning experiences, including discussions.


“Massacre” : There had been a massacre of Aborigines at BirdCreek.

What do youthink itmeans? A

meeting?

Make-up??

A familyof

Aboriginalpeople?

???**!!!?*??!*


Oral language: Giving directionsTo remove the snack bar from thebottom of the machine, you need to useboth hands as the opening often getsstuck.

Written language: Use of “however”.Jason prefers to play with the silverrobot as it is more entertaining, howeverthe gold robot is more useful as he hastrained it to do his chores.

“Strong” vocabulary use(sample: 14 year olds)

You open the thing then you get thechocolate and that’s it.

One is big and however one is small.

“Weak” vocabulary use


Word knowledge: What does it mean to “know “ a word?

1. No knowledge: Never seen/heard it before.(PHLOEM)

2. Very general sense of connotation/meaning:Feel you know it but can’t really explain what itmeans. (EFFULGENT)

3. Context-bound knowledge: We have “learnt” aword in a single context. (TWITTER)

4. “Knowing” a word but not being able to recall itreadily enough to use in a range of situations.(CONCATENATE)

5. “Rich” knowledge. (POWER)(Beck, McKeown & Omanson 1987)


Rich word knowledge• We can define the word in a generalised way• Not dependent on context (decontextualised)• We can apply it in appropriate situations, with precision• Breadth: knowledge of multiple meanings, metaphorical use, range

of derivations• Availability is “strong” i.e. ready retrieval, with well-mapped semantic

connections and clear phonological specifications (i.e. We can SAYit, SPELL it and we know what it MEANS!).


The Case for Direct Vocabulary Instruction

• Remember the GREAT DIVIDE: we can help close it byproactive intervention.

• Wide reading enhances vocabulary. However, mostyoung people with LI are NOT wide readers.

• Learning differences often means that vocabulary has tobe directly taught muti-modally, to help them get to the“rich word knowledge” level: robust word learninginvolves an interaction of perceptual, social and linguisticcues.

• Direct vocabulary instruction works! National Reading Panel,2000; Graves, 2000; Wilson, Nash& Earl, 2010; Anderson & Nagy,1991…….


Direct Vocabulary InstructionBeck, McKeown & Kucan (2002): Bringing Words to Life

Tier 3

Tier 2

Tier 1

Words that are of low frequency use, or that apply tospecific domains. May be essential to learning a topic.Examples: isotope, lathe, peninsula, metamorphosis…..

Words that are of high utility for language users, but thatoften need to be directly taught. They are of highfrequency use and are found across a variety of domains.Examples: coincidence, absurd, industrious, fortunate,cultural…..

The most everyday,basic and familiar words in ourvocabulary, that rarely need direct instruction.Examples: clock, baby, happy, walk, face, sky….


Essential vocabularyRich knowledge of Tier 2/3 words can have a high impact

on verbal functioning (oral and written)Decision points for prioritising:• “Must know”: Essential to the learning of a topic or

concept. Words should be directly and systematicallytaught.

• “Should know”: Highly significant, although notessential, to understanding the topic or concept.

• “Could know”: Interesting and stimulating, though notnecessary for a basic understanding of a topic.

e.g. “communism”: interesting or essential?


10 key words!**Realistic direct instructional contribution that will make a difference:

400 words a year (10/week)High frequency and essential Tier 2/3 words

Across subjects/topics/grades

Secondary Schools in LINCS Program study

-Teachers across disciplines-Prioritised up to 10 essential words (“Must Knows”)

when planning each new topic.-Embedded these words in all teaching

-Engaged students in interactions with these words.


6 Steps for Effective Vocabulary Instruction:Robert Marzano (2004)

-Assists in retention and later recall and use of words-Visual approach supports auditory/verbal, important formany students with LIRepresentations in symbols, word art, diagrams, time-lines, charts, mind maps, word webs…….

Step 3:Visualrepresent-ations

-Students actively engaged in working out a usefuldescription, and applications.-Through class discussions, brainstorming, linking withprior knowledge (word and world knowledge)-Goal: the storage of new words in students’ long-termmemory (needs a minimum 12 repetitions)

Step 2:Studentsrestate in ownwords

-Provide descriptions, explanations and examples ofuse of the new words-In oral and written form-”Must knows” and “Should knows”- 10 max. at a time

Step 1:Introducingwords


-Using games as a tool for vocabulary developmente.g. vocabulary games, find-a-word, crosswords,quizzes, on-line games,contests etc.-Fun, stimulating, increases exposure

Step 6:The play step!

-Increases the recall and application to a range ofcontexts, keeps words “alive”-Encourages students’ confidence in using“new/challenging” words.Encourages application in a socially and orallyinteractive situation, not just for worksheets.

Step 5:Discussions ofwords amongststudents

-Move from approximate understanding at first, to firmerunderstanding later-For true word learning, students must be able to say it,read it and write it appropriately-Use understanding of roots, prefixes and suffixes toincrease understanding-Include in worksheets, quizzes, word walls, vocabulary“mix and matches”, your verbal/written presentations,classifying tasks, labels on models……

Step 4:Regular exposure


Alternatives to “Look it up in thedictionary!”

Students with language and literacy difficulties haveproblems using dictionaries: They have poor alphabetic skills They have poor reading ability The definitions used in dictionaries (and in glossaries)

are often complex, and difficult to understand.Result: Students may learn parts of definitions by rote,

however have no understanding of what the wordreally means (exceptions include the Collins Cobuildseries).

**Warning: Make sure the definition/description you areusing in a glossary is understandable AND matchesthe required application!


2 alternatives1. Morphological breakdown: root words, prefixes,

suffixes.Meanings of 60% of multi-syllabic words can be worked out by

analysing word parts (Bromley 2007) Prefixes: pre-, un-, dis-, semi, extra- (re-, dis-, un-, and im-

account for 50% of words with prefixes) Root words: history, circle, culture….. Suffixes: -able, -ing, -ly, -ar, -ism….. (-s/-es, -ed, -ing account

for 60% of words with suffixes)e.g.: pre-history-ic -> prehistoricSemi-circle-ar -> semicircularMulti–culture–al –ism -> multiculturalismUn-de-cipher-able -> undecipherable


2. Using contextAssist students in using context clues:• Definitions (The tundra is a vast, open area of land)• Synonyms/antonyms ( His impeccable uniform wasso perfect that…)• Examples given for a group word (The felines includedlions, tigers, cheetahs…)• Cause and effect (We lingered so long that we missed the bus)• General context (He was very patriotic and couldn’t be more proud of his

country)**+/- 70% English words have at least 2 meanings (Bromley, 2007). Make

sure the word fits the context!


Direct vocabulary instruction for teachingresearch skills

Finding the right information requires using the right keywords.

In your biography of ……. write about the hurdles shefaced in her life.

Year 7 student : “I couldn’t find anything on the UnitedNations!”


Accessing written language• What can be modified? Teacher-generated

texts especially information sheets,worksheets, glossaries, definitions, test papers,visual frameworks for written genres, studyskills strategies…..

• What accommodations can be made?Selection of required texts, textbooks,dictionaries, direct teaching of key words forinternet searches…..


Check list for modifying writtenlanguage

• Check for “process-ability” of language used: length ofsentences, embedded clauses, sheer amount of text,unfamiliar vocabulary….??

• Provide word descriptions for new and unfamiliarvocabulary, instructional words, terminology

• Use graphics to aid text comprehension• Layout changes: “chunking” sections of information,

bolding key words, organising and sequencing,questions related to text on same page for easierreference…..


Example from PDHPE: PreTask: Risk storyStudents are to devise a story that outlines a

character (a minimum of three), context andhappenings related to their risk environment.Students need to identify and describe thefollowing:

• Possible consequences of the situation (e.g.physical, emotional, legal….) for each character

• Reason why each problem may have occurred.


Post modificationTopic: Reducing the Risk

Task: Students are to write a story that includes thefollowing:1. At least 3 characters2. The context (setting) of the story: you need to

set the scene of a “risky” situation.3. The main events: What happens? You need

to identify and describe the following:a) Potential risks associated with the situationb) Possible problems that happen as a result (theconsequences) of each of these risks. For example, theymay be:

physical – e.g. a broken nosesocial – e.g. parents no longer trust youemotional – e.g. feeling ashamedfinancial – e.g. the cost of repairing broken propertylegal – e.g. a criminal record

KeyInstructionWords

Identify: toname therisks.

Describe:Provide themain features


Example: Science/Unit on SpaceB. Invention of the TelescopeDefinition: A telescope is an instrument that makes distant objects look larger,

and therefore nearer.The invention of telescopes has allowed scientists to look out into space. This has made it easier to study objects in space. It is believed that the telescope was invented in 1608. We don’t know for sure who invented it, but scientists think it was probably a spectacle maker in Holland.A famous scientist called Galileo Galilei was the first to use atelescope to make astronomical observations (that is, to studyobjects in space). His telescope had a magnification of twenty.This made objects look twenty times closer. With his telescope,Galileo was able to see details of the moon’s surface.Questions:1. What do spectacle makers make?2. Who was the first scientist to use a telescope to look into space?3. What might the word magnification mean?


Example 3: pre. Extract from a 5paragraph text.

In 1798 the French, led by General Napoleon Bonaparte, invadedEgypt. Bonaparte was not only a soldier, he was extremelyinterested in learning more about the history of Egypt. Withhis army there traveled scholars and scientists. In the course oftheir investigations, whilst the soldiers were dismantling anancient fort in the town of Rosetta, a black stone slab coveredwith three different scripts was unearthed. The Rosetta Stoneproved to be of great historical importance. The Frenchlanguage experts could see that while one of the languages onthe stone was Egyptian hieroglyphics and the second was alsounknown to them, the third was Greek, a language with whichthey were familiar. (From Key into Inferencing. Triune, 2000)


Example 3: post. Whole class activity

Who? Discovered by Napoleon’s army When? In 1793

Why? Napoleon wasinvading Egypt

Where? In the town ofRosetta, Egypt

What happened?They dug up a stone

How? They noticed thehieroglyphic writings

Discovery


Example 4: pre. Visual ArtsGlossary: Displayed on an overhead

Task: Copy these words and definitions into the back of your diarySculpture: Method of making 3 dimensional artStatue: Solid carved or cast image of a person, animal etc.Relief: A carved design raised up off the surfaceAnthropomorphic: Appropriation of human motivation, characteristics, or

human behaviour to inanimate objects, animals or natural phenomenaAppropriation: To borrow something or use it elsewhereTraditional; A set way of doing thingsMonochromatic: Painted or shown in one colour onlyAbstraction: Non representationalUnity: Becoming oneCollage: Composition of bits and pieces stuck together on a backgroundConduit: To channel or direct something in a certain way or directionBiomorphic: Resembling or suggesting the forms of living organismsGeometric: Uses straight lines onlyElusive: Difficult to catch/hold on toMultifaceted: Many sided object


Example 4: ModificationsTeacher and SLT worked together to makethe following changes:• Selected 10/15 words as essential, “Must Know” vocabulary.• Rewrote definitions as descriptions using Collins Cobuild

Learner’s Dictionary e.g. Traditional is an adjective form ofthe noun “tradition”, a custom or belief that has existed for along time.

• Followed Marzano’s 6 steps for embedding these key terms,and the others as they arose, into the curriculum content.


General accommodations• Allow extra processing and work production

time• Encourage active listening• Ensure instructions are explicit, rather than

inferred• Increase use of visual aids: colour coding,

symbol referents, step-by-step frameworks….• Assist with organisation of work folders, time

planning, plans and outlines, equipment….• Model strategies e.g. visual planners, use of key

vocabulary, writing scaffolds, note taking, activestudy strategies….


(Some of many….) resources Collins: Cobuild Series. Concise Learner’s Dictionary, Student’s

Dictionary Isabel Beck et al books: Bringing Words to Life (2002), and

Creating Robust Vocabulary (2008) Robert Marzano books e.g. Building Background Knowledge

(2004), Building Academic Vocabulary (2005) Larson, V.L., & McKinley, N. L. (2003). Communication Solutions

for Older Students. Eau Claire: Thinking Publications. Tattershall, S. (2002). Adolescents with Language and Learning

Needs. Albany, NY: Singular. Brent, Gough & Robinson (2001). One in Eleven: Practical strategies

for teaching adolescents with language-learning disability. Brent & Millgate Smith (2008). Working Together:Linking skills and

curriculum for adolescents with language learning disability. Bothfrom Acer Press, Melbourne, Aus The Adventure of English. Melvyn Bragg (2003). Book and DVD Proust and the Squid: The story and science of the reading brain.

Maryanne Wolf (2007). Vocabulary Cartoon of the Day: Marc Tyler Nobleman. Scholastic www.vocabulary.com

Julia Starling 2011 49Lost for Words: Lost for Life? City University, London 2011

The University of SydneyFaculty of Health Sciences Speech Pathology

Contact details: [email protected]

Acknowledgements: PhD supervisory teamAss/Prof. Leanne Togher, Dr. Natalie Munro, Dr. Joanne

Arciuli

Funding:The Jack Bloomfield Scholarship,Speech Pathology AustraliaThe Creswick Foundation

Creating “Language-Accessible” Secondary School Classrooms ... · Julia Starling 2011 1; Lost...

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