Crafts - York University · 3 SC/NATS 1840, Science and the Environment – XIII The Industrial...

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11SC/NATS 1840, Science and the Environment SC/NATS 1840, Science and the Environment –– XIII The Industrial RevolutionXIII The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution


The Industrial Revolution

Approximate period: 1750-1850Biggest change in the way people lived since the Agricultural Revolution.The economy of the world was basically agriculture-based until the Industrial Revolution.The lead-up to the industrial revolution is a long history of crafts and cottage industries starting in the Middle Ages and going through the Renaissance and early Modern period.


CraftsCrafts

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Crafts throughout Civilization

The development of crafts that became the foundation of industrialization began with the earliest agricultural civilizations.Industry is an outgrowth of agriculture because:

Industries are the activities that produce products requiring specialized skills.Specialized skills are developed by people who are not part of the food production process.To have the means to support such people requires a surplus.


The SurplusThe reliable surplus is a feature of agricultural communities.A settled agricultural civilization has the means to support people who make:

Tools.Clothing.Containers for grain (pottery).Later craftsmen specialized in leather goods, or metals, or food handling (e.g. grain mill operators, olive and grape presses).Or infrastructure providers: road builders, engineers, miners.


The Market Economy

Goods produced by specialists must be exchanged for the means of subsistence if the system is going to function.On a local level, this can be done by a barter system.

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Currency

In most early societies, some form of “currency” was soon adopted:

either one with real value, e.g., grain, that would be consumed by the craftsman, orsalt, that would be exchanged further for other goods.

or, one with symbolic but agreed upon value, i.e. money.


The Local Market

For most of the period since the beginnings of Agriculture and Civilization, goods were produced only for local use or for very limited external trade because there was no effective means of transportation for goods over long distances.


Medieval expansionMedieval expansion

Through the Middle Ages and the Feudal period, industry was primarily restricted to self-contained communities.

FiefdomsMinor kingdomsDuchies, etc.

Generally the maker and the user knew each other.

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Bulk TransportationThis changed with the cargo ship that could transport bulky goods long distances and with the digging of canals on which cargo barges could carry goods to nearby communities.


Craft Industry

Industry on small scaleBy the 17th century, crafts were highly specialized, used carefully built machines and tools that used human or animal power, or sometimes natural forces such as wind and water.An elaborate system of guilds, apprenticeships, and certifications maintained standards, which could be very high.


Home-based

Cottage industries were the norm.The craftsmen worked in shops attached to or part of their homes.

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Used local raw materials

The materials out of which finished goods were fashioned generally were locally obtained.Rarely were raw materials transported over any great distances.Thus the products varied enormously from place to place.


Clothes made of local materialsThe clothing produced in an area would be predominantly of wool, or silk, or cotton, or linen, etc., depending on what was available.Just the same was the pattern in housing construction materials and food.


Served local communities

Transportation was impractical.Goods produced reflected local needs.

The quantity of anything produced was determined almost without exception by local demand since other markets were unreachable.

This provided a natural limit to the amount of work done and to the wealth that could be amassed by any craftsman for his work.

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Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Industry on mass scaleEconomy driven by manufacturing and trade, not food and shelter.Factory industries.Work for wages.Rhythm of the clock.Urbanization.Raw materials could be imported from afar.Finished goods could be exported.

General rise in standard of living.


Prime example: The Textile Industry in Britain

The graph: Raw The graph: Raw cotton imported in cotton imported in the British textile the British textile industry during industry during the 18the 18thth century.century.

Textile Textile manufacturing manufacturing became became mechanized in the mechanized in the 1770s and 1770s and ’’80s.80s.


Location of the Industrial Revolution

Europe firstFarther along in mechanization and trade.Less autocratic societies, easier to change.

Britain the leaderTool making expertise.Access to fuel sources (coal).Other European countries busy on social revolutions.

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Environment before the Industrial Revolution

Few roads or canals.Difficult to get goods to a larger market.Sources of financing (banks, public companies) rarely available.Surplus goods had no market outlet.


Power sources before the Industrial Revolution

Human and animal powerWind and water power

Any factories were located near a water supply to run waterwheels.


Mining before the Industrial Mining before the Industrial RevolutionRevolution

Metals were required for any industrialization.

A way of digging and mining deeper mines for metals and fuel (coal) was badly needed.Problem of flooding in mines.Problem with suction pumps.

Limit of 10 meters of water lifted by suction.

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The Problem of The Problem of Mine DrainingMine DrainingA medieval idea of A medieval idea of how to pump out how to pump out mines mechanically.mines mechanically.

Each of several Each of several connected suction connected suction pumps pulls water pumps pulls water up 10 meters.up 10 meters.Powered by a Powered by a waterwheel.waterwheel.


Atmospheric pressure

A discovery of the 17th century.The power of the vacuum.

Devices were made to evacuate air from containers.

Otto von Guericke’s demonstationwith weights. Showing the tremendous force of the vacuum.


Expansion and condensation of steam

Water is plentiful.It expands enormously on boiling.Likewise, steam condenses to a very small volume of water.One could use the condensation of steam toproduce a vacuum.1. Fill a container with steam, driving out all the air, so

that there is nothing but steam inside.2. Cool the container until the steam condenses back

to water.3. The water will occupy a very small volume. The rest

will be a vacuum.

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Steam PumpsDevices to use steam to create a vacuum and then use atmospheric pressure to move water:

Thomas Savery’s Miner’s Friend, 1698

Impractical and dangerous.It both sucked water up and blew it out.Had to be installed inside a mine.10 m limit on suction.


Steam Pumps, 2Steam Pumps, 2Thomas Newcomen’sAtmospheric Steam Engine, 1712

Workable engine with vast power for emptying mines where the supply of fuel was no problem (e.g. coal mines).


Start of the Industrial RevolutionThe Watt-BoultonSteam Engine, 1769.

James WattEnterprising, mechanically minded Scotsman from GlasgowStudied in London to be an instrument maker.Returned to Glasgow, got a job at the University of Glasgow as an instrument repairman.

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Watt’s found a design flaw

Watt was given a Watt was given a model of model of NewcomenNewcomen Engine Engine to repair. to repair.

He discovered an He discovered an inherent inefficiency.inherent inefficiency.The same chamber The same chamber was used to heat and was used to heat and cool steam, resulting cool steam, resulting in much heat lostin much heat lost


Watt’s InnovationWatt decided Watt decided that the waste of that the waste of heat could be heat could be avoided if the avoided if the cylinder with the cylinder with the piston was kept piston was kept hot at all times hot at all times and a separate and a separate container was container was kept cold for kept cold for condensing the condensing the steam.steam.

Watt’s innovation: The Separate Condenser. Patented 1769.


Watt and Boulton

Matthew Boulton, Entrepreneur and James Watt, Inventor

Set up factory in Birmingham to manufacture steam engines “for the whole world.”The Watt-Boulton Engine was 4 times more efficient than the Newcomen Engine.It was leased to miners for 1/3 of their fuel savings over their Newcomen Engine.

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From Pump to All Purpose Power Source

Reciprocal vs. Rotary motion.Watt’s innovation of the sun and planet gear.Steady power instead of jerky thrusts.

Watt’s Governor – a feedback mechanism.


The Engine of the Industrial Revolution

Other improvements made it run more smoothly and reliably.

Fuel feedback mechanism.Parallelogram motion.Automatic on/off valves.Fly wheel.

Result:A machine that had more power than anything imaginable and could be used for any task requiring continuous motion.Large scale: implied large factories, 24 hour operation.


Uses of the Watt-Boulton EngineFactories of all kinds.

Especially the textile industry in Britain.

The engines were still stationary.They operated at low (atmospheric) pressure.

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High Pressure Steam

Watt-Boulton patent expired 1800.High Pressure engines quick to appear on the market.

Used the principle of the push of the steam on the piston instead of the weight of the atmosphere.They were smaller and more efficient.

The steam engine expanded its use from running factories and other stationary power needs to providing mobile power for transportation.


Mechanizing Road TransportationProblems:

Lack of roads.The size of engines.Their need for water and fuel supply.

At right: The CugnotSteam Dray.

Unworkable.

Later, steam cars were made efficiently.


Mechanizing Water Travel

The earliest steamboats used reciprocal motion and Watt-Boulton (low pressure) engines.

Fitch’s Oar-propelled boat of 1787.Carried 30 passengers on a run of 20 miles from Philadelphia in 3 hours, 10 minutes.

Rumsey’s Jet Propelled Steamboat, 1786.

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Ocean travel by Steam Power

Robert Fulton. The Clermont.Travelled the Hudson river, and other New York State rivers.Expanded to ocean travel.

Note the paddle-wheel amidships.


Opulent Travel by Steam

Later steamships became very large, with huge high-pressure engines and traveled the oceans with many passengers and freight.


Steam engine on

wheels

The 1st steam engines on wheels were used in mining collieries (without tracks).

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Railroads

A solution to land transportation problem given lack of roads and heavy vehicles that would sink in a road anyway:

Build a metal roadway.The first tracks were used with human powered or animal drawn carts. No steam engine at all.


Locomotives on TracksAn unknown technological issue:Would locomotives slip on the tracks?

No one knew.Smooth metal against smooth metal with a lot of inertial resistance.Maybe the locomotive would just spin its wheels.

Solutions:Stationary engines with long cables (cable cars).Cogwheel drive (also used now on steep slopes).


The Winning Solution for Long-Distance Hauling

Trains became the solution of choice for industry to move freight to market overland.

Once the question of adequate traction was answered, tracks were laid between major industrial centres.Freight haulage by rail began in earnest.

Next problem:How to construct more efficient locomotives.Industry sponsored competitions were held to encourage engineers to create optimally efficient locomotives.

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The Rainhill competition, 1829A competition held to decide the best solution for the Liverpool-Manchester Line, yet to be constructed.The assigned task:

The locomotive had to pull 3 times its own weight at 10 mph over 1½ miles of track for 10 round trips.

Won by George Stephenson’s “Rocket.”

•Weighed 4 1/4 tons, pulled 12 3/4 tons an average of 13.8 mph, max 24.1 mph. •Unheard of speeds


Passengers want to Travel too

Industry intended the railroads for the transportation of freight.

However, as soon as it became possible, people also wanted to travel by train, and did so in great numbers.


Passenger travelPassenger travel

The Liverpool-Manchester line was designed for a maximum of 400 passengers a day, but soon had 1000 per day.

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Steam = Progress

The speed with which railroads took over the world, spreading outward from Britain was phenomenal.

Rapid growth of Railways in Britain in the 1840s.

Traveling by steam (rail or ship) was progress.


Steam Power drove everythingTo be big, to be important, to matter, required steam engines.Other steam engines:

The steam hammer was a powerful tool capable of very precisely rendering a considerable force.For example, it could crack an egg without destroying the yolk.


No Task too Delicate

Spinning was the ultimate delicate task in the textile business.Everything else in the textile industry had been mechanized. Spinning was still done slowly and by hand.Spinnsters worked in sweatshops spinning thread by hand.

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Capitulation: The Mule Jenny

When engineers found a way to make the mechanical power from the steam engine pull in slightly different delicate tugs, they could imitate the work of the spinsters. Labour intensive spinning was replaced by the mechanized Mule Jenny, which required far fewer people to operate.


Fossil Fuels replace Human powerSteam engines work by boiling water.The fuel of choice for heating the water is coal.Before steam engines took over:

Factories operated on waterwheels and windmills.Land transportation relied on animal power.Sea transportation relied on wind power.Many aspects of manufacturing used human power.

All this was replaced by steam power, meaning burning coal.


Smoke and Foul Air Progress

By Industry we Thrive: “Progress”Our Motto.” An inspirational engraved poster on the virtues of industry. Note the smokestacks in the background proudly showing the signs of industry.

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