Cradle 2 Cradle - Environmental Research Center on Mt Fulufjäll

[Cradle 2 Cradle] 61 30 40 N, 12 30 33 E Environmental Reaserch Center on Mt Fulufjll

- A study in sustainable building -

AAHM01: Degree Project in Architecture Project by - Mats NilssonProfessor - Tomas TgilTutor - Christer MalmstrmSchool of Architecture, LTH, 2012

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Thesis project by Mats Nilsson

Professor - Tomas TgilTutor - Christer Malmstrm

School of Architecture, LTH, 2012

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CONTENTS

1 Preface...............................7

2 Introduction..........................9 2.1 The modern world...................9 2.2 The cocktail you did not order....10 2.3 Downcycling.......................10 2.4 Nature vs Industry................11 2.5 From cradle to grave..............11 2.5.1 Material......................13 2.6 Sustainability is local...........14 2.7 Cradle to cradle..................15

3 Global prognoses.....................17 3.1 Energy consumption and reserves...17 3.2 Emissions.........................18 3.3 Population........................19 3.4 Natural Disasters.................19

4 Mt Fulufjll national park...........20 4.1 Zone divisions....................22 4.2 Activities and attitudes..........23 4.2.1 Visitor patterns..............23 4.2.2 Main attractions..............23 4.2.3 Why visit Fulufjllet.........23 4.2.4 Visitors nationality.........23 4.2.5 Tourism development...........25 4.2.6 Visitors and the park.........25 4.2.7 Visitors in different zones...27 4.3 Conclusion........................285 Vegetation...........................30 5.1 Nature and culture................30 5.2 Tree line chart...................32 5.3 The rising tree line..............32 5.3.1 Fir...........................32 5.3.2 Pine..........................32 5.3.3 Birch.........................32 5.4 Vegetation........................35 5.5 Fossils and archaeology...........39

6 Wildlife.............................40 6.1 Birds.............................42 6.2 Predators and other game..........44 6.3 Fish and waters...................45

7 Regional history......................48 7.1 Early history......................48 7.2 Early immigration..................48 7.3 Types of pasture settlements.......49 7.3.1 Logger housing.................49 7.4 Regional architecture..............50 7.5 Settlement over history............51 7.6 Local typologies diagram...........52

8 Materials.............................54 8.1 Insulation.........................54 8.1.1 Natural local products - Wool..54 8.1.2 Cellulose fi bre.................56 8.1.3 Peat...........................56 8.1.4 Timber.........................58 8.1.5 Pine...........................58 8.1.6 Fir............................58 8.1.7 Oak............................58 8.1.8 Birch..........................58 8.1.9 Fiberboards....................58 8.1.10 Swedish Eco Plywood...........58 8.2 Masonry............................60 8.3 Roofi ng.............................62 8.4 Window frames......................64 8.5 Glazing............................66 8.5.1 Low emissivity coatings........66 8.6 Electrical wiring..................68 8.7 Adhesives and sealants.............70 8.8 Interior decoration................72

9 Weather...............................74 9.1 Global climate zones...............74 9.2 Precipitation zones................75 9.3 Weather on the site................75 9.4 Temperatures.......................76

10 Program..............................78 10.1 Program overview..................78 10.2 LCCA Analysis.....................78 10.3 Modular adaptability..............79 10.4 Design criterias..................80 10.5 Plan function diagrams............81

11 Proposal..............................82 11.1 Site strategy.....................82

11.1.1 Access........................82 11.1.2 Wind factors..................82 11.1.3 Water and terrain.............82 11.1.3.1 Overview plan 1:2500......83 11.1.4 Program demands...............84 11.1.5 Transport and Communication...84 11.1.6 Site characteristics..........84 11.1.7 Surrounding context 1:1000....85 11.2 Massing evolution.................86 11.3 Early topography models...........87 11.3.1 Process sketches..............88 11.3.2 Early sketch models...........89 11.3.3 Final model...................90 11.4 Ground plan 1:250.................94 11.4.1 Topography study 1:500........95 11.4.2 Ground plan 1:100.............96 11.4.3 Second fl oor 1:100.............98 11.4.4 Spring view..................100 11.4.5 Section AA 1:75..............102 11.4.6 Section BB 1:75..............104 11.4.7 West elevation 1:75..........105 11.4.8 South elevation 1:75.........106 11.4.9 Autumn view..................108 11.5 Construction process.............109 11.6 Summer evening view..............115 11.7 Systems diagram..................116 11.7.1 Wind data....................119 11.7.1.1 Wind direction...........119 11.7.1.2 Designation..............119 11.7.1.3 Conclusions..............119 11.8 Wind energy production...........120 11.8.1 Annual average wind speed....121 11.8.1.1 The Weibull distribution.121 11.8.1.2 Annual winds.............122 11.8.1.3 VAWT fi gures..............122 11.9 System dimension.................123 11.9.1 Heating system...............124 11.9.1 Utility consumption..........124 11.10 Ecotect shadow study............125 11.11 Winter view.....................126 11.12 Ecotect light analysis..........128 11.12.1 Internally refl ected light...128

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11.12.2 Externally refl ected light....128 11.12.3 Daylighting levels...........128 11.13 Night view.......................130 11.14 Process sketches.................132 11.15 Night view.......................133 11.16 Details 1:25.....................134 11.17 Assembly.........................137 11.18 Insulation characteristics.......138 11.18.1 Exterior walls...............138 11.18.2 Roof.........................140 11.18.3 Floor........................140 11.18.4 Doors........................142 11.18.5 Windows......................142 11.18.6 Total heat consumption.......143 11.19 Interior night view..............144

12 Wood model experiment................145 12.1 The big test......................145 12.2 Wood model process................145 12.3 Final product.....................149

13 Conclusion...........................157 13.1 Summary of key parameters.........160

14 References...........................162 14.1 Books.............................162 14.2 Digital sources...................162 14.3 Photo credits.....................162 14.4 Program used......................162

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71 PREFACEReduce, reuse, recycle, urge environmentalists; in other words, do more with less in order to min-imize damage. This prevailing idea is challenged by the notion of cradle-to-cradle. This biomi-metic approach to design of systems models human industry on natures processes in which materials are viewed as nutrients circulating in healthy, safe metabolisms. It is a holistic, economic, in-dustrial and social framework that is virtually waste-free. Like nature, it strives for a produc-tion which is part of a greater context and where it at the same time benefi ts and depends on it; waste equals food. The phrase cradle-to-cradle was fi st coined in the 1970s by Walter R. Stahel and during the 1990s developed into an overarch-ing design quality and criteria system thanks to chemist Michael Braungart. Together with William McDonough the concept got a boost of attention through the book Cradle-to-Cradle (2002): Remak-ing the Way We Make Things, which has become noth-ing short of a bible for the design world. As the book points out, the aphorism reduce, re-use, recycle only perpetuates the one-way manu-facturing model, dating back to the industrial rev-olution, that creates such extraordinary amounts of waste and pollution. We have to challenge the belief that human industry must damage the natu-ral world and instead begin to enrich it. Why not take nature as a model for design and production? After all, nature has had millennias to develop and fi ne-tune its complex yet simple self. A tree produces thousands of blossoms in order to create another tree, yet we consider its abundance not wasteful but safe, beautiful and highly effec-tive. (McDonough 2002:1)So, can architects learn something from natures structure and metabolism and in this way, chal-lenge the idea of sustainable building in refer-ence to site, scale, materials, design, produc-tion, assembly, management and disassembly? How can specifi c, local conditions be maximized and utilized and old strategies and building methods converge through new materials and technology? How

far can one really push the idea of a building being able to safely degrade and at the same time meet mod-ern demands for comfort, function and aesthetics? The site for this experiment is next to lake Getsjn in Mt Fulufjll, Dalarna county, Sweden. The mountain borders Norway in west and is Swedens most south-ern national fjll (known as fell in English, it is mountains that have been shaped by prehistoric ice and are characterized by relatively fl at surfaces and rounded geometry). Here are no water and sewerage supply, no electricity available and no other modern facilities. The proposal must thus conduct itself to these circumstances, without making too large of an impact on the fragile mountain environment. The program is an environmental research center which will be occupied year-round. Research teams and students are to be able to conduct experiments on site. Increase in temperature and atmospheric ni-trogen down-fall in the last 50 years have drasti-cally changed the mountain environment. The barren and sensitive mountain environment reacts quickly to changes in climate and is therefore perfect for cli-mate researchers to study. The resulting project is highly localized in its response. Everything from materials used to energy systems implemented is an outcome of specifi c, local circumstances. The remote and desolated surround-ings challenged the way in which to construct the building. Allowing no heavy machinery and offering no sound infrastructure, the proposal ended in an intricate modular building kit responding to demands of fl exibility, durability and program. The design is highly pro-active and interchangeable.

92 INTRODUCTION2.1 The modern worldWhen looking at the relationship between human be-ings and their environment much has happened over the last few hundred years. In that time humans were willing to adapt to the environment and live in harmony with nature. Materials were brought from nature and crafted into tools to serve dif-ferent purposes; but along with evolution comfort requirements changed. Both McDonough in Cradle to Cradle (2002) and Daniels the Technology of Ecological Buildings (1994) point to the fact that industrialization brought with it a new level of control. In the past people were unable to tame nature to any great extent. Before the combustion engine made its en-trance in the maritime business the sailing boat was the natural and only choice. If there was not any wind, there also was not any sailing - only very limited if any at all. The combustion engine changed the way one could now perceive transporta-tion and extended the possibilities and along with it effi ciency of transportation. Being at the mercy of Mother Nature was no longer as obvious.Global population was also to a greater extent much smaller and still working on a local scale. Small populations and modest requirements for en-ergy utilization meant low emissions. Waste did not exist in the modern sense and was restricted to bio-degradable material returned to its natu-ral cycle or often reused. Daniels (1994:10) also brings up the difference in building tradition characterized by smaller windows, building masses with high storage capacities and low standards for heating and sanitary systems. With growing popu-lations and villages becoming cities the demands for comfort and hygiene changed. By using the small windows of the past the thermal gains and losses were more stable.Modern architecture with its bigger glass surfaces offer better views and contact with the surround-ing world, but also create problems with thermal qualities. Modern solutions often solve the imme-

diate problem, yet often give rise to new ones. This could be cost issues, toxicity issues or ethical is-sues. McDonough (2002) argues that it is the spiral of evolution through creation of new problems and inherent shortcomings that is one of the big fl aws in the industrial system. McDonough (2002) is with the following example paint-ing a rather grim picture of the industrial revolu-tion. It is important to remember that this is a bi-ased list in the sense that all the positive outcomes are not listed

Imagine that you have been given the assignmentof designing Industrial Revolution retrospective-ly. With respect to its negative consequences, the assignment would have to read something like this:Design a system of production that- Puts billions of pounds of toxic material into the air, water, and soil every year- Produces some materials so dangerous they will require constant vigilance - Result in gigantic amounts of waste- Puts valuable materials in holes all over the planet, where they can never be retrieved- Requires thousands of complex regulations not to keep people and natural systems safe, but rather to keep them from being poisoned too quickly- Measure productivity by how few people are working- Creates prosperity by digging up or cut ting down natural resources and them burying or burning them- Erodes the diversity of species and cultural practices.(McDonough 2002:18)

Human activity in late history has shifted the natural equi-librium of materials on the planet. We have been taking substances from the earths crust and concentrated, al-tered, and synthesized them into vast volumes of material that can no longer safely be returned to soil. 2.2 The cocktail you did not orderTodays materials and prod-ucts are highly complex in their compound and more often than not consisting of toxic and hazardous components. The offi ce chair you are sitting in for example contains mu-tagenic materials in the fab-ric, heavy metals, chemicals and dyes that often are la-beled hazardous by regulators. This, of course, is not made clear when the chair is pre-sented to a consumer. As you shift in your chair, particles from the fabric abrade and are inhaled trough your mouth and nose. The question is wheth-er this is necessary. Why are they even there? 2.3 DowncyclingMost of us today know the value of recycling and we all pitch in sorting paper from metal and plastic from glass. We do so without thinking about the inherent problem of the pro-cess. Let us say you hand in your old rug for recycling. First of all, the rug was nev-er designed for disassembly or

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customized for a further lifespan than the one it just ended. This often means wrestling the materials into a recycling process that some-times requires as much or more energy than what it could save. One could therefore say that recycling is really downcycling. This becomes even more evident when one takes into account that a lot of plastics and other materials only can be recycled so many times before los-ing its structural soundness. For every cycle quality is lost because the same function is expected of it. This is in contrast to nature where a leaf becomes soil, soil becomes nour-ishment and so on. Hence industry needs to ex-pand their mind and not limit itself as today. In the process, a lot of harmful additives may even have been added compared to a convention-al product. In this light recycling defeats the purpose and only postpones the inevitable death of the rug. Hence the problem lies ear-lier in the process of making the rug and not the waste it has become. This does not mean that recycling as an idea is bad and should not be implemented. What the cradle-to-cradle ideas emphasize and focus on instead are the conditions given when the product was designed and made (McDonough 2002:5). This proces is known as cradle-to-grave. 2.4 Nature vs IndustryThe view of nature and industry being a little like David and Goliath is something we all are accustomed to think. A common view is that the traditional method of production through extraction, manufacturing and disposal are generally destructive to the natural world. Whereas environmentalists tend to view the in-dustry as bad and destructive the industrial-ists view the environmentalists as being an obstacle for growth and development.McDonough (2003) vindicates that this clash is not a must and that both sides can coincide in this world. This opposition gives rise to a common problem that a lot of us faces daily. How can we consume, create, and live our life without the exhorting hand of the environmen-

tal advocates? In our relentless effort of try-ing not to be so bad by cutting down consump-tion and by questioning our western worlds culture we become fi lled with guilt, and we get caught between frustration and necessity. 2.5 From cradle-to-graveAs mentioned earlier the focus of concern must be laid much earlier in the production chain. With todays cradle to grave approach where products are deliberately made for a very lim-ited lifespan, we are creating vast landfi lls around the world. A lot of what you fi nd in these landfi lls is made from valuable materi-als that required great effort and expense to extract, isolate and make. Billions of dollars are essentially wasted away. Even if a lot of effort is being made today to recycle this waste most of the products were never intended to be taken apart and recycled. Toxins are al-most inevitably released, added or mixed in the recycling process. Not to mention the cost. It is estimated that a whopping 90 percent of ma-terial extracted to make durable goods in the United States become waste almost immediately (Ibid:27). With the built-in obsolescence in products you are more or less forced to buy a new one when the old one breaks who leaves their toaster for repair today? To make things even more disturbing is the fact that what you see in your garbage bin is only the tip of a mate-rial iceberg; the product itself only contains roughly 5 percent of the raw materials involved in the process of making and delivering it (Ibid:28).Driven by the parole of effi ciency and perfor-mance, the manufacturers often design for a worst-case scenario meaning that the product will always work no matter the circumstance. This guarantees the biggest possible market for the product but also means a wasteful, un-necessary design. The industry can be said to be the antithesis to nature in this respect. Whereas nature is a closed system which takes

care of its own waste and let it nourish it-self in cycles, industry is missing the op-portunity to let its waste and surplus trickle down within its own system. For nature it is imperative to give back as much as it takes. This gives so many advantages in respect to effi ciency and energy; it is odd that the in-dustry does not realize the potential revenue of a system like this. Industry and nature are both striving for ef-fi ciency but in very different ways. Looking

at the food industry the trend in last decades has been that of high specialization and mere size. By also genetically modifying crop, a mon-ocultural landscape has aroused. Not to mention the mine fi eld of lawsuits of patent infringements that made it to the news stands some years ago in the US and was soon forgotten. The outcome of the modern system is of course more crops in less time with less effort. In other words; more mon-ey. What also happens is massive soil erosion on a global scale and old indigenous strains becom-ing wiped out in the name of modern commerce.

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2.5.1 MaterialThe designers intention in current industrial systems is to create a product that meet regu-lations, is attractive and affordable, works decently and only lasts long enough to meet market expectations. McDonough (2003) argues that this is not a design process for human or ecological health and hence an unintelligent product he calls a `crude product. He exem-plifi es this with the average mass-produced piece of polyester clothing or a normal water bottle that both contain antimony, a hazard-ous heavy metal that is known to cause cancer in living organisms. When buying that state of the art sweater made from fi bers of recycled plastic bottles you probably do not realize that the fi bers contain toxins such as antimo-ny, catalytic residues, ultraviolet stabiliz-ers, plasticizers and antioxidants that were never intended to rest on human skin. So the question is: Why is it there?Well, the sad reality is that antimony is not needed in polyester. The reason it is there is by working as a cheap catalyst in the polym-erization process. It is then released when the polyester is recycled and introduced in the new material that is produced. It is also released when burned along with other trash as cooking fuel, a common procedure in poor countries. This `product plus as McDonough (2002) calls it is the reality in almost all production to-day. The unnecessary additives render it diffi -cult to recycle and constitute a major, and to a great extent, unexplored danger for living organisms. These dangerous cocktails of addi-tives also off-gas teratogenic and/or carci-nogenic compounds when used. These substances are known to cause cancer and birth defects. This still makes the question `why it is there ?very acute and unanswered. The biggest reason is that high-tech products are often composed of low-quality materials. Low-quality in the sense that cheap plastic

and dyes are globally sourced from the provid-er offering the lowest price, often bypassing local regulation of toxin use not set up in the developing country of interest. In the end it is about fi nding and developing the right products, services and systems instead of mak-ing the wrong ones less bad. The answer is multifold. Human industries and systems do not necessarily have to become smaller, but bigger and better in a way that replenishes, restores and nourishes the rest of the world. Decisions that lead to diversity and abundance for fu-ture generations of life are a truer measure-ment of growth, McDonough (2002) argues. By emphasizing local production and diversity as method, McDonough (2002:79) let a community of ants serve as an example: Consider a community of ants. As part of their activity, they:

- safely and effectively handle their own material wastes and those of other species

- grow and harvest their own food while nurturing the ecosystem of which they are a part - construct houses, farms, dumps, cemeteries, living quarters, and food-storage facilities from materials that are healthy, safe and biodegradable

- maintain soil health for the entire planet

What is remarkable is that even though we as humans are considerably larger than ants, their biomass far exceeds ours. Ants are a good example of a population whose density and productivity are not a problem for the rest of the world. The argument that we as humans are too many to solve our complex problem is not viable. Further, the roughly eight thou-sand kinds of ants that exist on earth mirror

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our diversity as humans. With different climates, cultures and strengths the ants show that this is more an advantage than a disadvantage and a key to their success.In the rainforest one can fi nd hundreds of differ-ent species of ants in a single canopy. In a truly remarkable way they manage to coexist and keep the fragile equilibrium of its local system. The secret is fi rst of all keeping to the-above list and secondly a remarkable specialization that is highly localized within the sphere of the tree. The leaf-cutter ant cuts and carries away foli-age while the weaver ant rallies the troops with its advanced pheromone communication system. The conclusion is that instead of actively working to destroy competing species they work productively from their niches. The fact that they inhabit different zones with varied resources is made possible thanks to their local specialization. By being highly integrated and nurture relations, one groups waste becomes someone elses food (Mc-Donough 2002:120-120). 2.6 Sustainability is localIt is important to stress the obvious benefi ts from connecting to local materials and energy fl ows. It is more cost-effi cient to use natures already existing systems. Of course this will probably have to happen gradually as old systems are phased out with potential intermediate solu-tions or hybrids are used. The new local anchor-ing carries with it a greater concern for your own habitat as you probably would think twice be-fore releasing chemicals into the local drinking waters. By working locally materials also become very important. Less imports mean less risk of bioinvasion by nonnative species into often frag-ile ecosystems. Local materials also are well-adjusted to the local circumstances for obvious reasons. The work of forcing alien materials into the new system is no longer needed. Connecting to natural energy fl ows in a local scale is a matter of reestablishing the massive disconnection the industrial revolution caused. As the structure and the surrounding landscape work together as a

total design the old saying that form follows func-tion might be replaced with: form follows evolution. (McDonough 2002:129-141). 2.7 Cradle-to-cradle The present short-term strategy of cradle-to-grave systems must be exchanged for the regenerative cra-dle-to-cradle approach. This rich, holistic, econom-ical, industrial and social framework models human industry on natures own processes. Within it, mate-rials are circulating in healthy, safe metabolisms which are essentially waste free. The fi rst step is to rid ourselves of known toxins in materials and industry. McDonough (2002) categorizes these materi-als in three ways:- The X List: substances that must be phased out with high priority, such as teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic. - The Gray List: Problematic substances that are not so urgently in need of phasing out- The P List: The positive list, substances actively defi ned as safe for useThe bigger emphasis on local production that industry soon will face will in the end be about reinventing and redesigning the production system to its core.

We can build factories whose products and by-products nourish the ecosystem with biodegradable material and re-circulate technical materials instead of dumping, burn-ing, or burying them. We can design systems that regulate themselves. Instead of using nature as a mere tool for hu-man purpose, we can strive to become tools of nature who serve its agenda too. We can celebrate the fecundity in the world, instead of perpetuating a way of thinking and making that eliminates it. And there can be many of us and the things we make, because we have the right system a creative, prosperous, intelligent, and fertile system and, like the ants, we will be `effective(McDonough 2002:156).

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3 GLOBAL PROGNOSES 3.1 Energy consumption and reservesAs of 1991, 83 percent of global primary energy was consumed by 25 percent of the worlds population. Todays population is even bigger. Linked to the use of fossil fuels are the rising CO2 emissions. On a positive note, the renewable energy pro-duction was about 12.9 percent of global primary energy supply in 2009 and slowly rising according to the network Renewable Energy World. According to World Resources Institute the global CO2 emissions between 1950 and 2000 increased fi vefold. Whether or not the emis-sions are resulting in the increased tem-peratures we are seeing is up for debate, but it is indisputable that we put out emissions in an ever greater pace. What is also alarming is the nitrogen downfall, especially in the sensitive northern fjll regions. The rate of 2-3 kg per hectare and year is increasing but is still far from the 30-60 kg per hectare and year the city regions in Holland and northern Ger-many show.

Uranium Coal Oil Gas Regenerative Water Oilshale, Oil sand

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3.2 EmissionsTechnology in the hands of mankind has shown to be a truly effi cient weapon. In a course of a few cen-turies we have managed to reverse a process of 500 million years, and we are now burning oil and coal re-serves at a rate two million times faster than it took nature to pro-duce it! Burning fossil fuels not only create the green house gas CO2 but also toxins. The rising tempera-ture leads to increased evaporation from the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps. Water vapor and more clouds trap the refl ecting sun energy propelling the development even fur-ther. The increased vapor also af-fects the oceans water cycles.

Further, melting polar ice caps and glaciers result in less white sur-faces and hence more absorbed solar energy. Since 1930 the ocean levels have increased 20 cm. Melting pro-cesses have very slow reaction times and it is certain that the sea lev-els will continue to rise for centu-ries even though we could stop the CO2 emissions today. Thus we have to realize that future generations will face an increase of the sea level of several meters (Daniels 1994:18-19).

By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:

- water vapor, 3670%- carbon dioxide, 926%- methane, 49%- ozone, 37%

The CO2 emissions have increased tenfold in the last ten years (CDIAC; The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center)

Global CO2 emissions per year:1751-2006

Development of observed air temperature (1850-1980) with and without calculated CO2 increase

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3.3 PopulationThe observed climate change can be inti-mately linked to the population explo-sion in the last century. Although the rapid population growth puts a great strain on natures balance, we do not seem to have met the carrying capacity of human kind yet, though this is heav-ily debated. The problem of food- and water shortage around the world is more explained through unjust distribution systems, corruption or poverty.

The growing population also seems to cluster in big cities putting a heavy strain on the production and distribu-tion systems feeding them. What is also happening is a dramatic shift in the demographic balance as an outcome of

3.4 Natural DisastersDisasters are a part of nature and they have fl uctuated throughout history. We do know that increased temperatures and rising sea levels add to the effect and their occurrence. Disasters are a part of nature and they have fl uctuated throughout history.

The devastation is heavily dependent on the concentration of mankind in larger cities and the sheer number of peo-ple that inhabit the planet today. In-creased traveling, 24/7 newsfeeds, ad-vance measurement technology, and so on make us aware of disasters in an ever greater way. Unprecedented weather high and lows last twenty years also create ripple effects.

the post-World War II baby boom. The western world is facing a coming chal-lenge in setting up a support system where the few young can pay for the many old. The growing population also threatens the fauna through excessive meat con-sumption, the spreading of mankind, deforestation, emissions and the in-troduction of monocultural gene modi-fi ed crops that wipe out natural condi-tions (Ibid: 25)

EM-DAT the International Disaster Database.

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4 Mt FULUFJLL NATIONAL PARK Mt Fulufjll became Swedens 28th national park in the fall of 2002. The park has two obvious tourist attractions Njupeskr, Swedens high-est waterfall, and the large fl ash fl ood channel in the Gljn Valley that was caused by massive soil erosion during a rainstorm in the summer of 1997. The protected areas are often interesting and attractive destinations to visit, but also rep-resent sensitive ecosystems. Therefore, it is extra important that tourism in these areas is conducted in a sustainable way, and much higher demands are placed on planning, management and the practice of those activities. Having knowl-edge of the visitors and understanding their mo-tives and expectations is central to being able to design management of protected nature from a visitors perspective. This, in turn, contrib-utes to the developing tourism industry.The protected nature area in Sweden has increased by almost tenfold in the last 60 years. Today there are 28 national parks and over 2,500 na-ture reserves. At the same time, the interest in nature as a resource for outdoor recreation and tourism development is increasing. Swedens gov-ernment considers outdoor recreation a corner-stone for nature protection and has identifi ed the natural and cultural landscape as a basic condition for nature and culture tourism (Fred-man 2005: 19).

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4.1 Zone divisionsThe management plan and regulations for the park are based on a division of Mt Fulufjll National Park into four zones, where directions and measures for exploitation and protection vary. In this way, both needs for protection and wishes for certain activi-ties can be satisfi ed. Yet another effect produced is a high recreational capacity, i.e., that many visitors can be received without negative consequences for the natural or social environments.The division into zones is scaled from wilderness to more developed. Zones 1-3 (the majority of the nation-al park) will give better opportunities for isolation and tranquility while zone 4 (mainly the area around Njupeskrs waterfall) will be easily accessible and have a high degree of service and amount of visitors. The model that has inspired the zoning of the national park is the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS). The principle for ROS is to provide a broad range of opportunities for activities and experiences. The model has been developed in North America and it is the fi rst time it has been fully applied in Sweden (Ibid: 20).

Zone division in Mt Fulufjll. Untouched zone (I), Low activity zone (II), High activ-ity zone (III) and Con-struction zone(IV).

HRJEDALEN COUNTY

DALARNA COUNTY

lvdalenSlen

Fulns

Idre

Grvelsjn

NORWAY

Mora

Mt Fulufjll national parkMt Fulufjlls surroundingsNorthern Dalarna county

DALARNA COUNTY

lvdalenSlen

FulnsFu

Idre

Grvelsjnn

Mora

Njupeskr

L. HarrsjnSt. Rrsjn

Tangsjarna

I

II

IVIII

Tangn

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4.2 Activities and attitudes4.2.1 Visitor patterns Most people visit Mt Fulufjll for a day of hik-ing. Three out of four stay a whole day at the longest, and nearly half stay less than six hours. Above all, it is the area around Njupeskr that is visited most, but even Gljdalen and Rrsjs-tugorna attract a good number of people. Only a few percent of the visitors make it into the heart of Mt Fulufjll National Park, and sadly this number has also decreased. Two-thirds visit Mt Fulufjlls surroundings and just over a fi th of the visitors stay in Mt Fulufjll overnight, or close by the na-tional park.4.2.2 Main attractionsAlmost everyone comes to Mt Fulufjll in order to see Njupeskrs waterfall. Most people travel to Mt Fulufjll by private means, only three percent made the visit as an organized tour. For two out of three people, the main motive is to visit Nju-peskr waterfall, for one out of six it is to hike, while one in ten come mainly because the area is a national park.

4.2.3 Why visit Mt FulufjllThe most important reasons for visiting are to experi-ence beautiful nature, unlittered areas, to see some-thing that is unaffected by man, the peace and quiet, and to experience wilderness.4.2.4 Visitors nationality Compared with other regions in the Swedish mountains, a high proportion of the visitors is forein. Germans are the largest foreign group, followed by Danes and Dutch. Nearly all of the Swedish visitors come from southern and mid-Sweden, particularly the regions of Dalarna and Mlardalen. Visitors to Mt Fulufjll have a high average age, 49 years, and relatively few young visitors compared with other Swedish mountain regions (Ibid: 21).

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4.2.5 Tourism developmentMost visitors regard tourism development as posi-tive in the area around the national park, while close to 40% are negative towards development within the national park. Foremost are the different types of experiences (wildlife, nature, culture, food, and local population) accompanied by increased en-vironmental adaptation, which the visitors consider should be developed. They consider it less impor-tant to develop tourisms basic services (travel and accommodation).

4.2.6 Visitors and the park10-15% of Fulufjllets visitors in 2003 came be-cause it is a national park. Signifi cantly more are positive towards the national park without it con-stituting a reason for visiting. A clear majority considers that a national park increases Mt Fu-lufjlls worth for visitors, for the surrounding district and that it contributes to preserving the biological diversity, whereas almost 25 percent-think that a national park limits a persons usage unnecessarily.The increase in the number of visits to Mt Fulufjll between 2001 and 2003 consists mainly of Swedes. Mt Fulufjll is visited as an outing from home for those that live in Dalarna, while the majority of visitors from other countries make their visit from a holiday resort. The Germans make their visit as part of a roundtrip. Njupeskrs waterfall does not have the same attraction for the German visitors as it does for the Swedes. Instead, it is the for-est environments itself that draws them, and also hiking on the trails within Mt Fulufjll. The Ger-man visitors experience the mountains as being very magnifi cent. Germans and residents of Dalarna county have similar and strong experiences of tranquility, wilderness and pure and untouched nature. Visitors living in Dalarna county are the most positive to-wards the development of tourism, both within the national park as well as in its surrounding ar-eas. Germans regard the importance of environmen-

27

% (all visitors)

Germany Denmark Holland Norway Switzerland Remaining

tal adaptation on accommodation and activities more highly than the Swedes, and also want to have more contact with the local population. Germans are the group that spends the most money both in the na-tional park and in the surrounding areas.

4.2.7 Visitors in different zonesThe reasons for visiting Mt Fulufjll differ for the visitors in the different sections of the na-tional park. More or less everyone that only vis-ited Njupeskr or lower Gljn (zone 4) came to see the waterfall, while those that also visited other parts of Mt Fulufjll (zones1-3), to a greater ex-tent, came to hike and to study the nature. Those that only visited zone 4 are more pleased with the quantity and quality of different facilities, such as cabins, wind shelters, trails and garbage cans. The incidence of a national park has great signifi -cance for those that visited zones 1-3 compared to those that only visited zone 4. A higher proportion in zones 1-3 knew that the area was a national park before they arrived, and the trip would have been different had the national park not existed. The attitude to tourism development within the national park and its surrounding areas is, however, more positive among those that visited zone 4 (Ibid: 9-11).

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4.3 ConclusionThe conclusion of the 2005 report on Mt Fulufjlls transformation into a national park in 2002, shows predominantly positive results. The zoning strategy seems to have had success in several respects. The total amount of annual visitors has increased af-ter the transformation, especially to zone 4. This canalization of visitors to zone 4 has lead to a much necessary rest for more fragile zones such as 1 and 2. The report also indicates positive tourism devel-opment from the zoning strategy for the immediate surroundings. Both visitors and locals are predomi-nantly positive about the outcome. New opportuni-ties for locals and a better spectrum of experience for visitors are main reasons. The survey also shows how visitors who only visit zone 4, mainly Njupeskr waterfall, have consider-ably lower demands for untouched and pristine nature and bigger tolerance for human activity. The share of urbanists visiting the park has also increased since it became a national park. The average visi-tor is also predominantly from the middle or south parts of Sweden and proportionally older compared to other national park visitors. This specifi c visitor profi le has been more pro-nounced after the transformation. Just the factor of the park now being a national park has boosted its popularity.

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5 VEGETATION5.1 Nature and cultureMt Fulufjll rises mightily in the southern edge of the taiga, the natural geographical region whose climate, topography, ecological dynamics and vegetation is characterized by the vicinity to the mountains. The mountain has the character of a soft undulating plateau (900-1040 m a.s.l), with steep wooded sides. The bedrock of jotnic Dala sandstone with some elements of diabase create large gatherings of block. The climate of the region is distinctly continental, which means relatively cold win-ters and hot summers. Up on the plateau, in the tree line zone however, the situation is less extreme in this regard. Rainfall here can be remarkably high with 1000 mm per year and more (Oldhammer 2002: 149153).

31

In this Northeastern area of interest Mt Fu-lufjll is dominated by pine Pinus sylvestris on the lower levels while fi r Picea abies is on a fast increase in the steeper parts of the fell slopes. The ground vegetation is made up of healthy brushwood such as blueberry Vac-cinium myrtillus, heater Calluna vulgaris and crowberry Empetrum nigrum. A fragmentary 50-75 m wide belt of low-growing, polyphonic moun-tain birch Betula pubescens is bordering the bare mountain. The tree limits for pine and fi r are today en-twined in a belt of birch. In this mixture of low growing trees and moorland large li-chens such as Cup lichen Cladonia Stellaris spread out, especially around smaller lakes or gatherings of water. The poor soils decompose slowly hence the fl ora is rather limited. The most frequent are mountain heath Phyllodoce caerulea, creeping azalea Loiseleuria procum-bens, alpine bearberry Arctostaphylos alpinus, highland rush Juncus trifi dus, Bigelows sedge Carex bigelowii, fur clubmos Huperzia selago and alpine clubmoss Diphasiastrum alpinum.

Scattered mountain chalets are found in the coniferous woodland around the whole of Mt Fulufjll, on levels of 200-250 meters under the birch tree limit. These old mountain pas-tures were most active around late eighteen-hundreds. It happened that cows, sheep, and goats grazed up on the fell plateau, espe-cially around meadow-like vegetation close to brooks and thickets. The past historic use has left little negative impact on the surroundings. In the 1860s the last family of wild reindeer left this south-ern mountain region for northern pastures. Mt Fulufjll is strongly infl uenced by past fi res as late as in the 1950s. The remains of char-coal in the grounds are common and make this national park important scientifi cally as a historic reference area. A more modern infl u-ence on the culture is the nitrogen downfall that seems to be mostly concentrated to the tree line and has contributed to increased grass growth on the open plateau (Ibid: 316).

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5.2 Tree line chart

1915 1974 2004 Change 1915-2004 Pine Pinus sylvestris 795 870 940 +145 Fir Picea abies 820 930 930 +110 White birch Betula pubescens 870 910 940 +70

5.3 The rising tree lineThe heating of the climate in modern time begun around 1915 and therefore the point of departure for measuring the rising tree line was set to begin here. Pine shows the biggest numbers among the group and both pine and white birch now grow as high as physically possible. The white birch could probably have grown even further up, would the mountains be heigher. The numbers show tree line altitudes (m a.s.l.) of pine, spruce and mountain birch at three different points in time during the past 90 years within the studied elevational transect on the northeast-facing fl ank of Mt Fulufjllet (61 38 N;12 40 E) .5.3.1 FirIn contrast to the pine, the fi r tree line has not advanced through spreading of its seeds during the 20th century but was already pres-ent when the climate heating begun. The new fi r is much higher, resilient and lush though, compared to 30 years ago. During the 1970s the fi r was rarely taller than the maximum winter snow depth. Having the character of low growing shrubs they had rejuvenated for thousands of years being kept in check thanks to the harsh climate (Ibid: 321).

5.3.2 PineThe pine tree line has in less than a century moved roughly 5 km west, up and above the moun-tain edge and on to the plateau. The old tree line appears in the terrain as a smooth bor-der line of noticeably older trees at the old tree line of 795 (m a.s.l). Above, young and vital pine trees are scattered on the slopes and on the plateau. Systematic drilling at the tuber of the stem shows that neither of these 6-7 meter high individuals are older than 100 years. Most of the new pine came about be-tween the 1930s and 1970s and during last de-cade a strong new generation of pine has seen the light. This tells of continued growth for the years to come and one can only do the con-clusion that diametrical change in the Scan-dinavian mountain world has become a reality (Ibid: 320). 5.3.3 BirchThe birch has also not made signifi cant advance-ment in recent decades and has followed a sim-ilar path to the fi r. As with the fi r, the birch has shown a tremendous acceleration in annual growth since the beginning of the 1990s. Mani-fold growth has become a new standard. Drill-ings from the low growing polyphonic mountain birch in the new tree line show specimens be-ing as old as 200 years (Ibid: 321-322).

33

2. A sparse stand of at most 60 70-year-old pine trees, which have become established 25 m above the treeline el-evation in 1915.

4. Spruce growing slightly below the tree line. A dense cushion of branches close to the ground indicates the depth of the snow cover.

3. The advanced birch tree line is set by very old individuals. A downed and decaying stem is radiocarbon-dated to 375 cal. BP. Thus, this birch may be older than 500 years.

1. A treeline birch also called table birch. That was the model growth form for birches at this elevation 30 years ago. Since then, most of these specimens have grown substantially taller.

1

3

2

4

35

5.4 VegetationEven though the dominating trees are pine, fi r and white birch one can still fi nd trees such as bird cherry, moun-tain ash, sallow and aspen scattered in the mountain landscape. The mountain plateau with its lush green rug show a great variety of a staggering 395 dif-ferent kinds of mosses and 421 kind of lichens. Not only are the species plenty fold but also extremely old. A fascinat-ing discovery was made when a sub-fossil fi r, underneath the canopy of another fi r, in the outer-most fringe of the new tree line. The specimen had four distinct generations of sub-fossil dating in the interval of 9550-375 before present time. It is thought to belong genetically to the same individual, thus a post-gla-cial pioneer fi r. Due to its remarkable ability of vegetative growth it has man-aged to survive all the way til present time by changing between tree shape and shrub in pace with climate changes. This amazing endurance and ability to adjust to unfavorable circumstances makes one think about where this tree might have spent the Great Ice Age1.

1 http://www.dalarna.se/sv/Hotell/Fulufjallet1/ Nationalparken/Vaxter/

3. Bog Bilberry Vaccinium uliginosum L

1. Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus2. Cloudberry fl ower Rubus chamaemorus

4. Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea

7. Alpine clubmoss Diphasiastrum alpinum 8. Bigelows sedge Carex bigelowii

6. Garden lupin Lupinus polyphyllus 5. Fur clubmos Huperzia selago

1 2

4

6

8

5

7

3

36

The important and characteristic lichens are as lush and vivid as they were back in 1970s when the last extensive examination of the plateau was carried out. What is palpable is the amount of clean areas of lichen without any mixture of shrubs and trees. These are clearly on the decline last 40 years. What is also noticeable is that the plateau on whole reads less yellow-white and instead greener today. This can be explained by an increase of dwarf birch, heater, crowberry and blueberry (Kullman 2005:326-327). The combination of shorter snow periods in the winter, increased downfall of atmo-spheric nitrogen and temperature changes ap-pear to be the main reason for the observed changes in fl ora and fauna. It is clear that Mt Fulufjll has a great vegetational value in a historic sense and for contemporary re-search (Ibid 2000: 4959).

37

3. Heater Calluna vulgaris

1. Mountain heath Phyllodoce caerulea

1 2

4

6

8

5

7

2. Highland rush Juncus trifi dus

4. Cup lichen Cladonia Stellaris

7. Creeping azalea Loiseleuria procumbens8. Crowberry Empetrum nigrum

6. Alpine bearberry Arctostaphylos alpi-5. Blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus

3

38

1. A stack of sandstone that is a com-mon feature as visitors build their own creations

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

3. Piece of a pine stem unearthed from a thin peat accumulation. This tree lived until 9 600 years ago.

5. The succeeding fl ood of Njupeskr wa-terfall

7. Four samples of subfossil spruce re-mains, preserved in the soil underneath the canopy of a adjacent spruce. From the left to the right they date 5 660, 375, 9 550 and 9 000 cal. BP.

2. Njupeskr main waterfall and its sur-rounding; a layered sandstone plateau.

4. At the edge of Mt Fulufjll sever-al grave sites dating from the Iron Age (1200-1000 BC) have been discovered. The 900 million years old bedrock of jotnic Dala sandstone was the obvious choice.

6. The foot of Mt Fulufjll has a dense forest, scattered lakes and plentifold of small creeks.

8. With its 9 550 years this fi r is the worlds oldest tree. It was discovered recently when investigating the rising tree line.

39

5.5 Fossils and archaeologyMt Fulufjll and its bedrock of jotnic Dala sandstone was once created some 900 million years ago down at the equator. Through histo-ry, volcanic activity melted and transformed the jotnic dala sandstone into a harder rock called porphyry. The mountain with its pla-teau as we know it today contrasts sharply to that shallow, tepid sea it once was. Today, several hundreds of smaller lakes spread out up on the plateau. In the North-east corner the Njupeskr waterfall, with its 125 meter high drop into the valley beneath, is a popular attraction. It is Swedens tall-est waterfall at 125 m. One can access it the year around and even explore it in wintertime by ice climbing the vertical frozen masses. The ground conditions and climate make per-fect conditions for natural preservation of biological material.

Up on the plateau there is a circle of stones called Altarringen. It is believed the site historically has been used in hawk hunting. Once, hawks were common birds up here and the most desirable ones were the pale or white hawks. After a long absence the population is today on the rise again. The stone formation is also believed to have been used for re-ligious purposes and today a service is held once a year in the middle of July. Close to Njupeskr waterfall, on the eastern slopes, four more mounds of stone can be seen which are believed to be from the Iron Age. The graves were discovered in 1915 and ex-amined the following year. During the exami-nation spearheads and arrowheads were found which were dated back to the time of the Great Migration2

2 http://www.dalarna.se/sv/Hotell/Fulufjallet1/ Nationalparken/Vaxter/

A spruce cone with scale characters of Picea abies ssp. obovata found in a bog pool and radiocarbon-dated to 9 030 cal.

A cone of Larix sibirica found in a bog pool and radiocarbon-dated to 8 160 cal. BP.

40

6 WILDLIFEFulufjllet national park with its 38,000-hectares have great opportunities for short and long hikes on 140 kilometers of marked trails, as well as challenging tours in the large wilderness area. More than 50 000 people come yearly to visit the national park, among these 84 percent come only for the Njupeskr waterfall. The remaining 16 percent are hikers many of whom many are international visitors. Bird-watchers, fi shermen, city folks it is a broad spectrum of people visiting Mt Fu-lufjll. The aim of the national park is to essentially preserve, in unspoiled condition, a southern mountain region with distinctive vegetation and great natural value. The aim is also to provide for the visitors experiences of tran-quility, isolation and purity. this in combi-nation with making it easier for the public, to an appropriate extent, to experience the parks nature and wildlife (Fredman 2005:12-13).

42

3. Siberian Jay Perisoreus infaustus

1. Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix 2. Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

4. The Osprey Pandion haliaetus

7. Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major

10. Great Tit Parus major

8. Siberian Jay Perisoreus infaustus

11. Willow tit Parus montanus

6. Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus

9. Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus

5. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos

3 http://www.dalarna.se/sv/Hotell/Fulufjallet1/National parken/Faglar/

6.1 BirdsThe symbol of Mt Fulufjll is the fearless and curious Siberian jay Perisoreus infaustus, who is often found at lower terrain. In the winter the Willow tit Parus montanus and the Great Tit Parus major make their entrance in the landscape. When summer comes so does the great spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos major. The characteristic sound of it picking tree trunks can be heard echoing for great dis-tances. In and around the many waters on the plateau you might see some Common greenshank Tringa nebularia or Common scoter Melanitta nigra on the hunt for fi sh. The bigger birds such as Black grouse Tetrao tetrix and Woodgrouse Tet-rao urogallus are usually found on close by roads or up in the trees3.

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11

43

The many lakes and small watercourses make for a great environment for bird-watching. In 2008 and 2010 the worlds biggest Falcon, Gyr-falcon Falco rusticolus, was seen to breed in the steep slopes of Njupeskr waterfall. This was the most Southern spotting of it breeding in 60 years. In 2008 bird-watchers reported seeing four young leave the nest and in 2010 another two tried their wings for the fi rst time. Owls such as the Tengmalms Owl Aegolius fu-nereus, also known as Boreal Owl in North America, is one of the more often seen crea-tures. It is a rather small owl which is usu-ally nocturnal, meaning that it is active dur-ing the night and sleeps during the day. This is not the case at this latitude though, where it is forced to hunt during daylight because of the very short nights in summer5. 4 http://www.dalarna.se/sv/Hotell/Fulufjallet1/National parken/Faglar/

Tengmalms Owl (Boreal Owl; AE) Aegolius funereus

44

6.2 Predators and other gameIt is in the fjll area with its vast land-scape you also fi nd the big predators such as Brown bear Ursus arctos, Wolverine Gulo gulo and Lynx Lynx lynx. Although these animals are not pronounced mountain animals and have been spotted all the way to the southern outer re-gions of Sweden, they have adapted well to the mountain terrain. Today one can fi nd bear and Lynx from the county of Vrmland and north-bound whereas the wolverine is restricted to the fjll environment with adjacent woods.The Wolverines have been put to fl ight or been killed off, leaving the mountain environment as their last outpost. The wolf Canis lupus lupus is only seen sporadically and concen-trated to the deeper woods on lower altitudes. While these animals are eligible game the arc-tic fox Vulpes lagopus is placed under the protection of law due to record low numbers. The arctic fox is one of the oldest mammals on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Smaller predators such as Red fox Vulpes vul-pes, Otter Lutra lutra, Marten Martes martes, Ermine Mustela ermine, Weasel Mustela nivalis and Norwegian lemming Lemmus lemmus can also

3. Eurasian wolf Canis lupus lupus

1. Brown bear Ursus arctos2. Wolverine Gulo gulo

4. Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus

7. Wild boar Sus scrofa 8. Norwegian lemming Lemmus lemmus

6. Red fox Vulpes vulpes5. Eurasian elk Alces alces

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

45 Eurasien lynx Lynx lynx

be seen. Among the insect feeders, smaller rodents and mice such as Shrewmouse Soricidae and the Eurasian water shrew, Neomys fodiens, are common while the The Northern Bat Epte-sicus nilssoni are rare in the mountain ter-rain.Elk Alces alces, Reindeer Rangifer tarandus and some occasional Roe deer Capreolus capreo-lus , are among the bigger herbivorous here. In winter time they usually seek lower alti-tudes driven by food shortage. The Europe-an brown hare Lepus europaeus stay all year, only occasionally descending towards the lower birch tree line for food. The smallest rodents stay put throughout the winter, taking shelter under the snow from cold and predators5. 5 http://www.fjallen.nu/fakta/djur.htm

46

6.3 Fish and watersThere are few fi sh that reach the cold lakes and brooks up on Mt Fulufjll. Basically it is Arctic char Salvelinus alpines, Salmon trout Salmo trutta and Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss which occupy these waters. On rare oc-casions one can fi nd Burbot Lota lota, but this cod fi sh relative does not like altitudes above 1000 meters. Like with other species of ani-mals, the amount of fi sh increase with lower altitude. On the lower regions fi sh such as grayling Thymallus thymallus, European white-fi sh Coregonus lavaretus, European perch Perca fl uviatilis and Pike Esox lucius occur. Fly-fi shing is a common activity and sometimes is the only way of catching the shrewd and cautious trout fi sh. There are also rowboats in the major lakes for better baitcasting. Fish-ing is an all- season activity if you have the strength to challenge the rough winter ascent and appurtenant weather for some winter pilk-ing.The mountain waters on Mt Fulufjll are ex-tremely pure and one can drink all water, ex-cept from stagnant water, without any treatment or particular care. Good water circulation and healthy lakes with relatively low acidifi cation make for well tasting water. Continuous rain-falls strain through bogs and lichens over the millennias deliver minerals, salt and breaks down toxins while doing so (Ibid).

47Arctic char Salvelinus alpines

48

7 REGIONAL HISTORY7.1 Early historyThe region has several remains from the Stone Age (roughly 2000 BC) and some graves from the Iron Age (400-600 AD). Several of the graves have been lost to landslides and human activity trough his-tory. The majority of the graves are old settle-ments which were not stationary but seasonal de-pendent on fi shing and hunting. 7.2 Early immigration In the end of the 16th century immigration of Finn-ish people grew strong in the region and reached its culmination in the 1630s. Older settlements of Finnish people already existed in the north parts. There were no place for them, was consen-sus, on the plains and valleys; instead they were shown to the deep woods. Here they could work the soils and build themselves a simple home, after getting the approval of the Swedish king and an offi cial letter of approval. As a new arriver you also got six free years free of duty. During the fi rst half of the 17th century a lot of opposition between the natives and the new-comers was a common reality. The Finnish va-grants often practiced burn-beating cultivation which irritated the expanding new-industrial so-ciety in their rapid growth, especially the min-ing industry. A further element of unrest was the drifting Finnish whose hunting and fi shing bordered to ruthless overexploitation. A lot of these problems were based in strong nationalism and racism. It went so far as to a total banning of the drifting Finnish in 1636 as an initia-tive from the Swedish parliament. (Kopparbergs ln 1978:4-7).

49

7.3 Types of pasture settlements The history of pasture settlement housing are mentioned in texts as organized communities from the 16th century. The pasture settlements are di-vided into three categories. First are the or-dinary pasture settlements, often situated on the mountains accommodating livestock and kept by farm hands and maids. These buildings were only visited by the more sophisticated house owners for haymaking or to get butter and cheese. The second type is the home pasture settlements which housed whole families for seasonal occupan-cy working with farming and haymaking. The Third and last is the half pasture settlements. These were close to home and the milk could be brought home daily or a few times a week. 7.3.1 Logger housingThere is some traditional logger housing left in the region. The loggers came from far and wide, often in early fall and stayed until spring. Home often laid tens of miles away, if they had any. The houses were low, simple log cabins with a central hearth and benches around.

3. Grave in Vindfrsberg, Dalarna county

1. Logger shed in Flyktan, Dalarna county2. Logger housing in Hedbodarna, Dalarna county

4. Traditional pasture settlement, Dalarna county

6. Logger housing in Hedbodarna, Dalarna county5. Logger housing in Hedbodarna, Dalarna county

1 2

3 4

5 6

50

7.4 Regional architectureThe single room cottage is intimately linked to the loggers and the most common house type from the 18th century and onwards. With a single big room, a smaller set of windows and a central chimney it brings a lot of charac-ter to the countryside. The single room cot-tage has historically been used a lot by the small people such as common farmers, work-ers, soldiers and bakers. It is used today as a vacation home. Small resources small measures, that seem to be characteristic for much of the built environment in the region. For the houses to survive as long as possible the roof is undeniably important. The region exhibits a wide range of roof types historically such as gable roofs, mansard roofs, hip roofs and shed roofs.

1

51

Main settlement in the beginning of the 10th century of the county of Dalarna, central Sweden

Main settlement in the begin-ning of the 14th century

Main settlement in the begin-ning today

2. Housing in Skattungbyn, Orsa, Dalarna county1. Housing in Skattungbyn, Orsa, Dalarna county

3. Pasture settlement in Flenarna, Dalarna county4. The house Lassasgrden, Dalarna county

2

3

4

7.5 Settlement over history

52

width/height = 1.00/1.10 height = 0.25

width = 0.10/0.15

height = 0.30/0.15

width = 0.20

height = 0.35/0.15

width = 0.18

height = 0.12

width = 0.18

width/height = 0.50/1.00

roof angle = 100 (40o)

width/length = 4.00/8.00


roof area = 38

windows proportions spacing of wooden panelvolume proportions

width/height = 1.00/1.50 height = 0.15

width = 0.20width/height = 0.80/1.00




roof area = 110






roof area = 95



roof angle = 90 (45o)130 (25o)



roof area = 87


width/height = -




roof area = 51

7.6 Local typologies diagram

8 MATERIALS8.1 InsulationInsulation is a key parameter when talking about a buildings performance. Whereas southern Swedish cul-tures tend to build heavy structures for a cooling effect the northern latitude calls for the opposite. The thermal conductivity of the material is very im-portant; it determines energy use and cost and ther-mal quality for the occupants. Choice of insulation material also determines important characteristics during a potential fi re and the environmental impact when created, used and discarded. These are all fac-tors that need to be considered for each specifi c project. One of the more common insulation materials is glass wool or rock wool. Having very low K-values, the measurement of thermal conductivity in materials, fi re resistance and a low price it is a good candi-date. The downside is its somewhat limited recycling qualities and relatively high manufacturing energy use. Further, the toxic character adds to the nega-tive side and glass wool and rock wool are not bio-degradable. It is important to stress that energy used in manufacturing is not the whole truth. If the thermal conductivity is instead high throughout the buildings lifespan, a substantial amount of en-ergy is wasted on saving some small amount of energy early on.8.1.1 Natural local products - WoolBrought on not only by demand for more natural build-ing products, but also by a surplus of wool world-wide, driving down prices, sheeps wool is a new old building insulation material. It has several positive characteristics; it naturally absorbs and releases moisture, it does not burn but melts away from an ignition source and extinguishes itself, it is biodegradable and has a impressive K-value mea-suring up to that of modern synthetic wool products such as glass wool. It also has very low embodied energy and can also be treated with organic preservatives (e.g. uric acid). A potential downside is a higher cost of up to double

54

of conventional materials depending on how it was obtained. The Dalarna county and close-by counties tend sheep by tradition and it could be harvested locally for the project. The wool industry creates vast amounts of waste wool that often is burned. This is an asset that could be put to work instead of just becoming waste (Woolly 1997:45). 8.1.2 Cellulose fi bre Cellulose fi ber insulation is made from processed waste paper, made into a fl uff that can be placed by hand or sprayed. It is usually treated with borax (sodium tetraborate) for fi re and insect resistance. Borax occurs naturally in deposits produced by the repeated evaporation of seasonal lakes and is mod-erately toxic. Suffi cient exposure though can cause respiratory and skin irritation. Cellulose fi ber is best used in loft and roof insulation and preferably not in positions where it might encounter moisture. Cellulose fi ber also has a low embodied energy and is biodegradable. The region has a big forest industry with pulp-making and wood production. The cellulose fi bers could hence be obtained locally. 8.1.3 PeatWhen looking at the site in specifi c, there are some alternative natural materials for insulation. First of all the abundance of peat is obvious in the bar-ren mountain environment. Peat has been used for insulation for centuries for many reasons. It is cheap, biodegradable, and accessible. The downside is the risk of attacks from mold and organisms if not treated and also a mediocre thermal conductiv-ity. The thermal quality is directly dependent on the amount of water bound in the peat. Dry peat has a rough K-value of 0,25 W/mK and between 0.43 and 0.67 W/mK when frozen. Would the peat become satu-rated and then freeze the K-value rises to a dis-appointing 1.49 W/mK. The conclusion is that when dry, it is a relatively good candidate but its sen-sitivity to moisture makes it bad in the environ-ment (Ibid 45-46).

56

Foamed GlassCorkCompressed Straw Slabscellulose Fibers

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Insulation Materials

Use$

Glass WoolPhenolic Foams HFCS, HCFCSPolystyrene - Expanded

Wool Wood-Wool Slabs

Source: Woolley, T. 1997. Green Building Handbook, Volume 1. E & FN Spon, Taylor & Francis group. Cornwall, page 42.

Thermal conductivity, commonly known as the K-value, is a measurement of how much heat will move through a given amount of a material

Verniculite (Expanded)Urea-Formaldehyde FoamSoftboard + BitumenSoftboardRock WoolRigid Urcthane Foam HFCS, HCFCSPolystyrane - Extruded

Polystyrene FoamGlass WoolRock WoolPolyurethane Foam

MaterialK Value(W/mK)

Phenolic FoamWoolCellulose Fibers

Compressed Straw SlabsWood-wool SlabsSoftboardFoamed GlassVermiculite (expanded)CorkboardUrea-formaldehyde Foam

CopperStone (granite)Brickwork (common)GlassAerated ConcreteDiatomaceous Earth BrickTimber (pine)ThatchSome Other Materials for Comparison

0.033-0.0350.032-0.040.03-0.040.024-0.039

0.0360.0370.037

0.1010.0930.0550.050-0.0520.047-0.0580.0400.038

4002.91.151.050.180.1410.1380.072

16.77.2n/an/a

1.0n/a3.1

10,411.8n/an/a8.79.51.04.98.2

??

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?

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?

?

?

HFCS, HCFCS

Key

[Blank] No significant impactpositive impactUnknown

worst or biggest impactnext biggest impactlesser impactsmall but stillsignificant impact

57

8.1.4 TimberSustainability has been on the agenda for timber for quite some time. Although timber is grown in nature and hence is a natural, biodegradable product, few manu-facturers can be said to be truly sustainable. Many variables go into the equation. First, there is the manner in which the timber was produced and harvested. A jungle of certifi cation criteria has arisen in an ef-fort to better label its environmental impact. If cut down in an unfi t way, the process can affect the ecosys-tem and the soil stability. Ethical aspects for workers and working methods can also be included. Second, the transportation and processing of the timber pose risk of toxic treatments and large energy consumption.A good rule is to use locally produced timber with as little added toxins as possible. In this way the wood can go back to nature in the way it was intended while saving energy, and the environment, with minimal trans-portation. 8.1.5 PineThis softwood can be found in abundance in the region and harvested in a low impact way. It has a moderate resistance in permeability, a low price and is suit-able for interior joinery and construction. The heart-wood has a natural fungi toxin called pinosylvin which protect from fungal infection. This also makes the heartwood suitable for window frames and other exterior components. 8.1.6 FirFir is also softwood with similar qualities as pine wood. It is suitable for interior and exterior joinery and structural components and plywood making. As with pine, fi r can be found in abundance in the region.8.1.7 OakOak is a little for Sweden what cedar or mahogany are for North America. It is extremely resistant perme-ability wise, has long durability and work well in damp situations. The coarse texture makes the wood a good candidate for heavy construction and joinery. Oak does occur in Dalarna county, although not to a great ex-

tent, and could be harvested and refi ned in a sustain-able way. 8.1.8 BirchFlooring, plywood and fi newood components are made from this hard wood. The birch quantity on Mt Fulufjll is extensive and several variations of Birch can be found and harvested locally. 8.1.9 FiberboardsFiberboards are usually manufactured of materials such as wood pulp, fl ax and sugar cane. The boards are con-structed by mechanically breaking down solid wood into fi bers which are felted and reconstructed under heat and pressure. Most types of fi berboards do not contain any resin binder, instead the primary bond usually derive from the inherent adhesive properties of felt fi bers. Other board products like plywood, medium density fi ber-boards (MDF) and cement bound boards contain bonding agents such as urea formaldehyde which is toxic and can-not be broken down in a safe way in nature. Using hard boards of the fi ber type is a good choice from an energy, health and recycling perspective. Boards also have the advantage of their plane element action where they lock and stabilize the structure effi ciently in relation to material used. Hardboards are best used for sheathing, as fl oor underlay or as fl oor surfaces and for stressed skin and roof panels. 8.1.10 Swedish Eco PlywoodThis new material has several technical advantages; it is environmentally friendly, the special cellulose is treated with a natural substance, a soya based innox-ious green chemical, before it is pressed together and heated, no hazardous glue or plastic folie is needed. The quality of the product is said to be very even, and the panel can be made even thinner than the plywood on the market today, with the same strength. The entrepre-neurs behind the invention, Adolf Sellgren and Ulf Hen-ricson from Dorotea, Sweden, have founded the company Swedish Plywoodsubstitue AB.

58

8.2 MasonryThe strength, durability and inert nature of bricks, blocks and stone are the qualities that make them so useful as building materials. These qualities also make them readily re-usable in their original form. The environmental impact lies in the production and transportation pro-cess. Low maintenance and long durability make up for this early input. When looking at Mt Fulufjll and its surround-ings it is clear that brick and concrete blocks are uncommon commodities, instead it is the red wooden houses with stone foundations one sees in plenty fold. Up on the plateau, the abundance of bedrock of jotnic Dala sandstone is clearly evident. The stone is already cut in manageable sizes and easily obtained. It could be used for foundation work but this implies a more sta-tionary building than might be intended. Using the stone in a structural way, in the fa-cade for example, is a possibility. Poor ther-mal conductivity makes for a cold winter howev-er. With a K-value 90 times higher that of glass wool the energy input would be substantial and very costly. Sand and gravel as masonry materi-als can also be found on site, but not in pure form and in greater quantity.

Perforated ClaySoft mud/StocksFlettonsOrdinary Clay

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Production

Bricks

Use$

Calcium-SilicateRe-Used

ALERT!

Concrete Blocks

ArtificialReclaimed


ImportedLocalStone

Composite InsulatingAeratedLightweight Aggregate

Sand and GravelMasonry CementOP Pulverised Fuel AshOP Blastfurnace CementHydraulic LimePure LimeOrdinary Portland CementMortar Ingredients

CFCs

Haz. Waste

Ordinary Dense Blocks

1.01.0

?

0.81.0

0.91.4

1.43.2 ?3.2

1.43.2 ?0.3

n/an/an/an/an/an/an/a

??

Key



60

8.3 Roofi ngOf all the components which make up a build-ing, roofi ng plays an especially critical role, performing important functions of insulation from heat and cold, protection from rain and wind, and the provision of shade. Roofi ng must withstand extreme conditions strong winds, temperature swings, long term exposure to ul-tra-violet light and extreme precipitation the precise criteria depending on the climate in which it is to be used.So what nature-friendly materials can be found in the region by tradition? First there are the wood roofs with either bare wood, shin-gles, clay tile or natural slate. Thatched roofs are rare here, being a more south-ern Swedish occurrence. Planted roofs can be traced back centuries to simpler forest housing and in the regional pasture archi-tecture. A green roof on Mt Fulufjll would use the resource of peat, lichen and smaller herb plants that are highly adapted to the lo-cal conditions. They have rather shallow root systems and thrive in the poor, sandy soils in the landscape. The peat would give addi-tional insulation and the surface would cre-ate spaces for plants and insects, provide food for birds and even a habitat for small mammals. The additional weight of the soil and necessary protecting layers must be con-sidered when dimensioning the structural sup-port.

Concrete TileCement Based Tile

Natural SlateClay Tile

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Production

Natural Tiles

Use$

Fiber Cement Tile

ALERT!

Glass FiberSynthetic FiberCellulose Fiber

Steel SheetGalvanizedAlu. Coated


Metal sheet

Glass Fiber MatOrganic/Cellulose MatAsphalt Shingles

FerrocementPolymer Modified Cement Slates

Lead SheetAluminium SheetStainless Steel Sheet

AcrylicPolyesterPVCAdditional Impact

of Organic Coa-tings for Steel Sheet

H.D.H.D.H.D.

H.D.

Haz. Waste?Haz. Waste?Haz. Waste?

Haz. Waste?

Haz. Waste?

Resin Bonded (reconstructed) Slate

0.6

2-4.6

0.8-2

11

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0.7

0.6

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1-1.6

2-3.7

1.42.4

??

Energy use ratings are for energy per m2 roofing, rather than energy per unit weight.

Key



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8.4 Window framesDurability is an important issue when choosing window frames for a building. Aluminum or uPVC are common material and often seen as the only durable alterna-tive. It is true that softwood window frames and poorly designed and or in-stalled windows can pose a big problem. These wooden alternatives are often also treated with toxic conservatives and paint. This is not a necessity.Durable temperate hardwood such as local oak, which can, with suitable protection in design, be used without painting or preservatives, is one of the greenest options. This even more so if sourced from well-managed forestry operations on a local scale. As the diagram shows, production energy is not everything. If low production energy is followed by an extensive maintenance demand, aluminum frames might be a better solution. Oak offers a low energy input and minimal maintenance while esthetically being very beautiful (Ibid 123).

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Un-certified Temperate Softwood

Steel + paintu-PVCAluminium + Paint

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Non-Tmber Windows

Use$

+Plant Based Paint+Synthetic Solvent-borne Paint

ALERT!

HFCS, HCFCS+Synthetic Water-borne Paint


Certified Well-Managed Timber

+Synthetic Water-borne Paint+Synthetic Solvent-borne Paint+Plant Based Paint

+Synthetic Water-borne Paint+Synthetic Solvent-borne Paint+Plant Based Paint

HFCS, HCFCSUn-certified tropical Hardwood

2.31.02.4

?

2.42.02.1

???

2.82.73.1

Key



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8.5 GlazingWindows are important in the sense that they allow daylight and views into the building. In new houses windows typically account for 15-30 percent of the total heat loss in winter and overheating in summer. In well-designed passive solar buildings, windows can be en-ergy neutral or even net energy producers. Good glazing also can keep unwanted sounds at bay. Glazing is a complex issue and very much de-pendent on specifi c circumstances. Having a `state of the art low-e glazing unit may save a lot on heat energy needed in winter-time while being over-effi cient s

Cradle 2 Cradle - Environmental Research Center on Mt Fulufjäll

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Transcript of Cradle 2 Cradle - Environmental Research Center on Mt Fulufjäll