PowerPoint Presentation

Course Development & Presentation SkillsInstructorTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduTerminal ObjectiveUpon completion of this module, the participant will be able to understand how to adequately prepare a lesson and evaluation. As well as understand the characteristics necessary to present the lesson. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu2Enabling ObjectivesDifferentiate between adult and youth learner needsIdentify the three domains of learningIdentify three of the five factors affecting student learningDescribe the four phases of the teaching-learning processPrepare learning objectives based on the three main componentsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEnabling Objectives (cont.)Apply Blooms Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain to learning object action verbsDescribe the five stages of lesson plan developmentIdentify the six methods of instructionDescribe the six popular evaluation methodsIdentify the types and benefits of instructional media

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu4Adult Teaching-Learning ProcessEducation:Activity undertaken to effect changes in KSAs or behaviorsLearning:Act or process by which KSAs or behavioral change is acquiredAdult Classroom Environment:Both the instructor and learning are accountable for the education/learning processTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEducation is an activity undertaken or initiated to effect changes in knowledge, attitude, skill, and/or behavior of individuals.A. The educator is the agent of change.B. The educator provides the stimulus and reinforcing for learningC. The educator designs activities to stimulate change and reinforce learning.Learning is the act or process by which knowledge, attitudes, skills and/or behavioral change is acquired.A. Learning emphasizes the person in whom the change occurs or is expected to occur.B. This result may be brought about through purposefully educational or training efforts on his part, purposefully educational effort on the part of an instructor, a by-product of a random activity, or through an activity designed to achieve essentially non-educational purposes. C. A person who is learning is shaped and led.D. Learning is a process of discovery1. Learners learn best when learning by doing2. Instructors should utilize interactive procedures, such as dialoguesExample showing the KSAs and Behavioral change experienced through learning:Knowledge: Research shows that cigarettes are harmful to your health.Attitude: As a result of this knowledge, we may change our attitude about smoking.Skills: Using problem-solving skills, we may develop methods to help give-up smoking. Behavioral Change: Short Term Chew nicotine gum in place of smokingLong Term Completely give up smoking

In the adult classroom environment, both the instructor and the learner are actively and interactively accountable for the education/learning process. 5Adult vs. Youth LearnerYouth:Pedagogy Teacher has full responsibility on:What is taught, and how and when it will be taughtAdult:Andragogy Adults are active participants instead of passive receivers of informationAdult learners are more self-directed and need to be interdependentRemember: Campus Law Enforcement will present to both youth and adult students in the communityTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduYouth: Until the early 20th Century, the organization of education systems was based on a teacher-directed theory called pedagogy.Pedagogy comes from the Greek paid meaning child and agogus meaning leader of.1. Leader of children, or 2. Teaching of childrenTheory of teaching and learning based on model that evolved in European church schools between the seventh and twelfth centuries.Pedagogical Model assigns the teacher full responsibility for all decisions on what is taught, and how and when it will be taughtThe learner has a submissive role, following the teachers instructionsYouth learners are more dependent on the structure of the teaching processAdult: Shortly after World War I, the exploration of adults viewed as uniquely different types of learners beganThe theory of teaching adults was termed andragogyIt is believed a German teacher first used this term to describe the teaching method of the Greek philosopher, Plato.1. Plato was known to ask questions of, rather than lecture his students2. This required the students to participate more actively in the learning processAdults began to be viewed as active participants in a problem-solving process rather than passive receivers of information.1. The outcome of the problem solving was applied to specific learning and task-oriented needs.2. Andragogical, based on the learners current needs, the classroom is a democracy where the responsibility of learning is shared by the instructor and the learnerAdult learners are more self-directed and need to be interdependent1. Define themselves more in terms of life experiences than youth2. Expect their experiences to be respected and considered by the instructor in the learning process3. Self-concept has changed dramatically since adolescence4. Resistance and resentment may occur if not permitted to function as an adult during the learning process

6InstructorInstructor:Expert in specific topic areaManages the learning environmentFacilitates the learning processGuide learning processAct as a resource

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduAn instructor is an individual who is an expert in a specific topic area and who has developed the skills needed to structure and sequence his knowledge to an audience in an instructional setting. A. The instructor manages the learning environment. 1. Manage to dominate or take charge of; to control 2. Keeps class discussion on topic or ensures relevanceB. The instructor facilitates the learning process1. Facilitate to act as a resource; to assist in the process2. Provides opportunity for learners to make use of their own experiencesC. Function of the instructor is to guide the learning process and act as a resource1. Classroom leader that manages the learners2. Uses highly non-directive instructional delivery rather than classic pedagogical approach

7When Should Instructor Control Activities of the Learner?Three situations when instructor should control the activities of the learnerTeaching step-by-step process w/ no deviation (e.g., CPR, first aid)When safety and security is paramount (e.g., firearms instruction, pursuit driving)When classroom discussion gets out of hand or off topicTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduList three (3) situations when it is appropriate for the instructor to direct and/or control the activities of the learner. 1. When a step-by-step process, with no deviation from the process, is critical to the outcome. Example: CPR, First Aid 2. When the safety and security of all participants in the learning process are at stake. Example: firearms instruction, pursuit driving 3. When a class discussion gets out of hand, gets off the topic and it is important to return the discussion to the original topic

8Optimum Conditions for LearningAs an instructor you should:Give opportunities to understand benefits of trainingProvide relevant examples and opportunity for applicationEnsure environment provides optimum learning opportunitiesAllow time for questions, discussion, feedback, and follow-upTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduAn efficient learning environment is one in which the learner feels confident and non-threatened1. Adults should have a positive attitude toward learningA. Let learners know you will accommodate their needs and limitations as much as possible 2. Adults should be inspired to learnA. Give opportunity to understand the direct benefits of the training3. Adult learners should understand how they can use what they learnA. Understand how to apply the learning to their own work or life situationB. Provide relevant examples and opportunity for application4. Environment should provide optimum learning opportunitiesA. Setting should be convenient and comfortableB. Setting should accommodate your mode of content delivery5. Learners need to participate during each class sessionA. Psychological environment should be as comfortable as the physical environmentB. Ensures that the learner gets the most return from instruction6. Provide learning optionsA. Teaching method should be based on learning objectiveB. If learning objective states demonstrate, teach at that level7. Give adults opportunities to communicateA. Allow time for questions, discussion, periodic feedback, and follow-upB. Provides instructor with opportunity to observe student progress8. Keep anxiety (yours and theirs) to a minimumA. Conditions that make anxietya. Importance of learning soughtb. Classroom filled with peers/colleaguesc. Classroom with managers and supervisorsd. Previous classroom learning experiences

9Domains of LearningCognitive learningRecall or recognition of knowledge and development of intellectual abilities & skillsExamples: Math, science, history of LE, biology, etc.

Psychomotor SkillLearning that involves physical abilitiesExamples: Defensive tactics, firearms, word processingTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduDuring this unit of instruction the student will obtain a working knowledge of the three (3) domains or modes of learning and their impact on the learning process. Define the term cognitive learning. Cognitive learning deals with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and skills. Examples:Math, science, biology, history of law enforcement Define the term psychomotor skill". Also known as kinesthetic learningPsychomotor skills deal with those learning objectives that involve physical activities (such as body movements, hand-eye coordination) in the learning process. Examples:Word processing, drafting, auto mechanics, defensive tactics, firearms 10Domains of Learning (cont.)Affective LearningChanges in interest, attitudes, valuesEx: Ethics, communicative skills, LE role in society, etc.

List two examples of topics that are effectively learned in the cognitive mode

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduDefine the term affective learning. Affective learning deals with changes in interest, attitudes, values, and the development of appreciations and adequate adjustment. Examples:Ethics, sociology, communicative skills, police officer's role in society, human relations training.The affective domain includes the following issues or conceptsA. Sensitivity to human factor in the classroom (Classroom climate)B. Human valuesC. Human relationsD. Emotional conduct and expressionE. InterestsF. Social attitudesG. ValuesAffective predispositionsA. Likes and dislikes directed towards the topic/subjectB. Likes and dislikes directed toward the instructor, including positive or negative preconceptions about that instructorC. Positive or negative preconceived notions about the subjectD. Circumstances surrounding presence in the classE. Awareness of hidden agenda of social and affective climate created by interaction between teacher and student (example: difference in rank between instructor and student)

List two examples of topics that are more effectively learned in the cognitive modeExamples: Penal Code, Code of Criminal Procedure, etc.11Factors Affecting Student LearningFactors of instructor affecting learningPersonal qualitiesCommunicative skillsKnowledge of subjectThorough preparationProfessionalismInstructor/student interactionTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are several factors related to Campus Law Enforcement that can affect learning for their students. Personal qualities of the instructor (e.g., personal appearance and hygiene, courtesy, self-control, tact, voice, enthusiasm, and appreciation of subject), communicative skills (e.g., appropriate language, correct use of punctuation, grammar and spelling), knowledge of subject (the Campus Law Enforcement must have a working knowledge of the subject to effectively teach anybody), the instructor must also be thoroughly prepared and professional at all times, and effective interaction between the Campus Law Enforcement and the student12How is this instructor affecting the students learning?

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduFactors Affecting Student Learning (cont.)Physiological factorsAmount of sleepPsychological factorsStress levelsSelf-confidenceExperiential factorsPrior knowledgePrior trainingTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduNow that youve been introduced to factors related to the Campus Law Enforcement instructor that affect the learning process the factors specific to students should be explored. There are six predominant factors to be discussed, these include: physiological, psychological, experiential, readiness, and environmental factors. The physiological factors include the amount of sleep a student gets, as well as the students diet and nutrition, and overall health. While the diet, nutrition, and overall health arent factors that the Campus Law Enforcement instructor can influence, he/she can minimize the amount of work in the evenings for the students. This could assure that students wont be required to stay up late working on homework.

The psychological factors of the student that can influence learning include the stress the student is under, his or her emotional state, and the amount of self-confidence the student has.

The experiential factors that affect how well as student learns are the students prior knowledge and training. This is somewhat self-explanatory. The more training and knowledge a student has beforehand with affect the amount of information he/she will learn from the instruction. 14Factors Affecting Student Learning (cont.)Readiness factorsMotivationAbility to concentrateEnvironmental factorsLightingInstructional aidsTemperatureTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe readiness factors of the student that affect learning include the students prior learning, motivation, ability to concentrate and any learning barriers he or she has. The first three are self-explanatory. The learning barriers that a student may have vary tremendously. These can include ADD, dyslexia, etc.

There are six environmental factors that affect the learning process for students. These include the temperature of the room, lighting, the quality of the sound, the way in which the room is arranged, and present distractions, and the instructional aids used. If you control for some of these factors the others will work themselves out. For instance, if you carefully arrange the room distractions will be minimized and sounds quality maximized. 15Phases of the Teaching-Learning ProcessPreparation

Presentation

Application

EvaluationTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu16Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Preparation of instructorReview objectivesConsult/study all reference materialsEvaluate factors affecting instructorsEx: Available time, facilities, etc.Rehearse the lesson

Preparation of StudentMotivate student (How can you do this?)Develop understanding of material

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduIn order to prepare for a lesson you should first review the course objectives to keep yourself on track. Consult and study all the provided reference materials to ensure that you are teaching the most up-to-date material. Evaluate factors that can affect the instructors, for example: the amount of time available for the course, the conditions in which the training will occur, if there will be assistant instructors to space out the work-load, and the equipment and facilities. For instance, if the computer only accepts older PowerPoints, you may have to save your PowerPoint in an older version. Lastly, you should rehearse the lesson. Dont go into the course without having rehearsed in hopes of winging itit wont turn out well.

You should also prepare students for the presentation. You can do this by motivating17Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Presentation phaseIntroduction phaseBody of materialConclusion

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe presentation phase encompasses introducing the material to the student by giving an overview. Then the Campus Law Enforcement should go into more detail with the body of the material. Lastly, the conclusion phase summarizes what was taught before moving toward the application phase of the lesson. The presentation phase is important because it lays the groundwork and base knowledge for the students before the application phase. 18Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Application PhaseDefined as: Developing skills or techniques and applying knowledge to problem solving in a way that allows a student to learn while doing

Why is this important to learning?Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe application phase consists of applying learned skills and techniques to problem solving. There are several different ways to accomplish this that will be discussed in the upcoming slides.

Instructor: Ask the students when they believe this is important. Does it make it easier to learn?19Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Using application phase to reinforce cognitive learningTrial and error thinking (ex: applying penal code to real world examples)

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduOne use of the application phase is to reinforce cognitive learning. Recall that cognitive learning involves recalling information like the penal code or facts of a case. One of the most efficient ways to reinforce this style of learning Is to use trial and error thinking. This method involves having the student apply information to real world examples. For instance, instead of excepting students to regurgitate the penal code, having them apply it to real world scenarios involving a crime will reinforce when and how to use certain codes. 20Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Using application phase to reinforce psychomotor/skill learningGain a skill concept, develop the skill, practice the skill

Skills are best developed by:Spending 10% of teaching time telling student about the skill25% of the teaching time demonstrating skill65% of the teaching time in guided practice

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduRecall that psychomotor skills require learning a new physical ability. In the sense of Campus Law Enforcement this would include firearms training, physically handling students, defensive tactics, and so on. The application phase for psychomotor skills requires more hands on time for the student.

An easy formula for time is that 10% of the time should be spent teaching the skillthat is lecturing. 25% of the time should be used demonstrating the skill to the student without the student being actually involved. This allows the student to see how it actually is done. Then 65% of the time should involve the student actually performing the skill in a guided practice.

For example, if you are teaching students a defensive tactics block in a rape prevention course you should lecture on the tactics for 10% of the time, show the students how to defend themselves with a partner that is not a student for 25% of the allotted time, and then guide them step-by-step starting with the most simple defensive tactic and moving to the more advanced with the remaining 65% of the time. 21Phases of the Teaching-Learning Process (cont.)Evaluation PhaseMeasurement of students level of retention/understandingThree elements of evaluation phasePrepare an evaluation instrumentAdminister an exam or performance reviewEvaluate the resultsWhy is this important? What is gained by evaluating what you teach?Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe evaluation phase of the teaching-learning process is the final phase. It is utilized to measure students level of understanding. There are three basic elements of the evaluation phase, which will be covered in more detail in later slides. The first element is to prepare the instrument. There are several different methods of evaluation and you should choose the one that best suits the material covered. You have to next administer the exam either throughout the lesson or at the very end. Lastly, you should evaluate the results of the evaluation for understanding.

Instructor: Ask the students why they believe it is important to evaluate performance and what is gained. Inform them that the three elements will be thoroughly discussed later in the lesson. 22Learning Goal vs. Learning ObjectiveLearning goal broad imprecise descriptionTells students what they will learn overallTells what the instruction is about

Learning objective: Statements that describe specific steps required to reach goalsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduLearning goals and learning objectives should be used in developing courses and instruction in order to let the student know what they are getting into. A learning goal is a broad, imprecise description of what the overall lesson is about. The learning objective is more specific. Learning objectives describe the specific steps and things that a student can expect during the course. The steps spelled out will inform the student how to reach the overreaching goals of the lesson. Learning objectives are detailed through the next few upcoming slides. 23Learning ObjectivesA LO is an exact description of:A measurable student performance, To a precise standard, Under well-defined conditions

LOs tell the student exactly:What they must do to pass the course,How they must do it, andUnder what conditionsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduLearning objectives consists of measurable student performances to precise standards under well-defined conditions. So, essentially the LOs tell the student exactly what they must do to pass the course, how they must do it, and under what conditions. 24Learning Objectives (cont.)Reasons for using LOsStudents use LOs to know expectations Instructors use LOs to:Show relevance of training, Evaluate student progressMotive students to learn, etc.Provide foundation for selection of instructional materials, content, and methodsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are several reasons why LOs are utilized. First students use LOs to know what is expected out of them in the course. Instructors use LOs to show the students why the training is important, evaluate their progress in terms of completing the LOs, and even to motivate the students to learn. If the students know what is expected they will be more motived to learn the materialLOs also provide a foundation for the selection of instructional material, content, and delivery methods. This means the instructor will know how to deliver the material and what types of materials will be needed for the course. 25Learning Objective (cont.)Reasons for using LOs continued:Provide a set of guidelines or directionAssist the Campus Law Enforcement in evaluating whether or not objective has been achieved. Provide students with a means to organize their efforts toward achieving objectives

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduLearning objectives also provide a set of guidelines to the lesson, as well as direction. The LOs keep the course on track and topic in this sense.The Campus Law Enforcement officer can also evaluate if certain requirements have been achieved by referencing the LOs. LOs also help students organize their effort toward achieving the course objectives. This is because a student can look at the learning objectives and see what areas he/she is weak in and which he/she is already strong in. The student can then focus their effort more toward areas that need a vast amount of improvement. 26Construction of Learning ObjectivesThree main components of LOsMeasurable performancesPrecise standardsWell defined conditionsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduAs mentioned earlier, the three main components of learning objectives are measureable performances, precise standards, and well defined conditions. Each will now be discussed further. 27Construction of Learning Objectives (cont.)PerformanceState what you want the student to doMust be able to see or hear it, orMust be able to see the results if performance is mental or too fast (e.g., shooting or math)Should be as close as possible to what they will actually do on the jobTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduA performance is the statement of what the student needs to do. The performance should be observable, that is you should be able to hear or see the performance in real time or see the results of the performance if it is too fast, such as shooting lessons. The performance should be closely related to actual job duties. There isnt much point making students cross-stich if they never will do it in real-life. 28Construction of Learning Objectives (cont.)Performance (cont.)Use precise words that describe something measureableDont use vague terms (e.g., know, enjoy, believe, etc.)Use terms or verbs that measure performance through action verbs (e.g., write, identify, sort, etc.)Different levels of performance existBlooms Taxonomy of the Cognitive DomainTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduMake sure that you use very precise words to describe something that can be measurable. Dont use vague terms that mean different things to different peoples (e.g., know, enjoy, believe, and so on). Use terms or verbs that can measure performance through the use of action verbs (e.g., write, identify, sort, etc.).

Instructor: Give students handout of action verbs so they can go over them in conjunction with Blooms Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain. 29Blooms Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduAs the instructor you should choose the level of performance that allows you to determine if the student learned well enough to perform as you expect.

In In 1956, Benjamin Bloom created the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain.Labeled six (6) level of performance. 1. Knowledge: remembering previously learned material, from specific facts to complete theories (you remember)Comprehension: grasping the meaning of the material (you understand).Application: using learned material in new situations (you use).Analysis: breaking ideas/concepts down into component parts (you se the important parts).Synthesis: putting parts together to form a new whole (you put it all together).Evaluation: judging the value of material for a given purpose (you judge).b.Bloom suggests action verbs to be used in Learning Objectives that fall under each level of performance.

30Construction of Learning Objectives (cont.)Standard minimum level of acceptable performanceTells student how well, how much, how long, etc.Pass/fail line You must define the standard so students know what is expected of themExample 1: define 7 out of 10Example 2: identify 4 parts ofTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduStandard. How well the learner must perform in order to be considered acceptable.A. The Standard is the minimum level of acceptable performance.B.Tells the student how well, how much, how far, how long, etc.C.This is the pass/fail line; anything below this level means the student fails.D.YOU MUST DEFINE A STANDARD SO STUDENTS KNOW WHAT IS EXPECTED OF THEM.1.Without a standard, students may assume they must perform error free.2. The standard sets the bar for the student.Example: The student will run one and one half miles in 15 minutes or less.

31Construction of Learning Objectives (cont.)Conditions circumstances under which the performance occursCan be environmental, physical or mentalCan be omitted if student is performing under normal conditionsExample:The student will run one mile in 10 minutes or less carrying a shotgun and wearing combat boots. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduConditions are the circumstances under which the performance occurs. The conditions can be environmental, physical or mental in nature. They should only be included if the student will be expected to perform under conditions that are not considered normal. Essentially, a normal condition would be in a classroom answering questions on a test. The example listed shows the condition underlined. The student running is the performance and the condition under which the student has to run is carrying a shotgun and wearing combat boots. However, if the student only needed to identify correct answers there would not need to be a condition in the learning objective. It doesnt make sense to say the student will correctly identify four of the five correct answers while sitting in the air conditioning. 32Examples of LOsUsing a dictionary, the student will be able to define 7 out of 10 words on a list.Action verb: defineCondition: using a dictionaryStandard: 7 out of 10 words on a list

Working in groups, participants will be able to identify the 4 parts of a speechAction verb: identifyCondition: working in groupsStandard: 4 parts of a speechTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduHere are two examples of learning objectives and the breakdown of the LO to their action verb, condition, and standard. You can see how the condition could be left off of these if it wasnt important. For instance, if the students had to define terms from memory, the condition of using a dictionary could be left off. Also, if the participants were to work individually the condition of working in groups could be left off. 33Understanding EvaluationWhich of the following LOs use valid action verbs?Understand the principles of defensive tactics.Name the 5 levels of the use of force continuum found in department policy 01.20.05.25.Analyze the facts of an internal affairs investigation and recommend a disposition.Completely disassemble, clean, and re-assemble the Colt Government Model pistol.Appreciate the environment factors that lead to high crime rates.Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu2, 3, and 4 use valid action verbs. Name, analyze, disassemble, clean, and re-assemble are precise words. Understand and appreciate are vague. 34Understanding Evaluation (cont.)Write 3 LOs using the 3 componentsRemember:Be brief and to the pointUse an action verb that is specificMake LOs realisticMake LOs supportive and consistent with overall lesson/material being taught. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduTips for writing Learning Objectives:1. Be brief and to the point; include only one major item in each learning objective.2. Use an action verb to describe the expected result of the training.3. Specify a time frame or target date for completion.4. Specify limits in the use of resources (manuals, people, equipment, etc.).5. Make Learning objectives realistic in terms of previous performance, total responsibilities, and existing resources.6. Include enough challenge in an improvement or change objective to make it worth formulating.7. Write learning objectives that are supportive and consistent with the overall lesson or material taught.8. Choose areas over which the student has control or influence.

35Lesson PlansCritical for effective training

When written correctly, it is all an instructor needsContains details about studentsList supplies and materials needs for trainingMost importantly, contains lesson contentTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduHave you attended a training course where the instructor seemed unorganized?

Was there something missing from the presentation?

Was the instructor hard to follow?1. Learning objectives were not covered.2. Examination failure rate was high.If so, the instructor did not have a lesson plan or had a poorly developed lesson plan.

A lesson plan is a critical part of any effective training program.When correctly written, the lesson plan will have all the information the instructor needs to conduct a quality training program.1. It will contain details about students.2. It will list supplies and materials needed to conduct the training.3. Most importantly, it will contain lesson content. A lesson plan is a document that sets forth specific information the instructor is to teach and the student is to learn.A. The lesson plan sets forth the objectives the student is to obtain.B. The lesson plan sets forth the content the student will learn.C. The lesson plan sets forth the means or methods by which the student will achieve the objectives and learn the content of the course.

The purpose of the lesson plan is to allow the instructor to design and develop the course.A. It forces the instructor to think.B. It helps guide the instructor in the presentation of the course content and key points.C. It ensures that the students receive the information they need to meet the learning objectives of the training course.D. It ensures the instructor plans the lesson in advance.E. A well developed lesson plan makes it easier for another instructor to present the course.F. It documents the classroom activities and materials taught for legal purposes.

36Lesson Plans - ComponentsThere are 18 components to a lesson plan, including:Time allottedPerformance ObjectivesEquipment and supplies neededReferences

Go through lesson plan handout and identify all the components

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduHand out blank lesson plan and go over the components:

Course Title identifies the course to be taught.Lesson Title identifies the specific lesson that is to be taught.Instructor identifies the person or persons who will instruct the course.Prepared By identifies the person or persons who prepared the lesson plan.Date identifies the date the lesson plan was developed and written. It serves as a baseline for lesson plan updates. This is important to include.Time Allotted identifies the amount of time required to adequately present the lesson. It may also indicate where the particular lesson fits into the overall curriculum.Target Population identifies the general description of the students for whom the lesson was designed. It may include a description of job duties, work facilities, or job experience.Number of Students indicates the maximum or minimum number of students for which the lesson can be effectively presented.Space Requirements Indicates the size of the room, number of rooms, and/or seating arrangements necessary to effectively teach the lesson.Performance Objectives a statement describing the intended outcome(s) of the lesson in terms of the performance expected from the student.Evaluation Procedure states how the students progress toward the learning objectives will be measured (written test, oral test, demonstration, etc.). Evaluation procedure should provide documentation for all learning objectives.Method/Techniques lists all training methods/techniques (lecture, group discussion, role play, etc.) that will be used in the lesson delivery.Training Material lists all the training aids (overheads, PowerPoint presentation, transparencies, videos, student handouts, etc.) that will be needed to instruct the lesson.Equipment and Supplies lists any and all equipment (computer, flip charts, dry erase board, markers, projectors, sound system, etc.) needed to instruct the lesson.Student Materials lists any materials the student will need to bring with them or will need to be supplied to the student for the course.References this is a very important area. It documents the resources used in the research for the course. This documentation can be useful in litigation or justification of the lesson and material to your agency.Presentation Guide where you write the body of your lesson plan.Notes to Trainer where you write any instructional notes for the delivery of information during the lesson.

37Lesson Plans DevelopmentFive stages of lesson plan developmentIntroductionPresentationApplicationSummaryEvaluationTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu38Lesson Plans Development (cont.)Introduction Grabs attention of the studentPrepares student for the lessonExplains lesson and its importanceMotivates student and spurs interestIdentifies and explains LOsSets the tone for the class and the lessonTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe Introduction Stage how will the lesson be introduced to the student.A. Grabs the attention of the student for the course material.

B. Prepares the student for the lesson material and puts them at ease. C. Explains the lesson material and its importance to the student.D. It helps motivate the student and create an interest in the course.E. It identifies and explains the learning objectives to the student in order that they know what will be expected.F. The introduction sets the tone for the class and the lesson.G. It ties the lesson topic to the student and their on-the-job tasks and performance.

39Lesson Plans Development (cont.)PresentationUse simple language one step at a timeDo not include too much informationInclude students in lesson, avoid just talkingRemember pedagogy?Give reasons and examplesGive feedback to students participation

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe Presentation Stage follows the introduction to the lesson knowledge of adult learning theories should be incorporated into the lesson plan.

Tips for a good, thorough presentation:

A. Use simple language. Explain, demonstrate, or instruct one step at a time.B. Do not include too much information at one time. Give students time to digest what was taught. C. Dont do all the talking. Develop questions for student input. Get student participation.D. Have students tell how and why.E. Follows organized topics that are knowledge or information based lessons.F. Sets a high standard, but make on that is attainable for the student.G. Gives reasons or examples for using the methods or procedures taught.H. Gives everything you will want back, nothing more.I. Stresses the main points of the lesson, giving opportunity for student feedback.J. Gives feedback to the student. Tells them what you are going to tell them, and then tells them what you told them.K. Transfer of knowledge takes place in this stage. REMEMBER: Lecture is the least effective way to transfer information.L. There are several steps that can assist in developing the presentation.1. Gather information and conduct research on the lesson topic.2. Develop the learning objectives for the course.3.Generate the topic headings that will be used in the delivery of the course information.4.Prepare the course outline and topic sentences.5. Review the course outline for logical sequence, timing, possible student activities, and test questions.6. Develop the full lesson plan and try it out.7. Submit for management review/approval if necessary.8. Rework if necessary.

40Lesson Plans Development (cont.)ApplicationDevelop activities that allow student to apply informationHave students tell you how and whyGive constructive feedback to ensure understandingApplication can occur at end of lesson or throughout the lesson. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe Application Stage students are given the chance to use the information they have been given.

A. Encourage the student to ask questions.B. Develop activities that allow the student to apply the information learned in a safe, real environment.C. Correct errors and omissions as the student makes them.D. Have the students tell you how and why, stressing the main points taught.E. Give the student feedback and check progress frequently.F. Continue application stage until you are certain the students understand the information taught in the lesson.G. The application stage can occur at the end of the lesson or throughout the lesson at appropriate times.

41Lesson Plans Development (cont.)SummaryReview the learning objectivesReview main points of the lessonHave students summarize points to allow them to further apply the informationAvoid introducing new material or re-teachingMotive student to use information/skills on the job

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe Summary Stage gives students time to gather information they may have missed.

A. Be flexible about the timing.B. Review the learning objectives.

C. Review and summarize the main points of the lesson.D. Let students summarize when possible.E. Do not introduce new material or re-teach the lesson.F. End with a statement to motivate the student to use the information or skills to improve their performance.

42Lesson Plans Development (cont.)Evaluation of studentsGives feedback on performanceStudents may apply information through tests, apply information in real-world scenariosMay also evaluate on participation in course activities. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThe Evaluation Stage how will the students performance be judged.

A. Gives feedback to the student in the form of their performance.B. Put the student on their own to do the job or apply the information through written or performance tests.C. Consider evaluating students on the participation in course activities.The introduction stage will always come at the beginning of the lesson. The summary stage will always come at near the end of the lesson. The presentation, application, and evaluation stages can happen at any time during the lesson.

A. The various stages may overlap.B. The instructor should design the lesson so that activities occur throughout the course43Lesson Plan FormattingLesson plan formattingFour major types of formatsOutlineSentence OutlineNarrative OutlineNarrativeOutline and Sentence Outline are suitable for experience instructorsNarrative Outline and Narratives are suitable for inexperienced instructorsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are four major types of lesson plan formats.A. Outline.B. Sentence Outline.C. Narrative Outline.D. Narrative.When deciding on the format to be used, the instructor should consider two factors:

A. The instructors experience level.B. The instructors knowledge of the subject matter.C. The instructors experience level and knowledge of the subject helps determine the type format to use.D. Outline and Sentence outlines are suitable for experienced instructors who are knowledgeable in the subject to be taught.E. Narrative Outline and Narrative are for inexperienced instructors or instructors who are not knowledgeable of the subject matter.

44Lesson Plan Formatting (cont.)Outline formatUtilizes key words and follows outline formatExample:What is stress?Personal perception of stressWhat stress meansThe stress responsePositive and negative stressTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduAs you can see the outline format is bare-bones. This is definitely appropriate for an instructor that knows the material inside and out. The instructor must be able to expand on the brief outline and have enough information to make a lesson out of it. 45Lesson Plan Formatting (cont.)Sentence Outline formatUtilizes sentences around key words and follows outline formatExample:What is stress?Personal perception of stress. Stress is pressureWhat stress means. Few people define the concept of stress in exactly the same wayThe stress response. Everything that lives responds to stimuliPositive and negative stress. We encounter stress every day, how we deal with the stress decides if it is positive or negativeTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduA sentence outline format has a little more information than the outline format. Essentially, the sentences added to the outline are a starting point for discussion for the instructor. This is a beneficial outline for instructors that know the material well, but may need a little push to start each section. 46Lesson Plan Formatting (cont.)Narrative Outline formatMore detail with paragraph around key wordsContinues to follow an outline formatExample: What is stress?Personal perception of stress. As a class/group activity, have the students complete the following sentence; Stress is ____ on a piece of paper. Have students or groups give their responses. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduA narrative outline follows a basic outline format, but instead of a single or no sentence the instructor has a detailed paragraph containing key words and instructions on what to do. The narrative outline is for a less experienced instructor that needs extra guidance. It is also useful for courses that will be taught by many different instructors as a means of ensuring The example presented illustrates the idea of instructing the instructor on what to do. The instructor is able to follow the instructions on a group activity on the personal perception of stress. 47Lesson Plan Formatting (cont.)Narrative formatWritten in detail, and more like a script than an outlineExample:What is stress?The stress response. Everything that lives responds to stimuli. Plants response to sunlight by growing in that direction. A dog responds to its owners voiceone important group of stimuli to which [people] respond is stressors. A performance reviewTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduIt is clear to see that this style of lesson plan is for an inexperienced instructor. The instructor can pick up this lesson plan and, with minimal knowledge and preparation, teach the course. This style of lesson plan is more time intensive to create than a simple outline lesson plan. But, the lesson could be taught by a wider range of individuals than an outline based lesson plan. 48Methods of InstructionInstructor ledMost common method of instructionInstructor is sole disseminator of informationPresents information, questions students, and provides periodic summariesLectureInstructor is sole disseminator of informationInteraction with students if very limitedTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEach method has advantages and disadvantages. A combination of methods is usually most effective.

Instructor LedMost commonly used method of instructionB.Instructor is sole disseminator of informationThe instructor presents segments of information, questions students frequently and provides periodic summaries of points.

Lecture

A.Instructor sole disseminator of informationB.Interaction with students is very limited

49Methods of Instruction (cont.)DemonstrationMethod showing how to do somethingPractical exercisesApplication of previously learned knowledgeRole-playDiscussion/Panel

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduDemonstrationThe student observes while the instructor shows how to do a procedure or technique.This method shows how to do something or how something worksPractical ExercisesA. Student participates individually or in groupsB. Application of previously learned knowledge

PracticeA. Students alone or in a group repeatedly perform previously learned proceduresTeam PracticeA. Students perform as a member of a group to find a team solution to a problemRole-playA.Learning by doingB.Assume roles of othersIndependentA.Work on solutions/skills by selfB.Asking instructor for direction or questionsDiscussionA.Usually used in combination with other methodsAdditional methods and devisesA.ApprenticeshipB.Correspondence CourseC.Directed Individual StudyD.BrainstormingE.PanelF.PowerPointG.VideoH.Flip ChartI.Overhead Projector

50Methods of Instruction (cont.)Factors to consider when choosing method of instructionEffectiveness of chosen methodSize of groupType of training (demonstration for knot-tying)Campus Law Enforcement personalityAttitude of participantsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduMatch method with objectives, subject matter etc. and know your audience.

The key to improving our instruction is to know what methods of instruction to use when.

A.PertinenceB.EffectivenessC.Familiarity with the methodD.Time and physical facilitiesE.CostF.Size of groupG.Type of TrainingH.Attitudes of participantsI.Participant motivationJ.Your personality

51Methods of Instruction (cont.)Techniques to reinforce learningQuestion/answer sessionIllustrationsPractice and drillRole playing

What other techniques may be beneficial?Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are several techniques that can be used to reinforce learning. Four examples include question and answer sessions, illustrations (e.g., flow chart, diagrams, pictures of a process, etc.), practice and drill, and role playing. Each of these help students by reinforcing what was taught.

Other techniques: having students teach break-out classes, quizzes with feedback, etc.52EvaluationTwo different purposes for evaluation

Appraise instructor performance

Assess student performanceTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEvaluation serves two purposesappraising instructor performance and assessing a students performance. These will be discussed in further detail in the upcoming slides. 53Evaluation (cont.)Three reasons to appraise instructor performance:Improve the quality of instructionTo validate quality instructionIdentify less than quality instructionTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are three fundamental reasons to appraise instructor performance. First, it is imperative in improving the quality of instruction. Evaluation of instructors includes suggestions for improvement that the students notice. This allows the instructor to see where he/she is weak and should improve. Second, evaluating instructors validates quality instruction. This could be useful for instructors that are new and in a probation phase, or even if a course is new and its benefits needs to be evaluated. Lastly, evaluations show when less than quality instruction is taking place. This can be very beneficial to administration for a couple of reasons. The first reason being that administration can identify a weak instruction and offer guidance or find an instructor that is better suited for the position. But, this is also a liability issue for administration. If an instructor is identified as not being a quality instructor the training center/school is liable for the information being taught. The instructor could be teaching incorrect procedures. 54Evaluation (cont.)Reasons to assess student performance:To determine masteryMeasure students understanding of materialMotivate students & structure academic effortKnowing they will be assessed is motivatingDiscovering what they do and dont know will help students structure their learningTo satisfy instructional or post-accreditation criteriaTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEvaluating students is important to determine if they have mastered the subject well enough to apply it to everyday work. Before mastery can be achieved, evaluation can measure the students understanding of the material throughout the process to mastering the overall material.

Evaluations can help motivate students and even structure their academic efforts. When students know that they will be assessed before receiving recognition for completing the course, the students are motivated to learn the material to pass the assessment. Evaluations also allow students to discover what they do and dont know about the material. This allows the students to structure their learning to achieve mastery.

Lastly, accreditation requirements have rules that require students to pass evaluations before completion of the program is recognized. 55Objective vs. Subjective TestingObjective testingStudents recall specific facts and select from predetermined responses. Impartial grading and quick turn-around for reporting test scoresExamples:Short answer/fill-in-blankMultiple choiceMatchingTrue/falseTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduThere are two different types of testingobjective and subjective.

Objective tests require student recall specific facts and choose the correct answer from a list of possible responses. The grading system is impartialthe student is either right or wrong. Also, these test are very quick to grade. These test can be scored on a scantron which allows the instructor to pass the forms through a grading machine.

Examples include: short answer/fill in the blank questions, multiple choice, matching, and true/false. Each of these will be discussed further in upcoming slides. 56Objective vs. Subjective TestingSubjective testingGrader decides if the answer is correctSometimes there are several correct responsesRequires different cognitive levels to answerWritten communication skillsOriginal answersExploration of student understandingExample: Essay testTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduSubjective tests are the opposite of objective testing techniques. In this method the grader determines if the answer is correct or not. This can be problematic, because sometimes there can be several answers, or no right or wrong answer. This style of test requires the test taker have a stronger cognitive level of knowledge of the material. It tests the students written communication skills, originality of answers, and really explores the students understanding of the material. An example of this is an essay test.

57Evaluative Testing MethodsSix popular testing methodsTrue/FalseMultiple choiceCompletion items (fill-in-black / short answer)MatchingEssayPerformance testsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEvaluative Testing Methods (cont.)True/FalseCover a lot of material and are easy to construct/scoreConstruction:Items must be absolutely true or false w/o exceptionAvoid negatively stated items and double negativesWhy is this important?Avoid complex sentence structureTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduTrue/False. A. This test is composed of complete statements, which the student then identifies as either true or false. B. They cover more material in a shorter length of time and are easy to construct and score. C. They do however, concentrate on rote memory and presume an answer is absolutely true or false.1.Test items must be statements that are ABSOLUTELY TRUE OR FALSE without qualification or exception.2.Avoid NEGATIVELY stated items and all DOUBLE NEGATIVES.3.Avoid COMPLEX sentence structure. Each item should test the student on one point. 4.Avoid the use of SPECIFIC DETERMINERS. Words like only, all, none, always, never, etcetera, usually indicate the item is false. Words like could, might, can, may, and generally, usually indicate the item is false.

59Evaluative Testing Methods (cont.)Multiple choiceStudent reads stem (question) and selects correct response from list. Time consuming to write and can be difficult to find a single correct answerScoring is easyTest one specific point in each questionUse concise wordingAll alternative should be plausibleRandomly arrange correct response

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduMultiple-Choice. A. This test is composed of questions, which include stems and alternatives.B. The stem is an incomplete statement or question. C. The student reads the stem and selects the correct response from among a list of several alternatives. D. The most frequently used multiple-choice test is a stem with one correct item and three distracters. E. This test can be written on many cognitive levels but it is time consuming to write as well as difficult finding one correct answer. F. Scoring is easy.1.Test only ONE SPECIFIC POINT in each item.2.Use CONCISE wording in all components of the test item. Whenever it will not cause confusion, it is advisable to include in the stem, any words which would otherwise be repeated in each alternative.3.Avoid words in the stem, which might prevent GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT linkage with any response.4.Exercise caution in the use of ALL THE ABOVE, NONE OF THE ABOVE ETCETERA answers. Incorrect use may make the desired response incorrect.5.All alternatives should be plausible alternatives. The guess factor improves with the number of alternatives, which are not plausible; therefore each alternative should be attractive to the uniformed student.6.Randomly arrange the correct response among the alternatives. DO NOT establish a pattern of answers.

60Evaluative Testing Methods (cont.)Completion Items (fill-in-blank)Requires memorization to recall correct itemEasy to constructDifficult to score if all possible alternatives arent consideredWord items carefully to eliminate alternative wordsLimit the number of blanks requiredUse a direct question or incomplete statement with blank at or near the endUse this type only if recall of specific word is essentialTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduCompletion items (often called Fill-In-Blank or Short Answer).

A. This type of test requires rote memory to recall the exact word or phrase missing from a sentence but in turn reduces the guess factor. B. These tests are frequently used in classroom settings because they are relatively easy to construct. C. However, they are often difficult to score and can be problematic if the instructor does not make allowances for all possible alternative choices which could be used to complete the blanks. 1.WORD items CAREFULLY, being aware that many fill-in-items may be answered correctly by using words other than the desired answers of the instructor.2.Limit the number of BLANKS required.3.Use a direct question or incomplete statement with the blank(s) at or near the end.D. Use fill in the blank items only when the student's ability to provide the word for the blank is essential.

61Evaluative Testing Methods (cont.)MatchingTests a lot of factual information and reduces guessingEach match should be logical so student has to be knowledgeable in subject to know answerPlace answer in alphabetical order and on one pageit is easy to follow and less time consumingHave between 10-15 items, but have at least 5 additional answers than questionsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduMatching

A. A test that involves a list of statements on the left and a list of responses on the right.B. Matching tests can test on a lot of factual information quickly and reduce guessing at the same time. C. Items are usually interdependent which can lead to more than one error at a time.Each of the matches should be a logical response to the statement so a student would have to be knowledgeable in the subject to choose the correct match.Each matching exercise should contain only homogeneous material. If heterogeneous material is used it reduces the need for direct subject knowledge to answer correctly.Put the answers in alphabetical order and on one page to make it easier to follow and less time consuming to complete.The best number of items is between 10-15, but also have at least five additional answers than you have questions.

62Evaluative Testing Methods (cont.)Performance testsDemonstrate proficiency in a task or situationTest is process instead of content orientedDifficult to set up and scoreState problem or situation in clear, concise termsConditions should mirror real-life situationsSpecify scoring method and level of accuracy expectedGive student chance to perform task more than onceTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu63Evaluative Testing Methods (cont.)Suggestions for constructing test questionsDevote adequate time to preparation of test itemsClosely examine each learning objective and devise an appropriate item to measure eachMore time spent on item construction will provide more reliable resultsTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEvaluative Testing Methods (cont.)Four considerations for questionsRelevanceReliabilityValidityBalance

Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduRelevance: Questions logically relate to course objectives.Reliability: There is consistency and accuracy over time. Meaning, the questions arent only relevant to the present day, but will be relevant to future classes as well. Validity: The interpretations of the results are appropriate for making decisions about achievement. Do the questions allow the instructor to say the student has a proficient knowledge after completionor is the test measuring something else. Balance: Test covers main ideas and important concepts in proportion to emphasis they received in class. If the course spends a great deal of time on a topic dont skip it or only have a single question directed at the topic.

65Instructional MediaInstructional MediaMaterials or graphic, photographic, electronic, or mechanical aids that assist instructorMake subject more understandableHelps student learn more effectively

How does instructional media help students?Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduInstructional Media (cont.)Reasons for using instructional mediaStudents retain material longerClarifies the written or spoken wordEmphasis is placed where instructor wantsAssists in class managementProvides a clear understanding of oral presentationTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduStudents learn more effectively and quicklyA. Students use more of their five sensesB. It is easier for the student to comprehendC. Students retain material longerD. Clarifies the written or spoken wordE. Emphasis is added to the points the instructor is making F. Provides uniformity of learning by description or means of demonstration G. Develops continuity of thoughtH. Assists the instructor in class managementI. Provides a more clear understanding of the oral presentation.

67Instructional Media (cont.)Characteristics of effective mediaAble to be seen by whole classNeat, understandable and accurateEasy to use

What are examples of appropriate media?Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduEffective instructional media should be:A. Appropriate for the subject and teaching pointsB. Able to be seen by the whole classC. Neat, understandable and accurateD. Simple to comprehend and include only specific points that do not confuse the studentE. Easy to use by the instructorF. Portable and durable

Examples of appropriate media include: PowerPoint, projectors, DVD/TV, chalk or dry-erase board, handouts, etc.68Instructional Media (cont.)Misuses of instructional mediaAs a filler for class timeMedia isnt relevant for classServes no learning purposeUnclear, misleading or not understandableTexas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduReferencesDeveloped from TCLEOSE Basic Instructor Course #1014

Anderson, Ronald. 1983. Selecting and developing media for instruction. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

Baird, Loyd S., Craig Eric Scheiner, Dugan Laird, Eds. 1983. The training and development sourcebook. Amherst, Mass.: Huran Resource Development Press

Brookfield, Stephen D. 1986. Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Darkenwald, Gordon G. and Sharan B. Merriam. 1982. Adult education: Foundations of practice. New York: Harper and Row.

Devine. Thomas G. 1987. Teaching study skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Dunphy. Frank. undated. Effective communication for law enforcement. Quantico, Virginia: FBI Academy, Education/Communication Arts Unit.

Eble, Kenneth, ed. 1980. New directions for teaching and learning: Improving teaching styles. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Ellington, Henry. 1985. Producing teaching materials: A handbook for teachers. New York: Nichols Publishing. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.edu70References (cont.)Federal Reporter. 1985. 767 F.2d 161(1985). pp. 161-173.

Finch, Curtis R. and John R. Crunkilton. 1984. Curriculum development in vocational and technical education. Planning, content and implementation. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hole, Cyril 0. 1978. The design of education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Kemp. J. and D. Dayton. 1985. Planning and producing instructional media. New York: Harper and Row.

Klotter, John C. and Joseph Rosenfeld. 1979. Criminal justice instructional techniques. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas.

Klotter. John C. 1963. Techniques for police instructors. Springfield. Illinois: Charles C. Thomas

Knowles. Malcolm. 1973. The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.

Knox. Alan B. 1987. Helping adults learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Inc.

Mager. Robert F. 1984. The new Mager library: Preparing instructional objectives; Developing attitude toward learning; Measuring instructional results; Analyzing performance problems; Goal analysis. 2nd edition Belmont. Ca.: Pitman Learning. Inc. Texas School Safety Centerwww.txssc.txstate.eduReferences (cont.)McInnes. James. 1980. Video in education and training. New York: Focal Press.

Plimpton. George. undated. How to make a speech. New York: International Paper Company.

Shaycoft. Marion F. 1979. Handbook of criterion-referenced testing: Development. evaluation. and use. New York: Garland STPM Press.

Smith. Robert M., Ed. 1983. Helping adults learn how to learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Inc.

Traffic Institute. 1982. Civil liability and the police. Evanston. Illinois: Northwestern University. pp. 30

United States Air Force. How to instruct. Instructor Course.

Verduin. John R., Harry G. Miller and Charles E. Greer. 1977. Adults teaching adults: Principles and strategies. Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts.

Wlodkowski, Raymond J. 1986. Enhancing adult motivation to learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Inc.

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