Course Book English Print

Pre-Primary Teachers'

Training

Advanced Diploma Course

CONDUCTED JOINTLY BY

NETAJI SUBHASOPEN UNIVERSITYSarat Bhavan, 1 Woodburn Park,Kolkata 700 020Phone: 2287-0157 Fax: (033)2287-1082E-mail: [email protected] &[email protected]

LEARNING & LIVINGRESOURCES SOCIETY3B Mani Vatika, 40/1 DharmatalaRoad, Kolkata 700 042 Phone: 6534-3867E-mail: [email protected]

Notes

Notes

COURSE STUDY MATERIAL FORPRE-PRIMARY TEACHERS' TRAININGONE-YEAR DIPLOMA COURSEOF NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY

Prepared byLearning & Living Resources Society

Planning and DesignMitali Gupta and Ranajay Gupta

© Text, Diagrams and Illustrations CopyrightLearning & Living Resources Society 2007

No part of the text of this book may be copied byelectronic or other means without the expresspermission of the Society.

July 2007

i

Notes Foreword

The Pre-Primary Teachers' Training Certificate and Diploma Courses haveproved to be among our most popular courses. Keeping in mind theimportance accorded pre-primary education in the Eighty-sixth

Amendment to the Constitution of India, we are integrating and upgrading thetwo courses as a new twelve-month, two-semester Diploma Course.Every course introduced by Netaji Subhas Open University shares a commoncharacteristic: it provides an opportunity for the student to be educated in thesubject of his or her choice. This implies that instead of prejudging aptitudes, weevaluate the student through regular assessment. The Pre-Primary Teachers'Training Course, which is one the most popular of our courses, is no exception; it isa carefully formulated syllabus based on the system discovered by Dr Montessoriand incorporating its ideal components of child development. To that has beenadded contemporary information, thought and analysis on the subject.An important addition in the new course is a paper on the special needs child.Modern thought on education of a child with mental or physical challengesadvocates integrated education along with mainstream children. In this scenario,any teacher could have a such a child in her or his class and it is important to besensitised to the needs of such children. The knowledge also helps detectchallenges and handicaps among children who may seem otherwise normal andallow early intervention.This study material has been written with practical learning in mind. Thanks aredue to all those whose untiring efforts, skills and creativity went into the writing,editing and design of this book. It is an invaluable complement to an application-oriented course like Pre-Primary Teachers' Training. There may be errors andaberrations that are subject to amendment and correction in the future. But it ishoped that in general the study material will find appreciation throughwidespread use.The more a student studies and practises from this study material, the easier it willbe to go deep into the subject. Due attention has been paid to make it student-friendly in its language and presentation. Practical application of the syllabus willhelp increase the receptivity and sensitivity of the student.

Dr Surabhi BanerjeeVICE-CHANCELLOR

“...And so we discovered that education isnot something which the teacher does, but thatit is a natural process which developsspontaneously in the human being. It is notacquired by listening to words, but in virtue ofexperiences in which the child acts on hisenvironment. The teacher’s task is not to talk,but to prepare and arrange a series of motivesfor cultural activity in a special environmentmade for the child.

” Dr Maria MontessoriTHE ABSORBENT MIND

ii 66

Colour Tablets helpchildren comprehend the

similarities and differencesbetween various colours,

hues and tints

65 iii

Touch Board. The childrenactivate their sense oftouch by running theirfingers over a series ofgraded surfaces from therough to very smooth.

iv 64

Picture Cards forComplementary Pairing

(left) and Identical Pairing(below)

61 vii

viii 60

x 58

Syllabus

PAPER GROUP TOPIC SUBTOPIC

I A EDUCATION THEORY

1st SemesterIdea of Education

Theories of EducationIdealism, Naturalism and Pragmatism

Historical Profile of Education inIndia

Rights of the ChildThe Role of the Teacher

2nd SemesterChild-centric EducationRousseau, Froebel, Rabindranath,Montessori

Kindergarten

Pre-primary and Primary Education:Objectives, Curricula and Methods

I B MONTESSORI THEORY

1st SemesterLife of Dr. Maria Montessori

House of ChildrenThe Montessori Method

Montessori Method/Activity,Presentation and Groups for Exercisesof Practical Life,. Sensorial Activity,Language and Arithmetic2nd Semester

Life of Dr. Maria MontessoriHouse of Children


The Prepared Environment

57 xi

We speak very little, only just as much as is essential.

We must draw the child's attention

We must demonstrate the activity repeatedly, so that the childcan understand the activity well.

Freedom

The children will work freely. The freedom to choose, freedom tomove and freedom to repeat must be ensured.The child will do the activity as many times as he wants. If he makesa mistake, the adult will encourage him to do it again.

Direct andIndirect Aim

Direct Aim: The direct aim of Exer-cises of Practical Life is to developin the child skill in the following activities:

Primary motor skills

Care of the environment

Personal care

Social behaviour

Indirect Aim: The indirect aim of Exercises of Practical Life is toachieve coordination between intelligence, will and motor activityand to build an integrated personality.

Montessori Materials

Normalisation

Adult Preparation

II A DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

1st SemesterChild Development and Developmen-tal Psychology

The Originality of MontessoriPsychologySensitive Periods

Observation

Emotional and Social Response in theVery Young Child

2nd SemesterSense Modalities

Sensory AdaptationMotivation : Needs

Handling Emotions

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Physical, Motor, Mental, Languageand Personality Development.

II B HEALTH & HYGIENE

1st SemesterThe Healthy MotherThe Girl Child

Feeding Habits

CryingAnxiety

Parental Control

2nd SemesterChild Safety

First Aid

VaccinationCleanliness

Traffic Rules

xii 56


II A EXERCISES OF PRACTICAL LIFE (Manipulative Skills)1st SemesterSETTLING DOWN Preliminary Activities

Some RulesPRELEMINARY MOTOR ACTIVITIES Mat Activities

Chowki

PostingButton

Sorting by Shape, Size & Colour

Picture Pairing (IdentiCAL)FRAME ACTIVITY Fixing Coat Button

Fixing Press BuTTON

TAKING CARE OF ONESELF Napkin, Medial, DiagonalSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR Offering (Pen, Tray, Knife, Cup and

Saucer , Scissors, Jug, GLASS

TAKING CARE OF ONE'S Pouring (Cereals)ENVIRONMENT

2nd SemesterSETTLING DOWN Action Songs

Walking on a Line

PRELIMINARY MOTOR ACTIVITIES ChairPicture Pairing (Complementary)

Fishing

PuzzlesThreading Beads

TAKING CARE OF ONESELF Napkin (Four-fold )

DusterFRAME ACTIVITY Bow Frame

Lace Frame (Shoe Lace)

TAKING CARE OF Pouring (Water)ONE'S ENVIRONMENT

Dusting With Broom andDust Pan

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Walking

Tidying Up One’s DeskPutting Away One’s Shoes in aShoestand

another object. The pairing activity helps a child to form aconsciousness of each one of the physical properties anddifferences between them.

b. Complementary Pairing: The properties of one iscomplementary to the properties of the other; the two togethermake a complete pair.

2. Gradation: Gradation activities with sensorial material helps achild realise that each physical property differs in degrees andintensities. Grading follows pairing because pairing as an activityis easier than grading.

The Aims of Sensorial Activity

The Direct Aim of Sensorial Activity is to help make the child awareof the physical properties of every object.The Indirect Aims of Sensorial Activity are

1. Gaining precision in certain types of motor coördination; and

2. Preparing the child for the next phase of intellect-based activity

55 xiii


MANIPULATIVE SKILLS Pattern BoardsBuilding Bricks

II B SENSORIAL

1st SemesterVISUAL AND MUSCULAR SENSE Cylinder Blocks

Pink Tower

VISUAL SENSE Colour Tablets

1st Box, 2nd BoxTACTILE SENSE Touch Board 1 & 2

ACOUSTIC SENSE Noise Box (Identical)

MUSCULAR SENSE Long StairsGeometrical Cabinet

NAME LESSON Presentation, Enrichment of Vocabu-lary, Precision of Vocabulary,Perfection of Pronunciation

2nd SemesterVISUAL AND Brown StairsMUSCULAR SENSE

VISUAL SENSE Colour Tablets (Gradation)

TACTILE SENSE Touch Board III, IV FABRIC

ACOUSTIC SENSE Noise Box (Gradation)

MUSCULAR SENSE Geometrical Cabinet & CardsConstructive Triangle

Geometrical Solids

Baric TabletsOLFACTORY SENSE Smell Activity

GUSTATORY SENSES Taste Activity

IV A LANGUAGE ([˝Áe_Á)1st Semester

`Œaä»JôTöXTöçÌ[ý EõçL×`×Ì[ýb EõçGãLÌ[ý %lùÌ[ýå]ì×FEõ `Œ×[ýä À̀bS aeyÔçÜ™öV_-×\ö×wøEõ EõçL]Çã\ö[ýË_ %îç_Zõçã[ý»RËôOa

child is eager to learn about all material things, and it is the duty ofthe adults in its environment to facilitate his perception of thequalities of objects in his environment, abstract as well as material.This will help the child conceptualise. When he has a clear concept ofthe material objects around him he can sort and classify themaccording to their characteristics. Once he achieves this ability, hegains the desire to consciously explore his environment. His worldexpands with the development his imagination and his intelligencegrows sharp. Along with this, he can work in an organised,disciplined manner.

Sensorial Material

Many of the objects we find in our environment are objects we needeveryday. Some are needed occasionally. The child gradually buteasily gains this information with the help of his senses. Side by side,he is also developing morally, socially and culturally. All this is madepossible by the use of his senses. There are some tools and toys thathelp this development. The tools that we used to develop an abstractconcept of all objects are the Sensorial Material.What are the characteristic of Sensorial Material?

1. Sensorial Material should be physically proportionate to child’scapacity.

2. As a rule, there should be only one set of Sensorial Material.

3. Sensorial material must be displayed.

4. Maintaining the material is also one of our duties and the materialshould be clean and intact.

5. The materials are not familiar to the children.

6. Sensorial materials are scientifically prepared; they are universal.

Presentations using Sensorial Material arealways given individually. Why?

1. Because different children are ready for sensorial exercises atdifferent times.

2. Because each movement in such a presentation is so precise, it isnot possible to show it to more than one child at a time.

What are the Basic Activities and Presentationsperformed with Sensorial Material?

1. Pairing Activity: We have sensorial materials in pairs, where eachmaterial is found in duplicate

a. Identical Pairing: A part of one of object is similar to a part of

xiv 54


Ø‘öÌ[ý[ýãSïÌ[ý ×»Jôc÷Ô`Œ\öç‰øçÌ[ý GQÍöçåÌ[ýçLEõçÌ[ý LÝ[ýãXÌ[ý EõçåLÌ[ý EõçQïöØ‘öÌ[ý[ýSï/[ýîtX[ýSï×TöX %lùãÌ[ýÌ[ý `ŒYÒU] YQÍöçÌ[ý EõçQïö

Y“U] %W Ô̋[˝bÔ`Œaä»JôTöXTöçÌ[ý EõçL×`×Ì[ýb EõçGãLÌ[ý %lùÌ[ýå]ì×FEõ `Œ×[ýä À̀bS aeyÔçÜ™öV_-×\ö×wøEõ EõçL]Çã\ö[ýË_ %îç_Zõçã[ý»RËôOaØ‘öÌ[ý[ýãSïÌ[ý ×»Jôc÷Ô`Œ\öç‰øçÌ[ý GQÍöçåÌ[ýçLEõçÌ[ý LÝ[ýãXÌ[ý EõçåLÌ[ý EõçQïöØ‘öÌ[ý[ýSï/[ýîtX[ýSï×TöX %lùãÌ[ýÌ[ý `ŒYÒU] YQÍöçÌ[ý EõçQïö

2nd Semester`Œ\öç‰øçÌ[ý [ýÊ×ˆù×Eõ»KÇ÷ ×»Jôc÷ÔEõUç ×VãÌ̂ XçXç EõçLY×Ì[ýYÉÌ[ýEõ åLçQÍöçXç], EõçL, mS[ýçXçX EõÌ[ý %çÌ[ý YQÍö×[ý×\ö~ åY`çÌ[ý ]çXÇb»K÷×[ýÌ[ý EõUç [ý_[ýçhõî %çÌ[ý »K÷×[ý å]_çãXç×[ýYÌ[ýÝTöAEõ[ý»JôX/[ý§[ý»JôXAEõÌ[ýEõ] å`çXçÌ̂ å^a[ý `Œc÷çãTöÌ[ý å_Fç A[ýe YQÍöçEõçGL ×VãÌ̂ ×Eõ ×Eõ c÷Ì̂Ì[ýIø ×c÷ãaã[ý ×L×Xa@TÇö ×XãÌ̂ %çã_ç»JôXç

Our brains have memory reserved for each sense. The more a sense isexercised, the more the experiences are stored in the memory, thesharper and more alert the sense becomes.

The Rôle of the Senses

The senses are directly or indirectly involved in all the exercises givenin the Montessori environment.What rôle do the senses play in human life?Every human works in his own environment. Man tries to shape theworld of nature into a world of his own and the instrument he usesfor that is his intelligence. Intelligence is needed to perform anyconscious work. Man builds on experience gathered from the past toapply his intelligence according to the environment and nature of thework. Intelligence is a spiritual force, not a material one. It is notdirectly applied to the environment. There is data and information inthe environment around us. The senses gather that information. Butwe cannot utilise the information unless our intelligence uses it toarrive at a decision and apply it on the environment through thelimbs and organs of the body.As soon as a child isborn, it starts sen-sing its environ-ment and absorbsall the informationgathered throughthe senses like asponge. Its intelli-gence starts work-ing right from birth.But around the ageof 2 years, it be-comes aware of theknowledge re-sources it creates.After the first, phy-sical, birth, the birthof this awareness islike a second birth.The child enters anew universe. The

Colour Tablets help children comprehend the similarities anddifferences between various colours, hues and tints

53 xv

QÍö, Ì[ý »K÷×[ý ×VãÌ̂ [ýç»K÷çc÷O


[ýçEõîçe`æ»K÷ç»RôO [ýçEõî

IV A LANGUAGE (ENGLISH)1st Semester

Preliminary Activities on SoundAwareness

Sandpaper Letters

Group Activity onOral Sound AnalysisMovable Alphabets

Learning to Recognise and MatchObjects, Patterns and Sequences forVocabulary and Language Skills

Action CardsDaily Living Activity Cards

Three-Letter Words

2nd SemesterVocabulary Enrichment

Recognition of Script Letters

Phonetic Word MatchingPhonograms

Orthographic Complications

HomophonesOpen Sounds

Opposites

One–ManyPreposition

Naming and Doing Words

Small PhrasesSmall Sentences

Singular–Plural

Who Am I ?

V A Arithmetic1st Semester

children on low shelves. The material for EPL, Sensorial, Arithmeticand Language are arranged according to the stage and course ofdevelopment. The children can see the Sensorial material on theshelves right from the beginning and start showing interest in themeven as they do the Exercises of Practical Life.

How does EPL prepare the child for Sensorial Activity?

• The child develops a general interest in the sensorial material kepton the shelf after doing Exercises of Practical Life for some time.EPL enhances their intelligence and their ability to workindependently, making them eager to explore new activities likeSensorial Activities.

• EPL instils self-confidence in the children. Sensorial activities arepresented individually; the self-confidence generated through EPLis therefore important. The child initially simply observes the EPLpresentation and at one time wants to do it himself. Sensorialactivity teaches the child to observe with a purpose.

• A child realises his mistakes as he works. When a child doesExercises of Practical Life, he discovers the right way to do thework as he does it, and thereby works to perfect it. In SensorialActivity, the material itself shows up the error, therefore the childgets an opportunity for correcting his mistakes.

Only one set each of the Sensorial material is kept in aMontessori environment. Why?

Sensorial Activities involve a large variety of materials. Thereforemore than one set is not required. 3 sets of each material are requiredfor EPL.

Our Senses

What senses do we possess?Tactile Sense or the Sense of Touch::::: It helps the child distinguish

between different textures and grade them from rough to smooth.The sense of touch is felt through the skin.

Gustus Sense or the Sense of Taste: It helps the child distinguishbetween sweet, bitter, salt and sour. The organ of taste is thetongue.

Visual Sense or the Sense of Sight: This sense helps the child with theconcept of colour, of shape and size. We see with our eyes.

Acoustic Sense or the Sense of Hearing: The child can distinguishdifferent kinds of sounds and their loudness with this sense. Wehear with our ears.

Olfactory Sense or the Sense of Smell: We smell all things around uswith our nose.

xvi 52

Number Rods


Sandpaper Figures

Number Rods And Cards

Spindle Box‘0’ Lesson

Chit Game

Card And CountersEven And Odd

Static Decimal

Traditional Names (Seguin Board)2nd Semester

Change Game

Snake GameAddition Strip Board

Subtraction Strip Board

Multiplication BoardDivision Board

Dot Board

Dynamic MultiplicationGroup Division

Large Addition

Large SubtractionWork Sheet

V B ARITHMETIC

1st SemesterHundred BoardAddition Balloons

Subtraction Petals

PuzzleNumber pegs

2nd SemesterCoinsAdd the Balloons

Match Mates Card

Petal Card

3 Sensorial Activity

Sensorial activityimplies development.The children's senses

are developed throughvarious exercises. The keenerthe senses become, thesharper the development ofintelligence and the intellect.These activities are time-sensitive — they have to begiven according to age. Whenthe child first enters theHouse of Children, he isintroduced to somepreliminary activities.These preliminary activitieshelp the child settle down.After that the child goes on to ECL and only after completing that heis introduced to sensorial exercises.

Why do we give EPL first and not Sensorial Activity?

The materials used in Sensorial Activity do not attract the children atfirst. They are unfamiliar. If they are introduced prematurely, theymay not interest the child — she may even reject them. That is whytheir interest, will and intelligence are stimulated through EPL beforewe start with Sensorial work.One thing should be remembered in this context. In a MontessoriHouse, the material for all the stages are kept accessible to the

Touch Board. The children activate their sense oftouch by running their fingers over a series of graded

surfaces from the rough to very smooth.

51 xvii

Abacus


Addition with Abacus

Subtraction with Abacus

Worksheets

VI A Cultural Activities1st Semester

Art & Craft

Story & RhymesFile

Sincerity & Observation

Conduct2nd Semester

File And Group Discussion

THEME TEACHING Project With Teaching Theme AndLesson PlanExhibition

Attendance/Punctuality & Regularity

VI B Professional Preparation Awareness about Childrenwith Special NeedsVISUAL IMPAIRMENT Introduction to Visual Impairment

Anatomy and Functions of the Eye

Causes and Prevention of EyeDiseases

Characteristics of Eye ImpairmentIdentification and Early Intervention

Course and Syllabus

Application2nd Semester

BRaille

Direct and Indirect Aim

Direct Aim: The direct aim of Exer-cises of Practical Life is to developin the child skill in the following activities:

• Primary motor skills

• Care of the environment

• Personal care

• Social behaviour

Indirect Aim: The indirect aim of Exercises of Practical Life is toachieve coordination between intelligence, will and motor activityand to build an integrated personality.

Picture Cards for ComplementaryPairing (above) and Identical Pairing(right)

1 50

I Pre-Primary Education:The Open Window

A child. Just learning to speak. As soon as she learns to walk,

she wants to run. A world awaits her. Her small hands

wants to grasp everything. A world awaits her touch, waits to

touch her in turn, to come within her grasp. Her tiny ears listen in

wonder, a thousand smells reach her tiny nose. All that

she feels, all that she experiences, she stores away in her

young brain. It may be young, yet it is a mind

with an extraordinary capacity to receive and

retain. Every moment she knows, every

moment she learns, every moment she

understands, every day she speaks new words,

every day her powers of expression reach new

heights.

Where will this process of development take her? What kind of

adult will she grow up into? That depends on her environment —

natural and social. And on her nearest humans.

Apart from her parents, her first teacher will be one of those who

will play a most important rôle in her life. Which is why a pre-

primary teacher bears an awesome social responsibility.

For she is the one who opens the windows of the child's mind.

• there should be two to three sets of each material, so that the childcan get the material of her choice

Invitation

The children sit scattered in the House of Children. They are tooyoung to sit on chairs. They sit on mats laid on the floor.The sit as they like, facing any way the like. When they first come tothe House, we play some light music or song. We make them realisethat if they sit down as soon as the music or song plays, the adultswill be pleased and show them something new — a presentation.Invitation: How do we call someone if their is an occasion at ourhome? Every society in the world takes special care over aninvitation. We try to make it as attractive as possible through specialbehaviour, ettiquette and rituals. When we send an invitation inwriting, it is not an ordinary letter. We make an invitation card,taking care over its design, decoration and language and put it into aspecial envelope.We must take the same kind of care to invite a child so that she ismotivated to do the activity.Presentation: When we give someone a gift, we take care to make it asattractive as possible. We gift-wrap it in wrapping paper, we tie it upwith a ribbon. The receiver should want to see it. Similarly, when wewant a child to do an activity, we should not be casual about giving itto her. We must demonstrate it with care, so that the child can observeit with fascination. This is called Presentation.When we make a Presentation, we observe certain rules:

• We make one presentation at a time, never a number ofpresentations together.

• For each activity, we clearly demonstrate the movement of thelimbs and fingers (analysis of movement).

• We speak very little, only just as much as is essential.

• We must draw the child's attention

• We must demonstrate the activity repeatedly, so that the child canunderstand the activity well.

Freedom

The children will work freely. The freedom to choose, freedom tomove and freedom to repeat must be ensured.The child will do the activity as many times as he wants. If he makesa mistake, the adult will encourage him to do it again.

49 2

Course Objectives

At the end of this course, you will be able to• explain the significance of early childhood learning

• explain the Montessori Theory of Education in the perspective ofother theories of early childhood learning

• Describe the mental and physical development of a child frombirth to childhood

• Demonstrate the application of Montessori theory and materials tothe motor and sensorial development of a child

• Demonstrate the application of Montessori theory and materials tothe language development of a child

• Demonstrate the application of Montessori theory and materials todevelop mathematical concepts in a child

• Apply the skills and resources required by the Montessori system

Rights of the Child

The right of every child to education — and its necessity for society —was not recognised till very recently. And the right of a pre-schoolchild to a proper education is even now not fully appreciated.

The UN Convention on Child Rights

Article 6 of the United Nations Convention on Child Rights requiresthat every signatory state "shall ensure to the maximum extentpossible the survival and development of the child."Article 28 of the Convention states:

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, andwith a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basisof equal opportunity, they shall, in particular:

(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free toall;

(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondaryeducation, including general and vocational education,make them available and accessible to every child, and takeappropriate measures such as the introduction of freeeducation and offering financial assistance in case of need;

(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis ofcapacity by every appropriate means;

(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidanceavailable and accessible to all children;

(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schoolsand the reduction of drop-out rates.

Practical Life. As pointed out earlier, they are all common activities:1 The care of one's own person

2 The care of one's physical environment

3 The care of one's social environment

These three kinds of activity is an essential and permanent part ofhuman life. As the child grows and observes her environment, sheshows interest in her elders' activities and wants to build arelationship through them.These activities are usually quite simple and the child can do themwith intelligence and care. That is why we have these activities in theHouse of Children. The activities attract children and doing themenhances their will power, power of movement and intelligence, andthey try to do the work to perfection.

Exercises of Practical Life

We can divide these activities into four classes:1 Preliminary motor activities — various kinds of games

2 Personal care — keeping oneself clean

3 Care of the physical environment — various housekeepingactivities

4 Social environment — social behaviour and etiquette

We start with motor activities, then we proceed to activities related tothe social environment and behaviour. Then comes activities relatedto personal care and the care of the physical environment.

Creating the Environment and Making the Activity Materials

• A proper environment must be created. It should be such that thechild can do the activities easily and without inhibitions. The spaceand opportunity should be conducive to this.

• Appropriate materials must be kept so that the children can doactivities according to their needs and requirements.

• The following must be kept in mind while making these materials:

— they must help the child's development

— they can be easily made or acquired

— they can be easily maintained

— their size and weight conforms to the child's physicalabilities

— they will help enhance the child's will power, intelligenceand her ability to work independently

— they will be familiar, they are things that the child sees orhas seen at home

3

2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure thatschool discipline is administered in a manner consistent with thechild’s human dignity and in conformity with the presentConvention.

3. States Parties shall promote and encourage internationalcooperation in matters relating to education, in particular with aview to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and illiteracythroughout the world and facilitating access to scientific andtechnical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard,particular account shall be taken of the needs of developingcountries.

The absence of the mention of pre-primary education highlights thelow awareness worldwide about the educational needs of earlychildhood. However, Article 29 sets out

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directedto:

(a) The development of the child’s personality, talents andmental and physical abilities to their fullest potential;

(b) The development of respect for human rights andfundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined inthe Charter of the United Nations;

(c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his orher own cultural identity, language and values, for thenational values of the country in which the child is living,the country from which he or she may originate, and forcivilizations different from his or her own;

(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a freesociety, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance,equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic,national and religious groups and persons of indigenousorigin;

(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

These are principles that coincide with Dr Montessori's advocacy ofPeace Education for all children.

Pre-Primary Education: A Fundamental Right

Yet, this is a priority area after recent amendments to the Constitution ofIndia. The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 amendedthe Constitution as follows:

2. Insertion of new article 21A.- After article 21 of theConstitution, the following article shall be inserted,namely:-

Right to Education“21A. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to

all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such

Exercises of Practical Life

Introduction

From morning to night, our lives are full of activity. We brush ourteeth, wash our faces, have a bath, put on clothes and shoes. Wesweep the floor. We pour water into glasses. When guests come, weserve them. All these are activities of practical life.These are activities that a child sees and observes since birth. She seesthem each day, because they are performed each they, in the sameway. Therefore these activities become extremely familiar. As soon asshe gains some control over her limbs, she wants to do them herself,to participate. At first she wants to do what her mother does, then shewants to emulate her father and brother and sister. And then she triesto grab the broom and rag from the domestic help.Adults do these activities because they have to. But children? Theywant to do them because they want to grow up. These activities helpin their development — physical, mental — and in buildingcharacter. We keep these activities in our Montessori environment asessential components of child development. We call them Exercises of

A set of picture cards to familiarise children with various things found in practical life

47 4

manner as the State may, by law, determine.”.

3. Substitution of new article for article 45.- For article 45 ofthe Constitution, the following article shall be substituted,namely:- .

Provision for early childhood care and education tochildren below the age of six years.

“45. The State shall endeavour to provide early childhoodcare and education for all children until theycomplete the age of six years.”.

4. Amendment of article 51A.- In article 51A of theConstitution, after clause (J), the following clause shall beadded, namely:-

“(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunitiesfor education to his child or, as the case may be,ward between the age of six and fourteen years.”.

Skills and Will

Despite the laudable aims of this amendment, little can be achievedwithout• the awareness of the requirement of pre-primary education;• the political will to implement it; and• the infrastructure and trained manpower required toimplement itUnfortunately, even with political will, pre-primary education cannotgo far without awareness of its necessity and the awareness that itrequires specially trained personnel to implement it.Even today, there is a widespread belief that it takes no specialtraining to be a pre-primary or even primary school teacher.If you successfully complete this course, you will realise that the pre-primary stage is the most critical stage of education; and trained pre-primary teachers are critical to this stage of education.

children vaccinated.

First Aid

Every home with a child should have a proper first aid kit with thefollowing:

• Surgical Cotton Wool

• An Antiseptic like Dettol or Savlon

• Band Aid

• Surgical Gauze

• Sticking Plaster

• Mercurochrome or a similar antiseptic lotion or ointment

• Scissors

• Burnol or similar ointment for burns

• Oral Rehydration Solution

• Gripe Water

It should be remembered that these are for emergency treatment only.A doctor should be consulted at the earliest opportunity and nomedicines should be administered without medical advice.

Some First Aid Tips

• If a child swallows an object like a coin, put the child head downand slap his back

• If a child cuts himself, wash the place with clean water and applyan antiseptic like mercurochrome, tincture of iodine, benzene orDettol. If the wound is relatively large, cover it with a bandage toavoid infection.

• In cases of bruises, apply ice to stop the bleeding beneath the skin

• If a child bumps his head, apply ice on the bump. In case ofconcussion, the child should be immediately taken to hospital.

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• When the mother is sick and unable to keep watch

• When the child is restless

• When there is excitement at home— the family is gettingready for an outing, or guests are expected

• When parents have arguments

• When the play area has not been made safe

Safety Precautions

• All medicines and chemicals should be kept out of reach ofchildren

• All containers containing chemicals should be clearlylabelled

• Electrical wiring should not be at a low level; wires shouldnot be left lying on the floor

• Electrical outlets should be installed at a safe height

• Pins, needles, matches, lighters, knive, scissors and sharpinstruments, plastic bags, heavy objects that are not tooheavy to be pulled or pushed by the child should be keptsafely out of reach of children

• Floors should be clean and never slippery

• Furniture and fittings should not have sharp edges orpoints on which the child can hurt itself

• Things should not be left lying on the floor

• It is safer for a child to sit on the floor than on a chair

• Commodes and toilet pans should be safely covered. It issafer to use a plastic potty for the baby

Health Checkpoints

A child should be checked regularly by a qualified healthprofessional to ensure that it is reaching developmental milestoneson time. It should be remembered that certain handicaps likedeafness may not be recognised by inexperienced parents at first; yetthe earlier such a handicap is identified the more likely is the child toovercome it and lead a normal life. Similarly certain diseases orconditions can be treated only if detected early enough.

Vaccination

Following a proper vaccination schedule as advised by your doctor orhealth worker not only saves your child from the diseases againstwhich she is vaccinated; it also helps eradicates the disease itself.Teachers can play a key rôle in ensuring vaccination in the localcommunity by advising parents and encouraging them to have their

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2 Pre-Primary Education:A Historical Perspective

From the informal education within a family andcommunity that marks most primitive societies to theinstitutionalised education system of today, education has

come a long way.Education is a social activity. Many educationists and philosophershave tried to interpret it from their own viewpoints; and the aims andobjectives of education have varied with the philosophies prevailingin different ages.

Theories of Education: Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism

Idealism: The Idealist philosophies believe that the world is anexpression of the Supreme Being. The world we see is fleeting. Onlythe Supreme Being is real and eternal. That is God. The Supreme Soulresides in our own souls; the awareness of this Being is the aim of Lifeand its liberation. Religious and moral instruction forms animportant part education according to this school of thought.Naturalism: Naturalism is a reaction to Spiritualism. This school ofthought believes that the natural qualities and abilities of the childmust be given an opportunity to be expressed. The mental level of achild changes with age. The methods of education must conform tothe needs of the child. Education is the natural development of thechild's potential; the needs of the child, his nature, his potential, hiswill and interest form the basis of education. The child controls hiseducation, and the child must be allowed to express himself in hisenvironment through his activities.Rousseau was the main advocate of this ideology. Later Fröbel,Herbert and Dr Montessori gave it a wider and more well-definedstructure.Pragmatism: This theory brought a revolutionary change to theworld of education. The basic premise of Pragmatism is that truth canonly be proved through its application in the real world. There is nosuch thing as eternal truth. In a changing world, truth also changes.Whatever brings success is true; whatever is useless is false.

more prone to temper tantrums than amiable, peaceloving children.

The child's will versus parental control

The child's tantrum is a display of willpower and strength, and anattempt to capture attention. When the child's will clashes with thatof an adult, it results in a struggle. The tantrum starts as an attempt toexert its will, and intensifies as it actually makes the child tired.If the parents express their concern about such tantrums to someonein front of the child, that only encourages it; the child notices that thetantrum does draw attention.

Child Safety

During the first few months of life a child is utterly unable to lookafter itself. But given the opportunity, it gradualy learns to do so.Parents should know to what extent a child may be left to look afteritself independently and how far it should be kept under their care.Just as it is important to care for the child, it is a crime to to turn achild into a shy, scared and overdependent person.Having said this, it is important to ensure safety for the child evenwhile we allow it independence. The most important thing is tocreate an environment it can explore safely. This means consciouslyremoving everything that can hurt it from within its reach; if that isnot possible, the child should be kept under constant watch while it isin the vicinity of anything that could cause harm.

Preventing accidents

Accidents leave a temporary or long-lasting scar upon the child'spsyche. A child that has scalded itself trying to drink hot milk is likelyto refuse milk till it can be persuaded that the milk itself won't hurt.Similarly, a child that hurts itself painfully in a fall while learning towalk is likely to refuse to try again for some time.An important thing, however, is never to keep saying no to whateverit does. It is likely to rebel and not take your 'no' seriously enough;that may result in an accident when it does something you told it notto.

Accident-prone Situations

Accidents are prone to happen at certain times and environments:• When the child is hungry, tired or sick, and therefore less

alert

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Therefore truth changes with changing needs. What is true in our agemay prove to be false in another. Whatever is successful in the light ofour experience we shall accept as true — this ideology had its mainproponent in Dewey. Education is the experience of the child throughthe interaction of the child with his environment.Dr Montessori's influence on child education: By education andprofession, Dr Maria Montessori was a paediatrician andpsychologist. It was by accident that she came to be involved in childeducation, and the result was revolutionary. In order to understandwhy and how, we must know about her life and work.

The Inclusion of Early Childhood Learning asPart of Institutionalised Education

Through most of history, early childhood learning was never part offormal education, which usually started much later. Early childhoodwas usually spent in a family environment. The need for institutionaleducation at this arose as the industrial revolution brought more andmore mothers into the workforce and children were left without care.The early theorists of early childhood education included Froebel inGermany, Dr Montessori in Italy and Margaret and Rachel Macmillanin the UK.

Child Education in India

Through most of history, children in India — the minority who havehad access to education — have started their education in institutionslike tols and madrasahs, where learning was by rote and entirelyteacher-centric. It was only in the nineteenth century that reformerslike Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar attempted to make child educationmore child-friendly. Nevertheless, it was still highly teacher-centric,with emphasis on moral instruction.Rabindranath Tagore was one of the pioneers of original thought onchild education in India. The methods followed at the Shishu Bhavanin Shantiniketan brought a new dimension to child education inIndia. Dr Maria Montessori said of him, I brought science to childeducation; Tagore brought poetry.Dr. Montessori spent an important period of her life in India. Many ofher original works were written while in India. The revolutionaryinfluence of Tagore and Montessori on child-centric education was soindistinguishable in India and Southeast Asia that it came to beknown as the 'Tagore-Montessori Method'.

opening up for him. He wants to understand the minds of grown-ups. And he starts having anxieties.On the one hand, while he becomes self-confident, he also becomesdependent. He wants freedom. Yet shyness, frustration, anger,jealousy, likes and dislikes are also developing within him. Heexpresses all these emotions by crying.This is the age when he learns to fear. Fear is natural, because it is aself-defence mechanism.The child is afraid of the unknown. So he may be afraid of the dark,shy of strangers, reluctant to accept unfamiliar objects. He is alsoafraid of unpleasant sensory experiences like lightning and thunder.These fears will be overcome if the unfamiliar becomes familiar.Therefore on no account should we deliberately scare a child or playupon his fears. We should try to make him comfortable with newexperiences. We can, for instance, spend time in the dark with him,and explain the reason for day and night as soon as he canunderstand. A village child is much less likely to fear the dark than achild living in the midst of city lights.

Separation Anxiety

Many children fear separation from parents, particularly from themother. It often becomes a problem when sending them to pre-schoolenvironment for the first time.The best way to overcome this insecurity is for the mother to playwith him for about 15 minutes before he starts getting ready. Gettingready itself should be an enjoyable experience; the child should neverbe forced. He should have a say in what he wears, what tiffin he takesto school.Within a few days, the child will look forward to getting ready andgoing to school.

Temper Tantrums

A temper tantrum is an assertion of the child's will against the adult.Tantrums come on suddenly, and the cause might be trivial. Once thechild starts, it refuses to stop. It beats its head against the wall, throwswhatever comes to hand, sometimes it holds its breath till it turnsblue.What is the cause?Part of it lies in the child's personality. Strong, lively children are

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3 EDUCATION THEORY

Introduction

Education is the blossoming of a life. It reflects every facet of humanlife. We have already learnt that

1. Education and life are parallel. The history of education is thehistory of human civilisation. A person’s education starts at birthand continues till the moment of death.

2. In a wider sense, education does not simply mean gatheringknowledge on any particular subject. Learning limited to aparticular subject is solely for pursuing a particular career orinterest. But education itself is an endless process of experiencingand learning from life.

3. Education is ever-changing. A human being continuously gathersnew experiences and evaluates them on the basis of pastexperience. This is a lifelong process. A person retains theknowledge of experience that helps him in his life. Educationtherefore is an active, progressive process.

4. The scope of education is not just limited to the evaluation of one’sexperiences. Humans preserve the knowledge of past experiencefor future generations. In no age have humans started off solelywith new experiences; they have always had a foundation ofexperiences and learning from the past preserved by society.

5. Human life is a process of adjusting to one’s environment. Thewider scope of education is to enable this process of adjustment of

a. a person with his environment

b. a person with other persons

c. an individual with his internal and external nature

d. an individual with the mores and morals of his society

This is how the individual expresses itself. This is the dialecticprocess through which Man becomes aware of different values.

Child-centric Education

The first and main element in education is the child or student. Theneeds of a child were ignored in earlier systems of education. Thepurpose of education was to reflect the will and tastes of elders upon

take the spoon from the mother's hand. He should be encouragedwhen he wants to do this. It will give him self-confidence, and he willenjoy meals. He should eat with the rest of the family. He may make amess with his food. But parents should have patience to bear with it.Once he picks up feeding skills, he will feed without any hassle. Onthe other hand, if we repress his attempts to feed himself, he is likelyto resent it and end up with a feeding problem that will plague theparents for years.When starting solids, it is best to provide foods that the familynormally eats. He can be given rice. Dal is good for him. Vegetablesand fish are excellent. Of course, on needs to follow some rules:

• all food should be mashed or cut into small pieces that the babycan tackle at his age

• he should never be left alone while feeding: he could choke on alarge piece or a large helping

• the feeding area and utensils should be clean and tidy

There are certain foods to be avoided when feeding a very youngchild:

• hot or rich foods

• too much sugar in food or drink

• fatty foods

• cut fruit which has remained exposed

• fruit with seeds or stones; seeds or stones should be removedbefore feeding

• tea or coffee

• drinks containing alcohol

Once a child is well set on solid foods and feeds less at the breast hewill need extra fluids. The child should be given plain water or fruitjuice, freshly pressed at home. Packaged soft drinks available in themarket should not be given, as they may contain substances harmfulto the child's health.As the child grows, he can start sharing the family's food. It isworthwhile to cook less spicy, oily or rich food that everyone can eatwhile there is a young child in the family.

2.3 Crying

Crying is a means of communication for the baby. As it grows, thereasons for crying become more and more complex. Just after birth, ababy cries because it is hungry or tired or because of discomfort. Butas it develops, its mind becomes more organised. The world starts

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a child’s life. The child did not actively educate itself according to itsown needs and capacity; education was imposed upon its mind. Theteacher is the giver of knowledge. The child is the receiver. Thereforeeducation was teacher-centric, run-of-the-mill, lifeless.Modern education is child-centric. The child is ancient, the sametoday as it was when Man first emerged on this earth. The child inthis age of technology is no different from the stone-age child in itsinsatiable curiosity, it its instinctive urge to explore and discover. It isbecause of this that we have to think so carefully about its problems.The 21st Century is an age of rediscovery. We have to discover thechild afresh.

Education Theory in an Indian Perspective: Rousseau,Tagore and Montessori

Rousseau’s Philosophy

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the 18th Century French philosopher, laid thefoundations of modern educational philosophy with his book, Émile.The focus of Émile is upon the individual tuition of a boy/young manin line with the principles of ‘natural education’. He made, it can beargued, the first comprehensive attempt to describe a system ofeducation according to what he saw as ‘nature’. It certainly stresseswholeness and harmony, and a concern for the person of the learner.Central to this was the idea that it was possible to preserve the‘original perfect nature’ of the child, ‘by means of the careful controlof his education and environment, based on an analysis of thedifferent physical and psychological stages through which he passedfrom birth to maturity’. This was a fundamental point. Rousseauargued that the momentum for learning was provided by the growthof the person (nature) - and that what the educator needed to do wasto facilitate opportunities for learning.The focus on the environment, on the need to develop opportunitiesfor new experiences and reflection, and on the dynamic provided byeach person’s development remain very powerful ideas.We’ll quickly list some of the key elements that we still see in hiswriting:

• a view of children as very different to adults - as innocent,vulnerable, slow to mature - and entitled to freedom andhappiness (Darling 1994: 6). In other words, children are naturallygood.

otherwise the mother may not be strong enough to cater to the needsof two children at the same time. Neither should the interval be toolong; it results in too large a mental gap between siblings.

Boy or girl?

There are couples who yearn for a girl; others may want a boy.Modern medical technology has made it possible to ascertain the sexof the unborn child through tests like amniocentesis andultrasonography. Unfortunately, such tests have had to be banned inIndia because they were being used to abort female foetuses. In asociety prejudiced against female children, failure to bear maleoffspring often results in persecution of the mother. Femaleinfanticide is practised in parts of the country.It is heartening however to see that more and more parents arecoming to realise that a girl child is not a liability; she can competewith her brothers. In fact, in modern society, it is often a daughterwho is likely to care for her parents in old age than a son.

Good habits start young

Many problems in later life have their inception right at thebeginning of infancy. Like many teachers, parents too assume thatchildren are like putty that can be moulded to their liking; or that achild is too young to learn good habits.In fact, the environment for a baby to grow into a healthy individualmust be provided right from the beginning. He must be given thespace and opportunity to grow; parents should just guide him.Nothing should be forced on the child. Forcing a child into an activityonly conditions him to dislike it. A very young child has the naturalinstincts to know his own needs and tries to demand them throughhis actions. Parents must learn to interpret what he tries to expressand respond accordingly; they should not try to impose what theythink he needs on him.

Feeding habits

Feeding a baby is one of the areas where parents are particularlyprone to force their perceptions on a child, or try to make himconform to their convenience. Breastfeeding is always best for a baby.It gives him not only just the right nutrition, it also gives him all thefluid he needs. He does not even need water while he is breastfed.When he starts taking solids, he also wants to feed himself. He tries to

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• the idea that people develop through various stages - and thatdifferent forms of education may be appropriate to each.

• a guiding principle that what is to be learned should bedetermined by an understanding of the person’s nature at eachstage of their development.

• an appreciation that individuals vary within stages - and thateducation must as a result be individualized. ‘Every mind has itsown form’

• each and every child has some fundamental impulse to activity.Restlessness in time being replaced by curiosity; mental activitybeing a direct development of bodily activity.

• the power of the environment in determining the success ofeducational encounters. It was crucial - as Dewey also recognized -that educators attend to the environment. The more they were ableto control it - the more effective would be the education.

• the controlling function of the educator - The child, Rousseauargues, should remain in complete ignorance of those ideas whichare beyond his/her grasp. (This he sees as a fundamentalprinciple).

• the importance of developing ideas for ourselves, to make sense ofthe world in our own way. People must be encouraged to reasontheir way through to their own conclusions - they should not relyon the authority of the teacher. Thus, instead of being taught otherpeople’s ideas, Émile is encouraged to draw his own conclusionsfrom his own experience. What we know today as ‘discoverylearning’ One example, Rousseau gives is of Émile breaking awindow — only to find he gets cold because it is left unrepaired.

• a concern for both public and individual education.1

Rousseau’s philosophy of education found concrete expression in thework of several leading educationists from the mid-18th Century tomid-19th Century and spread all over the world. Pestalozzi, Herbertand Froebel were among the leading exponents.

Tagore’s Philosophy

Rabindranath Tagore tried to bring child education close to Nature athis institution at Shantiniketan. The child’s sense of freedom, a freeenvironment, the child’s physical, mental and spiritual developmentwere the focus of this education. To quote Tagore,

“I don’t think even the busiest people can deny that an open sky, a freeatmosphere and greenery are extremely important for the correctdevelopment of a human child. With age, pulled by the duties of ouroffice, pushed by the crowds, mind distracted by myriad worries, wegrow up to lose much of our closeness with Nature. Let us at least knowthe eternal cradle of water, earth, sky and wind into which we were

2 Health and Hygiene

The health of a child depends to a great extent on the healthawareness of his family and community.

A Healthy Mother: First Requirement fora Healthy Child

We know that a child's first environment is its mother's womb. Wecannot expect good fruit unless the tree is strong and healthy.Similarly, the chances of a child being born healthy depends on thephysical and mental health of the mother. Care for a mother'sphysical and mental health should begin even before conception, andher family bears a great responsibility in this respect. Duringpregnancy, all care must be taken for the care of the unborn child, andthat means caring for the mothers health for nine months andensuring safe delivery.

At what age is it safe to become a mother?

It is important to remember that apart from being generally healthy, awoman should be physiologically and psychologically ready formotherhood. Medical evidence shows that this maturity usuallycomes at around 20 years of age. On the other hand, there is anincreased risk of abnormal birth in women over 35 years old.Motherhood, therefore, should be planned with professional advice,keeping in mind factors like the family's economic condition andother factors likely to influence the upbringing of the child.The important thing to consider is the ability of a mother to care forthe baby and the help and support she can get from her husband andfamily members. A sick mother or a tired mother or an ignorantmother is more likely to be impatient with her child or neglect it.

One child or more?

The decision to have a second child depends on the couple. But asecond child should come not earlier that three years after the first;

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born, let us draw in its nectar as at a mother’s breast, let us absorb itsliberating message, only then shall we grow into complete humans. Letthe boys play while their hearts are yet young, curiosity alive, senses yetkeen, under the open sky, where the sun plays with the clouds; don’tdeprive them of Nature’s embrace. Let every dawn, cool and pure, openeach day to them with fingers of light; let sunset-brilliant, sereneevenings silently spread a star-studded curtain of darkness at the end ofeach day. Let them witness the six-act musical drama of the seasons,played out on a stage of green. Let them stand under the trees in Juneand see the young monsoon approach like a prince newly crowned, thedark, rain-bearing clouds, thunderous in their joy, blanketing the ever-hopeful forest with the shadow of imminent rain; and, after the rainsdepart, let them be blessed with the sight of endless green richesspreading to the horizons on the breast of the generous earth, revellingin verdant colours, kissed by dew-laden breezes. O guardian, madewise by your years and your head for business, you may have numbedyour imagination and hardened your heart, but never even in shame,say their is no need for this; let your children feel the magic touch ofMother Earth at first hand. Even if you cannot comprehend how muchmore effective it is than your Inspector’s reports and examiner’squestion papers, do not deign to ignore it...”

Kindergarten: Froebel’s Education Philosophy

The German educationist Froebel established a school for childrenaged 3 to 8 years and called it Kindergarten or the Garden ofChildren. Today, this name represents Froebel’s philosophyworldwide.According to Froebel, a school is a garden where the students areseedlings and the teacher, an alert gardener. The teacher’s duty is totake care and see how his charges grow up – she is there solely toassist the child’s development. Froebel has said, the the child’s mindis by nature self-active. No external effort is needed to activate it; thisactiveness naturally happens in a child’s life. The teacher will createan environment that does not interfere with the child’s natural life.Froebel does not detail the requirements of the environment; he saysthat the child’s self-activeness will express itself through play andspontaneous activity. By spontaneous work, he means song anddance, entertainment, movement, conversation, drawing pictures,telling stories and so on. He also speaks of exercising the senses

may let him see how you prepare the picnic basket. You may also letthe child help you in all other preparations so that his interest in thecoming event may be increased. The important point is that the planof the walk or the course of it should not be changed without gettingthe consent of the child. It is of creative value that a child sees a planand sees it carried out. It must be remembered that at this stage awalk is not intended to make the child walk about. He must beregarded as an observer and explorer who walk spontaneously forthe sake of observation or exploration. It is the child’s interest in theouter environment that must determine the course of his walk. Themind moves towards items of interest. Thus after miles of such aneducative walk the child shows no symptoms of excessive fatigue.There must be provision for the child to have contact with nature, tounderstand and appreciate the order, the harmony and the beauty ofnature. And also to master the natural laws which are the basis of allsciences and arts, so that the child may better understand andparticipate in the marvellous things which civilisation creates. It thusbecomes a duty of society to satisfy the need of the child at thevarious stages of development.The houses of children are intended to solve the above socialproblems. Dr. Montessori discovered the new method of offeringeducation to the children on the basis of her observation. The firstHouse of Children gave her the stimulation and courage to observethe children and to know their real nature and needs. She continuedto observe in a specially prepared environment, where she wanted todevelop a child. A child reveals his real needs in a specially preparedenvironment. The child wants to exercise himself to become masterand consolidate what he has achieved. The Montessori Methodreveals itself in its vital manner of observation. The more we observe,the more we can know the needs of the children; not only in quantity,but also in quality. So we will have to learn to observe each and everyindividual child’s needs in their own way.

Montessori Method as a technique of love.

The more we know the child; more we can serve the child. In a Houseof Children somebody must be there to observe and correct themistakes of a trained assistant. From the point of inner discipline, weshould learn to observe the children as a community, as a group, andas individuals.

1Michele Erina Doyle and Mark K. Smith (1997) ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseauon Education’, THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF INFORMAL EDUCATION, http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm

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through object lessons. The development of the senses is animportant psychological foundation. According to him, not only doesthe activity exercise the senses, it also expresses and satisfies thecreativity inherent in every child.Froebel’s system of education works through gifts and occupation.For instance, a child may be given a sphere and a cube. These gifts arenot simply playthings, they also symbolise definite concepts.The Kindergarten system also lays importance on the socialdevelopment of a child.

The Montessori Method

At the beginning of the 20th Centuri, Dr Maria Montessoriintroduced a new method of education. The method brought arevolutionary change in child education.Many elements of modern education have been adapted fromMontessori’s theories. She is credited with the development of theopen classroom, the role of teacher as a guide, multi age classrooms;develop mentally appropriate and individualised education, and theuse of manipulative learning materials.

4 The Montessori Way

Early social experiences play an important part in later personalitydevelopment. The social behaviour of a person and his attitudes tosocial situations are largely formed by the home environment. If theoverall family atmosphere is healthy this will contribute to thefavourable social attitudes, on the other hand tensions and conflictsin the family are likely to affect the child’s social behaviour adversely.Early social experiences outside the home also contribute to the socialattitudes and social behaviour of the child when he grows up to be anadult. If the child enjoys favourable relationships with his friends andadults outside the home, he will enjoy his social contacts and willwant to repeat them.Social development is thus influenced by many factors and parentsand adults who came in contact with the child play an important rolein the social development of pre-school children.

Observation and Discovery

Before the age of two and a half years the child is almost completelyengrossed in the development of his own personality. She has verylittle communion even with other persons of her own age. After twoand a half years of age the child gets interested in other persons; shebecomes sociable. This is another characteristic of the period. Thechild begins to observe more closely and discuss in greater detail theobjects of the environment. Consequently between two and a halfyears and three years it is admissible to take educative action in twodirections. First as preparation for further development in the houseof children, the social life of the child may be initiated by helping thechild to receive visits from people he knows and to make calls onother persons of his acquaintance and thus to enlarge and increase hissocial contacts as far as he can.The other preparation for the child of two and half years is to helphim in his more detailed observation and discovery of hisenvironment. This is best done at this stage by providing for longwalks for the child. The consent of the child must be won before thewalk. The child must know in his own way that is going for a walkand where he is going. The child must be given a change to preparehis mind for what is to follow. It is importance for the development ofthe child that the child should visualise with as much clearness as ispossible under the circumstances what are going to be his futureactions. If for instance you have an intention to have a picnic during awalk it is good to tell the child that you are going to have a picnic. You

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Dr Maria Montessori passionately believed each adultmust develop her or his abilities to observe childrendeeply so as to witness the unfolding of each new human

being.She pursued a scientific education and was the first woman tobecome a physician in Italy. As a practising physician associated withthe University of Rome, she was a scientist not a teacher. Herinvolvement in pedagogy was almost accidental.Her approach to education was scientific and empirical. Keenlyobservant, she discovered a number of secrets — aspects of youngchildren never before observed.Many elements of modern education have been adapted fromMontessori’s theories. She is credited with the development of theopen classroom, the role of teacher as a guide, multi age classrooms;develop mentally appropriate and individualised education, and theuse of manipulative learning materials.

Life of Dr Maria Montessori

Dr Maria Montessori was born on 31 August 1870 at a villageChiaravalle, Anlona near the Italian capital of Rome. She was an onlychild. Her father was a military man. Her mother was deeplyreligious.Even in her childhood, Maria had a deep empathy for the disabledand downtrodden. One of her closest friends was a polio-strickenchild. Maria gave her constant company and helped her in all herneeds.Soft-spoken and friendly, Dr Montessori yet displayed a streak ofstubbornness even as a child. She never liked her textbooks —learning by heart the lives of great men! But she never ever thoughtshe would be a teacher. In fact, her first ambition was to be anengineer. But when she finished school, she set her heart on becominga doctor. Her father wouldn’t hear of it. In those days it was unheardof for a girl to become a doctor. Though her father refused, shewouldn’t give up either. She gave tuitions to earn the money neededto study medicine and joined a medical college, defying her father.She immersed herself in the study of medicine. But the environmentwas extremely hostile for her. She was the only girl in the college. Andshe was pretty. That was a problem. She was constantly teased andharassed by the boys.

and demanding.Thus parents and other adults crucially influence a child’s emotionaldevelopment with their own behaviour towards them. In fact, adultsin close proximity to the child need to be careful even with theirbehaviour towards each other, because anger, jealousy and othernegative emotions amongst adults in the environment can also have anegative impact on a child’s emotional development.Social Development in Pre-School YearsWe live in human society, firstly within a family, which is part oflarger social units —religious and ethnic, regional, national and soon.Any social structure expects certain behaviour from its members.Social development concerns the acquisition of abilities to act andbehave in a manner that is in accordance with these socialexpectations. In modern society, it also involves transcendingprejudices and attitudes in many existing societies and conforming tonorms that respect the rights and beliefs of all humanity.There are three processes involved in social development:

1. Proper performance of behaviour;

2. Playing approved social roles; and

3. The development of proper social attitudes.

Social development is a process in which the child learns to behavewith others around him and in the social group in such a way that hewill be accepted by this group as a member. A child is not born withany readymade social behaviour. He learns as he interacts with moreand more humans around him, particularly with individuals fromthe greater social environment outside his immediate family.True socialisation takes place as the child tries to adapt or modify hisfeelings and behaviour in accordance with the social group. This canbe observed in the Nursery class, or school situation where the childtries to win approval of others through his behaviour. The childshould have proper opportunities by which he can learn how to livesocially with others. This is very important in the early formativeyears.The child has such opportunities when he plays with children in theneighbourhood. Pre-school education in the form of KindergartenMontessori or Nursery schools also offers this opportunity with theadditional benefit of the guidance and directions from the teacher. Inthese schools, children not only have the company of his own age-mates but also adults or different age groups and social backgrounds.

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Yet she had to have far more courage than the boys. She was allowedto work in the laboratories only after the men had finished. Whichmeant at night. She had to dissect cadavers alone. More often thannot she returned home after sunrise.At one point of time, she even considered dropping out. As shewalked from college with this thought in mind, she saw an amazingsight. A mother was begging by the road while her two-year old childplayed beside her. The child had found some colourful wrappingpaper, and was carefully tearing it into small bits. She stared at thechild for a long time. She walked away, but she had a strange feelingand returned. She felt that there was much she could do for the child.She felt inspired enough to complete her studies.

How the Montessori Method Originated

She taught at the medical school of the University of Rome, andthough its free clinics, she came into frequent contact with thechildren of the working class and poor. These experiences convincedher that intelligence is not same and that most children come into theworld with the human potential that is barely revealed unless adultcreates environments specifically designed for children to exercisetheir learning capabilities.In the early part of her career, she was deputed to work with mentalpatients. She was horrified to find that psychiatric patients were notthe only ones housed there. There were disabled children too whowere housed with the demented. She tried to convince the otherdoctors that it was not right, that the disabled should be separatedfrom the demented. But none agreed. She protested. The institute wastreating its patients as guinea pigs.She continued her protests to various levels and in various ways andappealed to the government to remove the mentally disabled fromthe institute.At last, the authorities responded. She was given a place where shecould take care of the mentally disabled.In 1900 Montessori was appointed director of the New OrthophrenicSchool attached to the University of Rome. It was here that she begana meticulous study of the available research. Her study ledMontessori to the works of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) whobelieved sensory experience was the basis for all knowledge. She alsostudied Pestalozzi, Froebel, Itard and Seguin, who had madepathbreaking research in their time.

is important that their emotions are handled with understanding.How to handle the emotions of a childThe early years are crucial to a child’s ultimate emotionaldevelopment. If emotions are improperly handled at this stage, itleaves a lifelong scar: the child is likely to grow up poorly adjusted inlater life. The first requirement for healthy emotional development isan environment that is conducive.Harlock has pointed out some characteristics of children’s emotions:

1 They are short-lived.

2 They are more intense than those of adults.

3 They are transient e.g. child shifts quickly from laughter to tears.

4 They get emotional more frequently than adults

5 Children show different emotional responses to the same situation.

6 Children’s emotions are visible.

Children experience different types of emotions. Some are negativefeelings towards the object of emotion: fear, anger and jealousy. Whilethese emotions do have a rôle to play in self-preservation orcompetition, any excess is harmful to its emotional development.They can lead to unhappiness and maladjustment in later life.Therefore they should be avoided as far as possible and the childenergies channelled to more positive feelings. Their attention shouldbe diverted. The causes of such emotions should be analysed andremoved to the extent possible.Anger and jealousy often are symptoms of insecurity. Therefore thebest way to handle them is to make the child feel wanted and lovedby parents and others around them for what they are. They shouldnot be punished for expressing these emotions unless the cause harmto anyone. Parents should treat such behaviour with understanding.It is particularly important not to vent our own anger and frustrationupon the child. Nor should they be handled by bribing the child withtreats; that only encourages this kind of behaviour because the childassociates it with rewards.On the other hand, the child also displays affection and love,hugging, petting and kissing the objects of his affection. The objectsof affection are not only persons but also pets and toys. Love andaffection from parents and others around the child help theseemotions develop. If they are neglected, or not shown enough loveand affection, children tend to withdraw into themselves. On theother hand the show of love and affection should not extend tounnecessary pampering, which can cause the child to become selfish

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She applied what she learnt from her study to the education of herown work. She worked tirelessly to educate her charges. After twoyears, the mentally challenged children sat for an examination inwhich normal children also took part. The world was wonderstruckwhen the disabled children outdid the normal ones.Though the world felicitated her, Dr Montessori was deeply troubled.She wondered why the healthy, normal children could not competewith their disabled brothers. This is what set her thinking and led toher discovery of the Montessori Method of Child Education.Ironically, Dr Montessori herself never ever had a direct opportunityto work with normal children.

The First Casa Di Bambini

The Montessori Method arose out of the first Casa di Bambini —whatstarted off as aday-care centre for working class children. This is thestory in Dr. Montessori's own words:

It came about in a strange way, I have pondered much about it and triedto understand the reason for it. I don’t know if it is an indication ofdestiny, or if it was established by fate itself. All that I know is that it hassomething to do with the House itself. It may seem curious that I expressit in this way but I do so to render the ensuing story clear.Many years ago, Rome was a capital of a state in very rapiddevelopment, which manifested itself in a mania for building. Everysmall available space was utilised to build houses, every- little opensquare. One of the many was delimited on one side by the old Roman-walls which had witnessed many battles and on the other by the moderncemetery. This area was the last place to be filled, no doubt because ofthe superstition that it was not lucky to live near the dead, for fear ofghosts and also for hygienic reasons.But probably because of the beautiful and historical situation, onebuilding society decided to stake its money into building there. It was atremendous scheme, five houses on the scale of palaces, 5 or 6 storieshigh. But the idea had been too vast so that the society went bankruptbefore the building were completed and the scheme failed. The workwas interrupted and left to stand. There were only the walls with openholes for doors and windows, there was no plumbing and the erectionsstood as a sort of skeleton.For many years this enormous skeleton remained abandoned andneglected. It became a shelter for homeless beggars, a hiding place forevildoers who wished to avoid recognition and who if discovered, couldeasily escape in this labyrinth. Criminals of all sorts, thieves andmurderers, took refuge in them. People lived there in the same

This first period in a child’s development is a highly creative oneduring which the body and mind go through rapid and importantchanges. The end of this period of psychological development is adividing line: the beginning of conscious memory. We carry littleconscious memory of this period of early childhood. We call it thepsycho-embryonic period. In this psycho-embryonic period, variouspowers develop separately and independently on one another forexample, language, arm movements and leg movements and certainsensory powers also take shape. In this psycho-embryonic period,various powers develop separately and independently of oneanother. Thus it happens that at the age of three, life seems to beginagain. Before three the functions are being created; after three theydevelop.Dr Montessori observed that a child starts revealing his consciousindividual character after about two and a half years of age. Prior tothat there is no conscious process of mental development. But infantsof that age do have some universal powers that make it possible forthem to development with perfection, fullness and joy. One suchpower is ‘Horney’, will power. Another is ‘Mneme’, the power ofretention.Dr Montessori was the first to recognise that the mind of a child ofthis age is different from an adult’s, it is an unconscious mind. Shecalled it the ‘Absorbent Mind’. The child absorbs everything that is inits environment and makes it a part of himself. This absorbent mindis universal.How does a child attain this miraculous development? How does helearn by himself without a teacher? The laws of Nature dictate thatthe development of every organism must be accomplished in theprecise space of time allotted to it. Dr Montessori saw it as Nature’sgreatest miracle.

Emotional Development in the Pre-School Years

Emotional and Social Responses in the Very Young Child

Emotions are basic in very young children. They cry from hunger,tiredness, discomfort or even boredom. As they grow, they smile andgurgle when something soothes them or gives them pleasure. Theytend to become quiet when picked up. They respond to the voices ofadults.Their emotions and responses become more complex as they grow. It

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conditions as the cavemen of old did in their caves.All those who were homeless, and those who wished to hide, foundshelter within those walls. Even the police did not go near them, ordared to, as they did not know their way within these grim walls ofcrime and horror.Slowly, the number grew, until thousands of people crowded in theseabandoned buildings. People were found dead, murdered orsuccumbed to diseases; the place became a breeding place of infectionfor the whole land; a centre of crime and of the lowest prostitution.The “Quartiere di San Lorenzo” became known as the shame of Italy.People were too afraid to do anything about it; no one knew whathappened within those dark walls. There were no small shops forprovisions anywhere near, no itinerant vendor would go there to sell.Even the lowest labourer, or the poorest fisherman would seem asprinces in comparison, for however poor, they would have at least somehonest livelihood whereas those who lived inside that gloom had nowork, no means to pay, their only livelihood was derived from crime.The problem of clearing this pit of inhumanity demanded a solution.Another building society of very wealthy bankers, considered theproblem and decided that as the walls already stood, only a smallexpenditure would be necessary to make fruitful whatever capital wasinvested. The district, due to its ill—repute, would of course neverbecome a fashionable quarter, therefore only small renovations werenecessary to render it habitable for these people already so unfortunate.Regarding it thus as a business venture, they started with one buildingwhich they discovered would house a thousand people. They used somewhitewash, put in some doors and windows, and laid in a few waterpipes and drains.It was estimated that in this area lived at least 10, 000 people, thereforebow could they discriminate which among them would be the best?They chose the married ones who by reason of their relation with oneanother would be the -most human. As it happened there were onlyvery few children. It seems perhaps logical that under such conditionsalthough there were thousands of men and women there should be onlyfifty children.But these children, wild and uncivilised as they were, presented aserious problem of damage to the houses. Left alone while the parentswent to work, they were free to carry out any wild fancy. So the directorof the concern decided that the only obvious thing to keep them out ofmischief was to collect all the children and confine them.One room was set aside for this purpose, resembling in every way achildren’s prison. It was hoped that a person would be found withenough social courage to tackle the problem.I in my capacity of medical officer of hygiene was approached to take an

about ten months, it stands and learns to walk at about twelvemonths. All these involve not only the physical growth anddevelopment of its limbs and body, but also the coordination of itsmovements with its senses.At the same time, the child’s mental development is also taking place.Starting with the ability to recognise and bond with its mother, thebaby starts to respond to other individuals in its environment.The most fascinating development is learning to speak. The child,who starts life with only the ability to express his needs through bodylanguage, absorbs the sounds of speech around him and slowly startsrecognising words. The first syllables he utters in his attempt to speakare the first stones in the complex structure of language he will buildfor himself over the years. It represents a great step in acquiringindependence, because he is beginning to express himself withgreater meaning and no longer depends on others to guess what he istrying to express. The acquisition of speech proceeds in parallel withlearning. He gets into direct touch with humans in his environment,and the power to speak and understand others’ speech gives himimmense scope for learning.Almost all mammals must learn to walk. For some, that is a matter ofminutes, for others, of days. But for none is the process as long as forMan. Because Man alone walks on two feet, and this involves aprolonged and delicate process of development. Standing andwalking on two feet means achieving a keen sense of balance andcoordination between our muscles and senses that is unimaginablydelicate. It requires an elaborate nervous organisation involvingseveral parts of the nervous system.But the rewards of bipedal locomotion to humankind is immense.Walking on two legs frees the hands for manipulative operations.Indeed, the evolution of Man is the history of the paralleldevelopment of his manual skills and of a brain powerful enough toachieve them. The development of his intellect is, in a sense, a by-product of this process, made possible by the increase in the capacityof his brain.The development of the skeleton is vital to the development of achild’s motor skills. The bones have to harden before it can take thestress of walking. The bones of the skull are not joined at birth,because they have to have to expand and make space for his growingbrain. They have to harden grow together enough to eliminate therisk of injury in case of a fall before the child starts walking.

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interest in the work. Having considered the situation I demanded that atleast the commonest aids in hygiene, food and sanitation be madeavailable.At the time it had become fashionable among society ladies to interestthemselves in social uplift. They were approached to do something tocollect funds, because we were confronted with the strange problem thatwhile the bankers had agreed to invest money to improve the housingsituation, they were not at all interested in education. One could notexpect any returns from money, put into anything with an educationalpurpose.Although society had embraced the ideal of improving the condition ofthese unfortunate people, the children had been forgotten. There wereno toys, no school, no teacher. There was nothing for them. I was able tofind one woman of 40 years, whose help I asked and who I put in charge.On the 6th of January 1907 this room was inaugurated to collect the 50children. The room had already been in use for little time but it wasinaugurated on that day. Throughout Italy the 6th of January is lookedupon as “the” day of feast for the children. It was on this day that thethree Kings arrived before the Child Christ and offered him their gifts. Itis celebrated as the Feast of Epiphany.It was striking at the time this interest of society imbued with the ideathat their giving hygienic houses to the homeless would be the means ofpurifying the evil core in their midst, consisting of a group of ten-thousand criminals and pitiful humanity. I also was imbued with thissentiment.But while everyone had had the idea that by giving houses andsanitation, the people would be purified, no one had taken inconsideration the children; no one had thought to bring toys or food forthem. When the children, ranging between the ages of 2 to 6 entered,they were dressed all alike in some thick, heavy, blue, drill. They werefrightened and being hindered by the stiff material, could move neitherarms nor legs freely. Apart of their own community they had never seenany people. To get them to move together, they were made to holdhands. The first unwilling child was pulled, thus dragging along thewhole line of the rest. All of them were crying miserably. The sympathyof the society ladies was aroused and they expressed the hope that in afew months they would improve.I had been asked to make a speech for the occasion.I don’t know what came over me but I had a vision and inspired by it, Iwas enflamed and said that this work we were undertaking wouldprove to be very important and that some day people would come fromall parts to see it.In reporting this new whim of society, the press also mentioned that Dr.Montessori had made a beautiful speech, but what an exaggeration in

life, his working psychical life has no means of expressions in hisearlier life.

3. We do not come across children who are normal, i.e. enjoying realpsychical health, for our study.

4. Our deep-rooted prejudices prevent us in recognising the grandeurof a child’s nature.

Theory of the Montessori Method

Unique Position of Man at Birth andthe Laws of Natural Development

Man, amongst all creatures, has the longest period of developmentfrom conception to adulthood. Indeed, certain features of juvenilebehaviour are carried over right into adulthood, particularly theplayfulness, curiosity and the urge to explore and learn. In most othercreatures, these features disappear with the attainment of adulthood.This process is then obviously the most complex in the case of Man.Studies of children’s growth from birth to adulthood reveal that thisprocess of development can be divided into distinct periods. The firstof these — the period that concerns pre-primary learning — is frombirth to six years of age.While in the mother’s womb, a baby is dependent on its mother forvarious bodily processes. At birth, these become completelyindependent. The senses are among the first organs to functionindependently.A baby is born with a definite personality that shows up in itstemperament. He does not have any conscious powers; he hasinstincts. He has practically no voluntary control over hismovements; he has reflexes for rooting, sucking, grasping,swallowing and walking (a baby held upright makes walkingmovements as soon as her feet touch a firm surface). These reflexesdisappear as the baby grows. Conscious powers like intelligence, willand memory develop over time. He has a limited ability to express hisemotions through crying or smiling. He has no articulate language.His limbs are too weak and uncoordinated to achieve any work.A growing child can be measured against definite developmentalmilestones to find out if its physical and mental development isproceeding normally.At three months, the child should turn over by itself. At six months, itshould sit up. At about nine months, it should be able to crawl. At

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what she had said!It was from then that the real work began.Remember that all these children were completely illiterate. Theirparents were also illiterate and they were born and grown in theenvironment, I have described.What happened more than thirty years ago now will always remain amystery to me. I have tried since then to understand what took place inthose children. Certainly there was nothing of what is to be found nowin any House of Children. There were only rough large tables.I brought them some of the materials which had been used for our workin experimental psychology, the items which we use today as sensorialmaterial and materials for the exercises of practical life. I merely wantedto study the children’s reactions. I asked the woman in charge not tointerfere with them in any way as otherwise I would not be able toobserve them, Some one brought them paper and coloured pencils but initself this was not the explanation of the further events. There was noone who loved them, I myself only visited them once a week and duringthe day the children had no communication with their parents.The children were quiet, they had no interference either from theteacher or from the parents, but their environment contrasted vividlyfrom that which they had been used to; compared to that of theirprevious life; it seemed fantastically beautiful. The walls were white,there was a green plot of grass outside,. though no one had yet thoughtto plant flowers in it, but most beautiful of all was the fact that they hadinteresting occupations in which no one, no one at all, interfered. Theywere left alone and little by little the children began to work withconcentration and the transformation they underwent, was noticeable.From timid and wild as they were before, the children became sociableand communicative. They showed a different relationship with eachother, of which I have written in my books. Their personalities grewand, strange though it may seem, they showed extraordinaryunderstanding, activity, vivacity and confidence. They were happy andjoyous.This fact was noticed after a while by the mothers who came to tell usabout it. As the children had had no one to teach them or interfere withtheir actions, they acted spontaneously, their manners were natural.But the most outstanding thing about these strange children of the St.Lawrence Quarter was their obvious gratitude. I was as much surprisedby this as everyone else. When I entered the room all the children sprangto greet me and cried their welcome. Nobody had taught them anymanner of good behaviour. And the strangest thing of all was thatalthough nobody had cared for them physically, they flourished inhealth as if they had been secretly fed on some nourishing food, And sothey had, but in their spirit. These children began to notice things intheir homes, a spot of dirt on their mother’s dress. untidiness in the

“The study of Man in the course of his fundamental development as aconstructor of his own individual physical life from birth and as abuilder of himself.”Montessori preferred not to call this field of study Child Psychology.She pointed out that

1. since the study concerns life of human beings from birth toadulthood it is wrong to refer to this period of human life as‘childhood’;

2. it is best to avoid the term ‘Child’ because people havepreconceived notions and prejudices about it;

3. the most outstanding feature of this period of human life is thedevelopment that one undergoes;

therefore, one should, with all relevance, call it “DevelopmentPsychology”.

The Originality of Montessori’s Psychology

Montessori’s Psychology is unique in many ways1. The origin itself is unique. It is not based on theories but on

discoveries of the real nature of child.

2. The way Dr. Montessori defined the subject is original.

3. The methodology of her study itself was original in the way she

(a) observed child in an ideal environment;

(b) verified her conclusions;

(c) based her observations both on the individual and theperiod of his life;

(d) observed the child totally and whole-heartedly;

(e) observed children belonging to various backgrounds;

(f) also tried to understand how to provide for the child inbetter ways through experimentation

4. Her realisation that progress in Psychology and education of achild advances side by side.

5. The content of her study differs from the contents of other schoolsof psychology. This is because she studied only psychically healthychildren and not any child, which the other Psychologists studied.

However, her theory was not easy to accept as it overturned manyestablished ideas and concepts and cannot be verified without keenobservation. For instance,

1. It is hard for us to accept the fact that a child has a psychical life atbirth; a newborn baby does not show any sign of his workingpsychical life.

2. Psychical life expresses itself through some means such asmovements and speech. As these abilities develop later in a child’s

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room. They told their mothers not to hang the washing in the windowsbut to put flowers there instead. Their influence spread into the homes,so that after a while also these became transformed.Six months after the inauguration of the House of Children. some of themothers came to me and pleaded that as I had already done so much fortheir children, and they themselves could do nothing about it becausethey were illiterate, would I not teach their children to read and write?At first I did not want to, being as prejudiced as every one else that theChildren were far too young for it. But I gave them the alphabet in theway I have told you. As then it was some -thing new for me also, Ianalysed the words for them and showed that each sound of the wordsbad a symbol by which it could be materialised. It was then that theexplosion into writing occurred.The news spread and the whole world became interested in thisphenomenal activity of writing of these children who were so youngand whom nobody had taught. The people realised that they wereconfronted by a phenomenon that could not be explained for besideswriting, these children worked all the time without being forced by anyone to do so. This was a great revelation but it was not the onlycontribution of the children. It was also they, who created the lesson ofsilence. They seemed to be a new type of children. Their fame spreadand in consequence all kinds of people visited the House of Children,including State ministers and their wives, with whom the childrenbehaved graciously and beautifully, without anyone urging then, thateven the newspapers in Italy and abroad became excited. So the newsspread, until finally also the Queen became interested. She came to thatquarter so ill famed that it was considered hell’s doors, to see for herselfthe children about whom she had heard wonders.What was the wonder due to? No one could state it clearly. But itconquered me for ever, because it penetrated my heart as a new light.One day I looked at them with eyes which saw them differently and Iasked myself: “Who are you, are you the same children you were‘before?” And I said within myself: “Perhaps you ore those children ofwhom it was said that they would come to save humanity. If so, I shallfollow you”. Since then, I am she who tries to grasp their message and tofollow them.And in order to follow them, I changed my whole life. I was nearly 40. Ihad in front of me a doctors’ career and a professorship at the University.But I left all, because I felt compelled to follow them, and to find otherswho could follow them, for I saw that in them lay the secret of the soul.You must realise that what happened was something so great and sostirring that its importance could never be sufficiently recognized. Thatit will never be sufficiently studied, is certain, for it is the secret of lifeitself. We cannot fully know its causes. It is not possible that it camebecause of my method, for at the time my method did not yet exist. This

activity in most animals is at an unconscious level. The study oflearning processes in animals led to the initial realisation that theremust be something common in the learning processes of children. Butthe attempt to bring these findings to bear on the understanding ofthe child mind was initially unsuccessful. Many psychologistsrealised that the mind of the human child was far more complex; theycould not create a natural environment for studying children becausethey did not know the natural requirements for a human mind toreveal its true nature. Therefore no definite conclusions could bedrawn.

Child Development or Developmental Psychology

However, as studies continued, it became apparent that childpsychology involved a dynamic process of development. Mere studyof different age groups could not explain the changing behaviour ofgrowing children. The focus now shifted to the pattern ofdevelopment of a child: a new area of the science called ‘ChildDevelopment’. Child development or Developmental Psychologyfocuses on the process of development of the human mind.Psychology itself concentrates on the product of this development.The objectives of Developmental Psychology are:

1. To find out the changes in development from one developmentalperiod to another; e.g. — changes in appearance, behaviour,interests and goals.

2. To find out under what conditions these changes occur.

3. To determine how these changes influence a child’s behaviour

4. To find out whether or not these changes can be predicted.

Dr. Montessori’s Work on Developmental Psychology

As a medical practitioner, Dr Maria Montessori’s fields ofspecialisation were paediatrics and psychology — a combination thatcreated a unique opportunity to study the child’s mind. She was,indeed, one of the pioneers who established Child Psychology as aseparate subject of study.Her original contribution to the field came to be known as MontessoriPsychology. It did not come so much from deliberate research orphilosophy as from accidental discoveries during her interactionwith children in the course of her work. These discoveries led to agradual understanding of the real nature of a child. Her definition ofthis field of study was:

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is the clearest proof that it was a revelation that emanated from thechildren themselves.My educational method has grown from these as well as from manyother revelations, given by the children, You know from what I have toldyou, that all the details included in the method, have come from theefforts to follow the child. The new path has been shown us. No oneknows exactly how it arose, it just came into being and showed us thenew way.It has nothing to do with any educational method of the past, nor withany educational method of the future. It stands alone as the contributionof the child himself, Perhaps it is the first of its kind, which has beenbuilt by him step by step.It cannot have come from an adult person; the thought, the veryprinciple that the adult should stand aside to make room for the child,could never have come from the adult.Anyone who wants to follow my method must understand that heshould not honour me but follow the child as his leader.

Maria Montessori

Discovering the Secrets of Childhood

So it was that on 6 January 1907 the first school under Dr Montessori’ssupervision started. It was named Casa dei Bambini or House ofChildren.A crowd of children, free from the constricting mould of age-oldconcepts, beliefs and superstitions. Dr Montessori and her twoinexperienced assistants want to educate them. Their young mindsare free to flow along natural channels. Dr Montessori observes themwith an open mind and discovers new aspects of child psychology.House of Children. A large hall with a big armchair and a largecupboard. That’s all the furniture there is. There are some scientificmaterials created by Dr Montessori. And there are two girls. DrMontessori teaches them the use of the materials.Each day the materials were put away after use and locked in thecupboard. Each day saw incidents that opened up new vistas ofdiscovery for Dr Montessori.One such incident: one day the girls complained to Dr Montessorithat the children had been disobedient. The previous day thecupboard had accidentally been left unlocked. When the girls came inthe morning they found the children had opened the cupboardthemselves, picked up materials of their choice and had startedworking with them. Dr Montessori told the girls not to lock the

Developmental Psychology

‘Psyche’ is the Greek word for mind. ‘Logos’ is the Greek for ‘word’.Psychology means ‘word of the mind’ — the science that studies thenature and function of the mind.Every human being consciously or unconsciously studies minds. Wetry to understand the mind of other individuals with whom weinteract, and try to mould our own behaviour so that we canstimulate in them behaviour that we desire of them; or we try topredict their behaviour or reactions and tailor our own behaviouraccordingly. We also try to understand our own minds — ouremotions and moods — and control them to our own advantage.Psychology is a science that gives us a more accurate understandingof the minds and behaviour of individuals and groups with which weinteract. We gain insight into the reason why people have differenttastes, likes and dislikes and temperaments, and how to deal withthem. It also helps us achieve better mental health and thereforebetter efficiency in our work.

The Origins of Developmental Psychology

Psychology was developed as a science by a few scientists in Franceand Germany who started studying non-physical phenomena inhuman life between 1870 and 1880. Early researchers in psychologytraditionally believed children to be immature adults; no separatestudy of the child mind was undertaken. The first stimulus to thestudy of the minds of children came from the field of medicine, whenit was discovered that diseases in children developed and progresseddifferently from adults. This led to medical researchers focusing onthe study of children of specific age groups in primary schools. MariaMontessori was one of the first to enter a primary school as a medicaldoctor. This experience formed an important stage in her study of thechild.Psychiatry — the treatment of mental diseases — provided the nextinsight to the study of the child. As this branch of medicinedeveloped, psychiatrists discovered the unconscious mind of man,and a clue from childhood memories of patients that childhoodmental experiences might have an impact on the ultimate adult mind.This initially led to the study of animal psychology, because mental

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cupboard anymore. Later, she replaced it with a low, open shelf sothat the children could easily reach and pick out the materials of theirchoice.Another incident. Dr Montessori had come to visit the House ofChildren. She observed a little girl absorbed in working with amaterial called Cylinder Blocks. She tried to attract her attention. Sheasked the other children to clap their hands. So engrossed was thechild that she paid no heed. Dr Montessori picked up the child as sheheld the cylinder blocks and went and sat in another place with thechild in her lap. Even then the child continued putting the cylindersinto the block and pulling them out again.It was only after she had done it 42 times that the child’sconcentration broke. From this incident Dr Montessori inferred that ifa child finds some work interesting, they want to repeat it over andover again till they reach perfection.Another observation. The girls reported that many of the childrenwould not let go of the materials they were working with. DrMontessori observed that children come to love the materials theyhave worked with for a long time.So it was that each day her observations led to new discoveries. In thelight of these observations, she conducted tests and experiments,learning about the character of children step by step.This is how the Montessori Method evolved into a completephilosophy of education.The children remained at the centre from dawn to dusk, while theirparents worked. There were fed two meals a day, bathed regularlyand received medical care. The children themselves were typical ofextreme inner-city poverty conditions.They entered the children House on the first day crying and pushing,exhibiting generally aggressive and impatient behaviour.Montessori, not knowing whether her experiment would work undersuch conditions, began by teaching the older children how to helpwith the everyday task that needed to be done.She also introduced the manipulative perceptual puzzles that she hadused with children with developmental delays.They were fascinated with the puzzles and perceptual trainingdevices. But, to Montessori’s amazement three and four year oldchildren took the greatest delight in learning practical everydayliving skills that reinforced their independence and self respect.

• Spontaneous concentration

• Attachment to reality

• Love of silence, and

• Working alone

• Sublimation of the possessive instinct

• Power to act from real choice

• Obedience

• Independence and initiative

• Spontaneous self discipline and joy

Montessori believed that these are the truly normal characteristics ofchildhood, which emerge when children’s developmental needs aremet.challenges facing our children include human migration, hunger, &terrorism.Given the urgent and demanding complexities of everyday living, wefind the Montessori way more relevant today then ever before. We

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As summarised by Dr. Maria Montessori’s student and colleague, E.M. Standing, young children prefer:

• Work without compulsion

• Spontaneous repetition

• Work rather than play

• Concentration and self-discipline

Montessori called her discoveries the “Secrets of Childhood”Montessori also discovered that two other qualities were necessaryfor this response from young children: a carefully prepared teacherand an environment specifically prepared for the learningcapabilities found in its children.Montessori made a practice of paying close attention to theirspontaneous behaviour, arguing that only in this way could a teacherknow how to teach.Montessori believed that the educator’s job was to serve the child,determining what each one needed to make the greatest progress. Toher, a child who failed in school should not be blamed, anymore thana doctor should blame a patient who does not get well fast enough.After all, it is the job of the physician to help us find way to cureourselves, and the educator’s job is to facilitate the natural process oflearning.Montessori duplicated her first school in other settings through outEurope, and then in the United States. She made three Americantours between 1912 and 1918, with the support of the WashingtonMontessori Society, whose members included Alexander GrahamBell and US President Woodrow Wilson’s daughter. Montessori gavelectures at the White House, Carnegie Hall, and numerousuniversities.She conducted a teacher education programme and developed aclassroom at the Panama Pacific International Exposition.The Montessori Method offered a systematic approach thattranslated very well to new educational settings, a love for work withlearning materials and freedom and spontaneity.

Principle of Self-education

Montessori described this sense of belonging as “Valorisation of thepersonality”, a strong sense of self-respect and personal identity. Sheopened up to the world around her and found that mistakes were notsomething to be feared but rather the endless opportunity to learn

comes from accomplishment.As, the child’s exploration continues, the materials interrelate andbuild upon each other. For example, various relationships can beexplored between the pink tower and the brown stairs, which arebased on matching precise dimensions. Later, in the elementaryyears, new aspects of some of the materials unfold. When studyingvolume, for instance, the child may return to the pink tower anddiscover that its cubes progress incrementally from one cubecentimetre to one cube decimetre.The Process of ‘Normalisation’In Montessori education, the term normalisation has a specialmeaning, “Normal” does not refer to what is considered to be“typical” or “average” or even “usual”. “Normalisation” does notrefer to a process of being forced to conform. Instead, MariaMontessori used the terms “normal” and “normalisation” to describea unique process she observed in child development.Montessori observed that when children are allowed freedom in anenvironment suited to their needs, they blossom. After a period ofintense concentration, working with materials that fully engage theirinterest, children appear to be refreshed and contented. Throughcontinue concentrated work of their own choice, children grow ininner discipline and peace. She called this process “normalisation”and cited it as “the most important single result of our whole work”.(The Absorbent Mind – 1949)She went on to write

Only “normalised” children aided by their environment, show in theirsubsequent development those wonderful powers that we describe:spontaneous discipline, continuous and happy work, social sentimentsof help and sympathy for others …. An interesting piece of work, freelychosen which has the virtue of inducing concentration rather thanfatigue, adds to the child’s energies and mental capacities, and leads himto self mastery … one is tempted to say that the children are performingspiritual exercises, having found the path of self-perfectionment and ofascent to the inner heights of the soul.

Maria Montessori, The AbsorbentMind, 1949

E. M. Standing (Maria Montessori – Her Life and Work, 1957) lists theseas the characteristics of normalisation.

• Love of order

• Love of work

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from experience.Children around the world share common or universalcharacteristics and tendencies, even though each child is a uniquehuman being, who deserves the same respect we would give an adult.Dr. Montessori arranged to give her first training course for teachersin 1909. Expecting only Italian Educators, she was amazed to findthat her first course, and all of the courses offered since, attractedteachers from all over the world who had heard of her discoveriesand were moved to make great sacrifices to learn from her personally.When Montessori returned to America in 1915, she arranged to havean entire class work in a special school house made of glass at thePanama Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco. It attentionand publicity, as the children went about their tasks under thescrutiny of thousands of visitors from around the world.She established an international training centre and research institutein Barcelona in 1916.In 1919 Montessori began a series of teacher-training courses inLondon. That same year, she was invited to give a series of lectureson the issue of education for the young adult (secondary). Thesetalks, later published as the Erdkinder Essays, reflected a strongtheoretical basis for her thoughts about the reform of secondaryeducation, however she was not to develop them herself during herlifetime. Others did pursue this path, and the first secondary schoolsfollowing the Montessori approached opened in the Netherlands inthe 1930s.In 1929 Dr. Montessori was invited by Italian Dictator BenitoMussolini to introduce her ideas throughout the Italian NationalSchool System. Having left Italy after her mother’s death to find amore liberal thinking home abroad, Montessori arrived back in Romewith much fanfare in January of 1930 and re-established her teachertraining centre.She believed that she could quietly do her work without gettinginvolved in politics. Ultimately, the two clashed publicly whenMussolini demanded that all students in Italy join the young Fascistsand wear a special student uniform. In 1934, she was forced into exileonce again, returning to Barcelona, Spain.The years leading to the Second World War were tumultuous forMaria Montessori, who was then sixty-six year old. In 1936, as theCivil War broke out across Spain, she escaped the fighting on a British

learning and exploration by the child.In the prepared environment there is variety of activity as well as agreat deal of movement. In a pre-school classroom, for example, athree year old may be washing clothes by hand while a four year oldnearby is composing words and phrases with letters known as themoveable alphabets, and a five year old is performing multiplicationusing a specially designed set of beads. In an elementary classroom,a small group of six to nine year old children may be using a timelineto learn about extinct animals while another child chooses to workalone, analysing a poem using special grammar symbols. Sometimesan entire class may be involved in a group activity, such asstorytelling, singing or movement.In the calm, ordered space of the Montessori prepared environment,children work on activities of their own choice at their own pace.They experience a blend of freedom and self-discipline in a placespecially designed to meet their developmental needs.

The Montessori Materials

In the Montessori classroom learning materials are arrangedinvitingly low, open shelves, children may choose whatever materialsthey would like to use and may work for as long as the material holdstheir interest, when they are finished with each material, they returnit to the shelf from which it came.The materials themselves invite activity. There are bright arrays ofsolid geometric forms. Knobbed puzzle maps, coloured beads, andvarious specialised rods and blocks.Each material in a Montessori classroom isolates one quality. In thisway the concept of the child is to discover is isolated. For example,the material known as the pink tower is made up of ten pink cubes ofvarying sizes. The pre-school aged child constructs a tower with thelargest cube on the bottom and the smallest on top. This materialisolates the concept of size. The cubes are all the same colour andtexture; the only difference is their size. Other materials isolatedifferent concepts, colour tables for colour, geometry materials forform and so on.More over, the materials are self-correcting; when a piece does not fitor is left over, the child easily perceives the error. There is no need foradult ‘correction’. The child is able to solve problems independently,building self-confidence, analytical thinking and the satisfaction that

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cruiser sent to rescue British Nationals. She travelled to theNetherlands, where she opened a new Montessori Teacher EducationCentre and Lab School.

Dr Montessori in India

As war approached, many urged her to leave Europe, and in 1938 sheaccepted an invitation to conduct a series of teacher training coursesin India. When India entered World War II as part of the BritishEmpire, Montessori and her son, Mario, were interned as “enemyaliens”. She was, however allowed to continue her work and over thenext few years trained more than ten thousand teachers in India andSri Lanka.It was during this period that she wrote several of her most importantworks, including The Absorbent Mind, Education and Peace and ToEducate the Human Potential.

The Last Years: The Vision of Peace Education

Having spent years, educating teachers to grasp the “big picture” ofthe interdependency of all life on earth, Dr Montessori, on her returnto Europe after the end of the war, during her final years became aneven more passionate advocate of peace education.Maria Montessori died in 1952 at her home in the Netherlands. In herlast years, she was honoured with many awards and was nominatedfor the Nobel Peace Prize in 1949, 1950 and 1951.

“Supposing I said there was a planet without schools or teachers, studywas undertaken, and yet the inhabitants — doing nothing but living andwalking about — came to know all things, to carry in their minds thewhole of learning: would you not think I was romancing? Well, just this,which seems so fanciful as to be nothing but the invention of a fertileimagination, is a reality. It is the child’s way of learning. This is the pathto follows. He learns everything without knowing he is learning it, andin doing so passes little from the unconscious to the conscious, treadingalways in the paths of Joy and Love”.

— Dr. Maria Montessori

Dr. Maria Montessori carried a large vision for the purpose ofeducation — the establishment of universal and lasting peace.Although she witnessed two world wars and the unleashing ofnuclear power, Montessori evolved a living philosophy of education,child study methods, age-appropriate curricula and instruction and

3 Sensorial Activity

4 Language Activity

5 Arithmetic Activity

6 Along with these the child’s creativity and imagination is nurturedthrough storytelling, rhymes and art and craft.

Each set of exercises is done with a primary aim in mind. But eachstage also prepares the child for the next one.When a child first comes to a Montessori House, the initial task is tofamiliarise him with the new environment and to help him adjust init. This is done through games, songs and other activities.After the child adjusts to the Montessori environment, the firstactivities that the child works on are ones that are familiar to him.Sweeping the floor, pouring water into a glass, pouring grain intosmall vessels from a large vessel, rolling out a mat and rolling it upagain, setting a stool, carrying water on a tray... in short, he is giventhe work he sees done everyday and that he always wants to try. Butof course, all the things he uses are made to his scale.These exercises are called Exercises of Practical Life. On the one handthe children achieve some skills necessary for his personal life, infamily life and in social life; on the other hand, it helps develop hismotor skills and senses. He is ready for the next stage: SensorialActivity.Sensorial Activity deals with the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smelland taste. The senses are exercised with the aid of specially designedmaterials. The exercises develop the senses and help diagnose anysensorial weakness or disability the child may have. Each activity isfirst done by the adult and the children observe. Then, when thechildren come forward to do the activity, the adult withdraws andobserves from a distance. A child generally is able to detect its ownmistakes; if not, the adult shows the activity again and the childrepeats it. The materials used for sensorial exercises are scientificallydesigned and precise.In the same way, the concepts and skills of language (reading andwriting) and arithmetic are easily developed using scientific methodsand materials, evolved through much research and experimentation,that utilise the child’s inborn strengths and potential.

The Prepared Environment

The ‘prepared environment’ is Maria Montessori’s concept that theenvironment can be designed to facilitate maximum independent

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programme for adult teacher education. In 1940 she wrote:“Man masters almost everything but himself. He knows almosteverything but himself. He avails himself of the most hiddentreasures but does not use the immense riches and powers that hewithin himself.”This points to the great and urgent task of education. Nomobilisation is as complete as that which can be realised by theschool. In the past, military service was limited to men of a certainage group. Now more and more people are drawn into the service ofwar — even women and children.The Montessori way continues almost one hundred years afterMontessori’s initial discoveries in her first school in Rome.Montessori schools today seek to help children become independentand self disciplined by assisting them with a full development oftheir unique individual potentials. Montessori teachers do thisthrough child study and by designing classroom and outdoorenvironments in which children find engaging activities that helpthem develop habits of lifelong learning — for example,concentration, investigation, collaboration, problem solving, andcommunication.

The Montessori Environment

Montessori theory postulates that the child develops through stages,going through three environments. The first is the womb, the secondis the family. The Third Environment is the Montessori Environment— the school or House of Children. Dr Montessori never referred tothe Third Environment as a school since the environment had toemulate the environment at home. That is why she called it the Houseof Children. In this environment the child sees and handles thingswith which she is familiar — she sees them at home. Only here theyare scaled down so she can easily handle them. There are small matsfor the children to sit on (they sit on the floor). In the West, there arerugs instead of mats, while in South India, small durrees are used.Obviously, the materials will have to vary according to the culture ofthe local environment. There are other materials: small stools,napkins for folding, vessels for pouring grain, brooms, foot-mats,jugs, trays and so on. All these are things that the child sees at homebut are rarely allowed to use — often because they are too large forthem to handle. However, here they are their size, and they use themwith eagerness and master them within a short time.

Apart from imparting household skills that they will use all their life,these exercises help strengthen their limbs, increase manual dexterityand eye-hand coordination. This prepares them for the stage whenthey have to hold and maneouvre a pencil. These exercises alsoexercise their creativity.There is an old Chinese proverb:

“I hear, I forget. I see, I remember. I do, I know.”

Therefore, the best way to teach a child is to show him hands on. DrMontessori advised, “Count your words!” — i.e., do not say anythingthat is unnecessary. Children do not listen to superfluous words.Therefore whatever you say should be necessary and sufficient. Youshould not say anything that the child cannot understand.Dr Montessori once said, “If you give the right child the rightassistance at the right time in the right way...” If we keep this in mind,every child can grow up to be a valuable resource to society. Plant aseedling in a pot, give it light and air, fertiliser and water, and it willgrow strong and tall. If someone places the pot on its side... whathappens? The plant will bend from the base in its attempt to reach thelight. Place the plant straight again, and the stem bends back to itsprevious orientation. But a kink stays forever in the stem. A child’sgrowth is similar. He grows according to the way we allow him togrow. He will grow even in a bad environment, but his developmentwill be distorted, his foundations will be weak.In a Montessori House the child is given freedom. There is no setroutine or timetable. The adult or teacher must understand the child’sneeds. She must observe him carefully. She must know theenvironment in the child’s home and therefore his special needs andwork with him accordingly.The rôle of he adult will be passive. According to Dr Montessori, “hemust increase and we must decrease”. That means the child willcontinuously take from the adult and grow, while the adult must givehim the work and gently withdraw.The child must be spoken to with love and respect. He must never becommanded, he must be asked if he would like to do the work. DrMontessori called it an assistantial approach.In the Montessori System, the child develops through a series ofexercises or activities:

1 Preliminary Activity

2 Exercises of Practical Life

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