Country Sector AssessmentsUNDP GoAL WaSH Programme Governance, Advocacy and Leadership for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

Volume 1 Zambia

UNDP Water Governance Programme –Adaptive Water Governance

UNDP’s Water Governance Programme (UNDP-WGP) works in over 150 countries, providing policy support, capacity building and advisory services in three major strategic areas:• Water Supply and Sanitation ($170m, 34%)• Integrated Water Resources Management ($111m, 22%)• Regional and Global Cooperation ($216m, 44%)

The Water Governance Programme also integrates four ‘cross cutting’ areas into its broader thematic work:• Climate Change and Water• Human Rights Based Approaches (HRBA)• Mainstreaming Gender into Water• Knowledge Management

Copyright © July 2009by the United Nations Development Programme1 UN Plaza, New York, New York, 10017, USA

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission.

ISBN 978-0-615-31175-3

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Any errors or omissions found subsequent to printing will be listed on our website: www.undp.org/water

The Global Water and Sanitation CrisisGlobally, almost 1bn people lack clean drinking water. 2.4bn people have no access to hygienic sanitation facilities; 1.2bn lack any sanitation facilities at all. Each day, an average of 5,000 children die due to preventable water and sanitation related diseases. In 2000, through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the international community committed to halving the proportion of people without access to clean water and basic sanitation by 2015. Overall, the world is on track to meet the water supply MDG, but there are major gaps in many regions and countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. On current trends, the world will miss the sanitation target by a staggering 700m people.

Meeting the MDG water and sanitation targets is more than a health and dignity issue. The evidence is compelling that achieving the water and sanitation goals would trigger a major leap forward in human development:

• Water and sanitation are essential to achieving all of the MDGs.• Investment in water supply yields an average economic return of $4.4 to $1.• Investment in sanitation yields an average economic return of $9.1 to $1.• Human development is more closely linked to access to water and sanitation than any other development driver,

including spending on health or education, and access to energy services.

The crisis in water and sanitation overwhelmingly affects the poor. Availability of water is certainly a concern for some countries. But the global water and sanitation crisis is mainly rooted in poverty, power and inequality, not in physical availability. It is, first and foremost, a crisis of governance and thus governance reform must be a key pillar of any strategic approach to addressing the crisis.

UNDP’s ResponseUNDP promotes and facilitates equitable access to water and sanitation services as a fundamental contribution to enhancing human development.

UNDP works together with government, civil society, private sector and other development partners to bring about the necessary improvements in water governance to scale-up water and sanitation services for the poor.

UNDP Supports:• Coordination of country assistance by UN and other development partners.• Incorporation of water and sanitation into national development planning.• Governance and policy reform for enhanced water supply and sanitation access.• Capacity building of institutions and practitioners.• Special attention to fragile states, where water and sanitation challenges are greatest.

The GoAL WaSH ProgrammeGoAL WaSH is an innovative new UNDP programme that aims to accelerate achievement of the water and sanitation MDGs through strategically targeted interventions that strengthen governance of the water and sanitation sectors at appropriate levels. Specifically, GoAL WaSH focuses on:

• Countries with low water and sanitation coverage projected not to achieve the water, sanitation or both MDGs.• Identifying gaps, needs, constraints and opportunities in national water and sanitation plans, strategies and capacities.• Governance reform, leadership and policy advocacy.• Incorporation of water and sanitation into national MDG and related poverty reduction strategies.• Close coordination with governments and key development partners active in water and sanitation at country level.

This volume is the first in a planned series of national assessments of governance in the water and sanitation sectors in target GoAL WaSH countries. These sector assessments are in turn informing the design and implementation of a series of UNDP capacity building and technical assistance projects to strengthen water governance and advance national progress on the water supply and sanitation MDGs.

Sincerely,

Andrew HudsonCluster LeaderWater Governance ProgrammeEnvironment and Energy Groupwww.undp.org/water

Country Sector Assessments: Volume 1UNDP GoAL WaSH ProgrammeGovernance, Advocacy and Leadership for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

Zambia

National Sector Assessment

MDG Outlook

• Is Zambia on the right track to reach the MDGs for water and sanitation?

• Main issues to be addressed

Sector Preparedness Overview

• National Strategies • Aid Coordination• Institutional Arrangements• Sector Financing• Sector Monitoring and Evaluation• Sector Capacity

Sector Sustainability

• Overall Sector Sustainability Score

• Key Measures to improve Sector Sustainability

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MDG Outlook

Is Zambia on the right track to reach the MDGs for water and sanitation?

Zambia has a population of 11.5m, 45% urban and 55% rural1, with a population growth rate of 2.4% (1.5% urban, 3% rural).

The JMP/CSO2 figures for access to potable water are 86% urban, 37% rural and 53% overall.

The NUWSSP figures use more precise definitions of service access and give a significantly different picture, suggesting that urban coverage is only 44%. JMP/CSO (2005) figures indicate overall 23% sanitation coverage (13% rural, 41% urban), whereas NWASCO (2005/6) reports 32% connected to the sewer network operated by CUs (down from 34% the previous year), leaving the rest to use septic tanks and other forms of on-site sanitation. The situation in the Copperbelt (with a sewer network covering between 65% and 89% of the population) differs completely from other parts of the country where the coverage lies in between 9% and 31%.

Box 1: A Pragmatic Approach to the MDGs in Urban Areas

The aim of the GRZ and partner documents is to emphasise the urgent need to substantially improve WSS service levels by 2015, and universal coverage by 2030. Whilst the definition of ‘service’ needs clarification, the following operational approach is recommended:

Water Supply • Emergency measures and rehabilitation to be undertaken between 2008 and 2013 in all existing

urban systems to maintain coverage and improve the service levels. • Expand the coverage in all urban systems and provide at least minimum service level in all

licensed areas between 2008 and 2015. • Provide full coverage and desired service levels in all licensed areas by 2030.

Sanitation Vision 2030 aims at raising access to sanitation to 68% by 2015 and to 90% by 2030. NWP has set the

goal at 70% by 2010. The operational targets would include:

• Expansion of improved sanitation coverage to 77% by 2015. • Perform a field survey to investigate the percentage of existing acceptable pit latrines by 2009.

In summary, these plans indicate that Zambia has the potential to meet the MDGs, provided that large levels of investment can be made, in particular in the urban sector. The impetus for a SWAp needs to be sustained in the rural sector, and a specific strategy developed for sanitation. There are severe constraints in terms of governance issues that need to be ameliorated for this potential to be realized.

1 Where there are discrepancies in CSO (2005) and NUWSSP (2008) figures, the latter are used.2 Based on the 2004 JMP figures published in the 2005 CSO.

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Main Issues to be addressed• Institutional Leadership and Capacity: a clearer definition of the roles of MLGH and MEWD in 2006

has gone some way to clarifying lead roles in the sector, but there remain areas of overlap and both institutions are significantly under capacity to meet the demands expected of them.

• Budget Constraints: While there has been improvement in the MTEF allocations for WSS, expenditures could be improved, given the scale of the needs in the sector.

• Limited Coordination among Stakeholders: considerable progress has been made in CP coordination with the enunciation of the Joint Assistance Strategy for Zambia (JASZ), the NUWSSP and NRWSSP. Meetings are being held more regularly. But tensions remain; a lack of capacity limits government coordination leadership and the progress towards a sector-wide approach is still slow.

• Monitoring Systems remain weak and poorly implemented. An independent monitoring exercise is being commissioned by the Mutual Accountability Group (representing GRZ and CPs) and is expected to make headway in this area of concern. A proposed MIS System for MLGH is delayed, and centralization and alignment of data collected under CSO has not yet been achieved.

• Inadequate Capacity in Local Authorities: rural water supply and sanitation is heavily dependent on decentralization, and local capacity shortcomings are a major constraint. Long awaited plans to decentralize budget allocations have not yet been realised.

• Inefficiencies within Commercial Utilities: the low levels of performance of CUs are an argument for maintaining tariffs at highly subsidised levels, yet this constitutes a major constraint on increased investment into the sector.

• Countervailing Consumer Demand: given the political economic structure of the relationship between government, citizenry and potential investors and donors, there is a need for active and sustained pressure from water users for efficiency, effectiveness, and transparency in water and sanitation supply. Some progress has been made in the establishment of water watch groups, but there is scope for far higher levels of civic engagement.

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Sector Preparedness Overview

National Strategies

The GRZ has a progressive framework contained in the National Water Policy of 1994, which is based on principles of separation of water

resource management from WSS; separation of regulatory and executive functions; devolution of authority to local authorities and private enterprise; achieving eventual full cost recovery for WSS through user fees; human resource development for more effective institutions; use of appropriate technologies; and increased government priority and budget allocation to the sector. A Water Resource Management Act which provides for the comprehensive regulation of the sector has been prepared, and is awaiting parliamentary approval. In terms of the Act, a Water Resources Action Programme (WRAP) will establish a National Water Authority and promote decentralization of resource management to catchment level.

The 1997 Water Supply and Sanitation Act established an independent water regulator and created ten water utilities in urban areas, which are expected in the long term to be commercially viable. A national urban water supply programme (NUWSSP) was adopted in 2007/8. It provides a plan that if successfully implemented should meet the MDG goals for the urban sector. The institutional framework for rural WSS was established in 2004 and is built on the devolved authority of local government, and the promotion of WASHE (Water, Sanitation and Health Education) to communities.

A number of other strategies also exist, the most notable being the Strategy and Institutional Framework for the Water and Sanitation Sector (1995) that specifies the institutional arrangements for provision of WSS by local authorities; National Environmental Sanitation Strategy (1998) aimed at raising the profile of sanitation in provision of basic social services, as well as outlining the strategies for provision of sanitation services) the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy (2000) targeted at RWSS; and Mainstreaming Gender in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector (2000).

The government has consolidated rural strategies into one coherent set of policies, strategies and actions in the NRWSSP, which it is intended to guide the sector towards a SWAp, and the NUWSSP. Within the urban areas, the main strategy is to promote efficient operation of the commercial water utilities so that they are able to serve both the connected residential areas as well as the un-connected informal and peri-urban neighbourhoods. The government has also created the Devolution Trust Fund (DTF) - a financing mechanism targeted at peri-urban areas. There are however still disagreements about the role of the DTF, including its financing mechanisms. Investment plans are in place, although the government’s contribution remains low. The government also has a peri-urban strategy (1998) that encourages community participation, ownership and management of water and sanitation facilities. Although its key principles are quite well utilised by NGOs and some key donors, official implementation of this strategy by government agencies is yet to begin.

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Aid Coordination

Coordination between donors and GRZ has been problematic in the recent past. There has been a considerable recent effort to improve

coordination. A Joint Assistance Strategy to Zambia (JASZ, 2006/7) was prepared as a response to the Fifth National Development Plan (2006) and this brings the country fully into line with the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. A division of labour has been established between CPs, whereby partners agree to act in either a lead, active, background, or phasing out capacity, with a troika of partners in place to assume local responsibility. Despite good intentions and more regular meetings, tensions and frustrations do remain. These are driven by the situation that while government leadership is clearer, capacity is weak, progress slow, resources are fragmented and under the control of the CPs, and too much is being attempted with too few resources. Centrally, a certain degree of congestion remains in the WSS sector, whilst in the districts the rural picture still represents an uneven and poorly coordinated patchwork of areas of CP influence.

The preparation for the Africa Region Accra High Level Forum raised some issues of the continuing preference by some CPs for parallel implementation units over capacity building, and area-based programmes over programmatic budget support. A system of mutual accountability has nominally been established, however, and provided that this can be made to work effectively, and key steps put in place to move to a SWAp, the prospects for more effective aid harmonization are good.

Key Measures to Improve Aid Coordination• Establish a clear timetable to move towards a SWAp with a core group of CPs.• CPs to rationalise TA support within a common national programme and formally amend TORs

of project management units and TAs to support national programmes.

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Institutional Arrangements

The Ministry of Energy and Water Development (MEWD) is responsible for water resources management, while the Ministry for Local

Government and Housing (MLGH) is responsible for WSS delivery. Within the MLGH, the Department for Infrastructure and Support Services (DISS) - now renamed DHSS to bring housing under its remit - implements WSS policies. Its work includes facilitation of urban and rural infrastructural development and rehabilitation, and supporting local service delivery through local government. At the regional level, the Provincial Local Government Officer (PLGO) supervises and monitors activities of the district WASHE (D-WASHE) committees. The D-WASHE comprises all the line ministries represented at the district level. However, under the new institutional framework for RWSS and in line with the decentralisation policy (2002), all WSS functions are to be devolved to local authorities. Recognising the institutional weakness of most local authorities, the GRZ is working to strengthen this local authority function through the NRWSSP and a Local Development Programme (LDP). In urban areas, ten commercial water utilities (two covering a district; three covering one province; and the remaining five covering a province each) have been created to provide WATSAN services.

The utilities’ activities are regulated by an independent regulator (NWASCO). Although the CUs are expected to operate commercially and be financially self-sustaining in the long term, they currently have access to financing for peri-urban services through the Devolution Trust Fund (DTF). Other agencies responsible for water include the Ministry of Health (MoH) and the Ministry of Education (MoE), for hygiene promotion and school sanitation respectively.

The Ministry of Community Development and Social Services (MCDSS) plays a role in community mobilisation for basic social service delivery. The Ministry of Finance and National Planning (MFNP) at the national level is the main channel for intra-government funding and fiscal transfers. The ministry links its activities to the line ministries through a Sector Advisory Group, further divided into sub-SAGs. Currently, the MFNP is developing an Intergovernmental Fiscal Architecture (IFA) to facilitate devolution of financial resources to local authorities for service delivery. This is moving very slowly, as there is widespread reluctance in many areas of GRZ to implement the decentralization policy. The GRZ is also looking at ways to link district plans into the MTEF process. The MFNP, through its Economic and Technical Co-operation Department (ETC), and the Department of Debt Management, is responsible for overall coordination of external assistance, including development banks and other donors.

Key Measures to Improve Institutional Arrangements:• Accelerate capacity building in MLGH, MEWD and Local Authorities.• Complete the transition for all WSS service delivery institutions, including NWASCO, to report to MLGH.• Implement GRZ’s decentralization policy.

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Sector Financing

Current projections for sector finance suggest that, without substantial increases, the MDGs are unlikely to be met.

While investment requirements for urban WSS have not been agreed by GRZ, it has prepared a costing estimate for RWSS. This estimate, prepared through the NRWSSP (2006-2015) suggests a total requirement of about US$362m, covering US$260m in capital costs and US$45m in operating costs at the district level, US$11m at community level, US$27m in sector development costs, and US$18m for the national operating budget. The investment requirement starts with about US$30m for the year 2006/07, peaking to about US$50m for the year 2015, with an annual requirement ranging between US$28m and US$47m.

Compared with these investment needs, currently planned donor funding amounts to US$90m leading up to 2010. Donor funding in Zambia has tended to be on a project-based approach, although steps are now being taken towards harmonisation, through the formalisation of the Informal Donor Group (IDM), which now meets quarterly for programmatic discussions on aid policy and common approaches and procedures. Additionally, the GRZ is moving to improve service delivery and build capacity within the local authorities, building on the recently completed Zambia Social Investment Fund (ZAMSIF).

Full cost recovery from consumer fees over the long term is one of the seven principles of the national water policy. Despite over 13 years of reform, cost recovery still eludes the commercial water utilities whose tariffs are generally at least 30% below the cost of operation and maintenance. Cost recovery is almost non-existent in RWSS where most communities do not pay anything for their WSS. Strategies to move towards cost recovery are needed urgently.

Figure 1:

Key Measures to Improve Sector Financing• GRZ needs to allocate more resources to the sector, and commit to cost recovery by allowing the commercial water utilities to adjust their water tariffs as necessary. Donor agencies should also commit more resources to the sector.• GRZ needs to enunciate clearly and implement a cost recovery/sharing policy for RWSS.

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Sector Monitoring and Evaluation

Currently, sector information is compiled from central statistics figures, annual reporting from NWASCO, the regulator, and occasional

sector assessments, such as the peri-urban baseline study undertaken by NWASCO. While NWASCO provides good management information systems for urban WSS, the rural sub-sector lacks any structured monitoring framework. Sector monitoring activities need to be linked to the MLGH, which has ultimate responsibility for planning and monitoring developments in RWSS. To address this issue, a monitoring system for RWSS has been implemented in three provinces by the MLGH. Plans and funding to roll it out nationwide are in place with support from donors, but very little activity has taken place within MLGH. Delays may be partly attributed to the need for getting agreement on key concepts and definitions in the sector.

Effective monitoring is an essential component to freeing up investment flows: a negative audit report undertaken by Irish Aid emphasises continuing problems in public sector financial administration that severely inhibit the progress towards a sector wide approach in WSS.

Key Measures to Improve Sector Monitoring• Establish a structured and comprehensive monitoring system, linked to the attainment of the MDGs

and the FNDP and as promoted by JASZ, needs to be instituted. • NUWSSP and NRWSS need to incorporate monitoring as central components of their work.• Zambia should move towards regular and quality implementation of an annual joint sector review with a single set of indicators.

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Sector Capacity

Overall, Zambia’s water sector requires significant capacity at national and decentralised levels to meet the MDG targets. At a national level,

capacity building needs to focus on human resources, systems and facilities geared towards regulation, management, setting standards, policies and strategy making. The recent re-organization of MLGH posts and the creation of provincial and district posts is a significant step forward, though these positions need to be filled with skilled staff. Strengthened WSS functions within MLGH, for both urban and rural WSS is needed. At the regional and district levels, capacity needs include skilled workers as well as facilities and management systems, better planning supervision, procurement, finance administration, and advocacy. Management information systems are needed at the district, regional, and national levels. Full alignment of activities by CPs and NGOs behind GRZ national programmes will help build more robust national systems and enhance capacity.

From a strategic perspective, the WSS policy and legal framework is in place, but further clarification of roles and responsibilities is needed at national, district, and community levels. Budget mechanisms to strengthen and streamline fund disbursement to the district level are needed, as are rational staffing and facility planning at the district, regional, and national levels. Functionally, operational manuals for policy and strategy, as well as a coherent plan on sanitation, would be helpful.

Key Measures to Improve Sector Capacity• Strengthen the technical, planning and commercial functions of CUs. There is a wide variation of

performance amongst these; a support team sharing the successes of the best achievers and support the laggards would most useful.

• Fill the new MLGH posts and rationalise and align sector TA towards support for national programmes.

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Sector Sustainability

This section draws from the 2005 CSO and provides a quantitative and qualitative assessment of overall sector and sub-sector sustainability

by assessing the status of ‘success factors’ with regard to widely recognised institutional and financial aspects of sustainability. Performance on the ‘success factors’ is captured by specific questions. The resulting scores can range from 0-100%.

Overall Sector Sustainability ScoreOverall sector sustainability is weak (overall score 53%). Financial sustainability is especially weak (overall at 42% and at 32% for urban) with unsustainable tariffs and weak cost recovery. Institutional sustainability is more promising at 63%, assisted by ongoing reforms and sector restructuring. The NRWSSP estimates that 30% of rural water services are not functioning. Sanitation services are notably unsustainable (scores of 37% rural and 33% urban, with a poor track record in cost recovery for sewerage services, no specific sanitation policy in place and an unresolved debate concerning sanitation subsidies).

Key Measures to improve Sector Sustainability• A strategy for sector fiscal flows, leverage and cost recovery needs to be developed, along with clear

policies and mechanisms to address the financing gap, recover operations and maintenance costs, and plan for depreciation and system renewal.

• Specific attention is needed to develop sanitation, sewerage and waste management strategies in urban and rural areas.

• The policy and legal frameworks for commercialised utilities needs to be reviewed to allow them to operate as successful commercial ventures and achieve full cost recovery.

• Special attention is needed to be paid to the informal settlements that have developed around all major cities and towns, with particular focus on the drilling of boreholes and small town WSS.

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Acronyms

Zambia

ACCRA Association of African UniversitiesCP Cooperating PartnerCU Commercial UtilityCSO Central Statistics OfficeDISS Department of Infrastructure and Support ServicesDTF Devolution Trust FundD-WASHE District Water Sanitation and Health Education CommitteeETC Economic and Technical Co-operation DepartmentFNDP Fifth National Development PlanGRZ Government of the Republic of ZambiaJASZ Joint Assistance Strategy for ZambiaJMP Joint Monitoring ProgrammeLDP Local Development ProgrammeMCDSS Ministry of Community Development and Social ServicesMDGs Millennium Development GoalsM&E Monitoring and EvaluationMEWD Ministry of Energy and Water DevelopmentMFNP Ministry of Finance and National Planning MIS Malaria Indicator Survey MLGH Ministry of Local Government and HousingMoE Ministry of EducationMoFNR Ministry of Finance and National PlanningMoH Ministry of HealthMTEF Medium-Term Expenditure FrameworkNGOs Non-Governmental OrganisationsNRWSSP National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ProgrammeNUWSSP National Urban Water Supply and Sanitation ProgrammeNWASCO The National Water Supply and Sanitation Council NWP National Water PolicyPLGO Provincial Local Government OfficerPRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy PaperRWSS Rural Water Supply and SanitationSAG Sector Advisory GroupTA Technical AssistanceTOR Terms of ReferenceWASH Water, Sanitation and HygieneWASHE Water, Sanitation and Health EducationWATSAN Water and SanitationWRAP Water Resources Action ProgrammeWSS Water Supply and SanitationZAMSIF Zambia Social Investment Fund

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References

ZAMBIAAfrican Development Bank. 2008. “Summary of Proceedings Africa Region Accra HLF Preparatory Consultation Work-

shop (April 29-30, 2008, Kigali Serena Hotel, Rwanda).”Devolution Trust Fund and NWASCO (The National Water Supply and Sanitation Council). 2005. “Reaching the Mil-

lennium Development Goals for Water Supply and Sanita-tion in Zambia: The Urban Perspective.” January 2005.

Government of the Republic of Zambia. 1994. “National Water Policy.” . 1995. “Strategy and Institutional Framework for the Water and Sanitation Sector.” . 1997. “Water Supply and Sanitation Act.” . 1998. “National Environmental Sanitation Strategy.” . 2000. “Mainstreaming Gender in Water Supply and Sanitation Sector.” . 2000. “Community Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy.” . 2002. “Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.” . 2005. “MDG (Millennium Development Goal) Status Report.” . 2005. “National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme.” . 2006. “Peri Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy.” . 2006. “Fifth National Development Plan 2006 – 2010”. December 2006. . 2006. “Vision 2030.” December 2006.Government of the Republic of Zambia Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2008. “Zambia Two-Page Contribution

to Accra On The 2008 Paris Monitoring Survey.” April 2008.

Government of the Republic of Zambia Ministry of Local Government and Housing. 2008. “National Urban Water

Supply and Sanitation Programme 2008 – 2015 (2030): Background and Analysis.” June 2008.

Kayaga, S., and Franceys, R. 2008. “Water Services Regulation for the Urban Poor: Zambia.” in Water Management 161, 2

March 2008.NWASCO (The National Water Supply and Sanitation Council). 2006. “Urban and Peri-Urban Water Supply and Sanita-

tion Sector Report, 2005/6, Lusaka.”World Bank. 2006. “Water Sector Performance Improvement Project Appraisal Document, (Report No: 37166-ZM).” 30

August, 2006. . 2007. “The Political Economy Of Infrastructural Reform In Zambia.” October 2007. . 2007. “The Political Economy of Decentralization in Zambia (Neo Simutanyi).” November 2007. . 2008. “Zambia: Governance, Political Economy And Development Strategy (Brian Levy and Patricia Palale).”

March 2008.WSP (Water and Sanitation Program). 2006. “Getting Africa

on Track to Meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation: A Status Overview of 16 African Countries.”

Zambia CP Group. 2007. “Joint Assistance Strategy for Zambia (JASZ) 2007-2010.” April 2007.

For more information on GoAL WaSH contact:

Alastair Morrison GoAL WaSH CoordinatorUNDP Water Governance Facility at SIWIStockholm International Water Institute

Email: alastair.morrison@siwi.orgTel: +46 8 522 139 99Fax: +46 8 522 139 61

Piers Cross Senior GoAL WaSH Development ConsultantEmail: pierscross_2000@yahoo.comTel: +27 8 2796 0051

www.undp.org/water

UNDP would like to thank the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) for its generous financial support to thispublication and to GoAL-WaSH.

This document is produced by UNDP and does not necessarily represent the views of Sida.