Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6-1 Process Versus Need-Based Theories...

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 6-1

Process Versus Need-BasedTheories of Motivation

Process Versus Need-BasedTheories of Motivation

Need-Based TheoriesNeed-Based Theories– Reflect a content perspective.Reflect a content perspective.

– Try to list Try to list specific things that motivate behavior.specific things that motivate behavior.–specific things that motivate behaviorspecific things that motivate behavior..Process-Based TheoriesProcess-Based Theories– Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.

– Explain Explain how people go about satisfying their needshow people go about satisfying their needs..


The Equity Theory of MotivationThe Equity Theory of Motivation

Equity TheoryEquity Theory– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in Based on the relatively simple premise that people in

organizations want to be organizations want to be treated fairlytreated fairly..

EquityEquity– The belief that we are being The belief that we are being

treated treated fairly in relation to othersfairly in relation to others..

InequityInequity– The belief that we are being The belief that we are being

treated treated unfairly in relation to others.unfairly in relation to others.


Forming Equity PerceptionsForming Equity Perceptions

People in organizations form People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a their treatment through a four-step process.four-step process.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how evaluates how he or she is he or she is

being treated being treated by the firm.by the firm.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how evaluates how he or she is he or she is

being treated being treated by the firm.by the firm.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.


The Equity Comparison ProcessThe Equity Comparison Process

Equity theory describes the equity comparison Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an process in terms of an outcome-to-inputoutcome-to-input ratio. ratio.

Outcomes (self)Outcomes (self)Inputs (self)Inputs (self)

Outcomes (self)Outcomes (self)Inputs (self)Inputs (self)

Outcomes (other)Outcomes (other)Inputs (other)Inputs (other)

Outcomes (other)Outcomes (other)Inputs (other)Inputs (other)

compared withcompared with


Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequityfigure figure 6.16.1


Evaluations and ImplicationsEvaluations and Implications

Research findings support predictions of equity Research findings support predictions of equity theory for responses to inequity.theory for responses to inequity.

Equity theory offers managers three messages:Equity theory offers managers three messages:– Everyone in the organization needs to understand the Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases bases

for rewardsfor rewards. . – People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they

perceive and experience perceive and experience a variety ofa variety of rewards, some tangible rewards, some tangible and others intangible.and others intangible.

– People base their actions on their People base their actions on their perceptions of realityperceptions of reality..

IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?CULTURES?


The Expectancy Theory of MotivationThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The Basic Expectancy ModelThe Basic Expectancy Model– Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something

and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.

Effort-to-Performance ExpectancyEffort-to-Performance Expectancy– A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to

successful performance.successful performance.

Performance-to-Outcome ExpectancyPerformance-to-Outcome Expectancy– A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to

certain (desired) outcomes.certain (desired) outcomes.

Outcomes and ValencesOutcomes and Valences– The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a

particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.


The Expectancy Theory of MotivationThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation

figure figure 6.26.2


The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model


The model predicts that satisfaction The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance.high-level performance.

Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.


Evaluation and ImplicationsEvaluation and Implications

Research studies have confirmed:Research studies have confirmed:– The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences

with with performance and outcomes.performance and outcomes.– That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing

expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance and that performance will lead to desired rewardswill lead to desired rewards..

– That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other cultures?cultures?

• IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?• WOULD IT APPLY HERE?WOULD IT APPLY HERE?


Guidelines for the Use ofExpectancy Theory

Guidelines for the Use ofExpectancy Theory

Practical use of the theory by managers:Practical use of the theory by managers:– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to

meet organizational goals.meet organizational goals.– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.Link desired outcomes and desired performance.– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.– Make sure the rewards are large enough.Make sure the rewards are large enough.– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.


Learning as a Cognitive ProcessLearning as a Cognitive Process


Prior learning influences our behavioral Prior learning influences our behavioral choices. The perceived consequences of choices. The perceived consequences of those choices become in turn a part of those choices become in turn a part of learning and affect future behavioral choices.learning and affect future behavioral choices.


Reinforcement Theory and LearningReinforcement Theory and Learning

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory– Based on the idea that behavior is a Based on the idea that behavior is a

function of its consequences.function of its consequences.• Behavior that results in pleasant Behavior that results in pleasant

consequences (reward) is likely consequences (reward) is likely to be to be repeatedrepeated..

• Behavior that results in unpleasant Behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is consequences is lesslesslikely to be repeated.likely to be repeated.


Types of Reinforcementin Organizations


Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

Avoidance (Negative ReinforcementAvoidance (Negative Reinforcement))

ExtinctionExtinction

PunishmentPunishment




Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

•A reward or other desirable consequence that A reward or other desirable consequence that follows behaviorfollows behavior

Avoidance (Negative ReinforcementAvoidance (Negative Reinforcement))

•Also known as negative reinforcement; rather Also known as negative reinforcement; rather than receiving a reward following a desirable than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior, the person is given the opportunity to behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequenceavoid an unpleasant consequence




ExtinctionExtinction

•Decreases the frequency of behavior by Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior.consequence that follows that behavior.PunishmentPunishment

•An unpleasant, or aversive, An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior.consequence that results from behavior.


Kinds of ReinforcementKinds of Reinforcement


Positive reinforcement and avoidance can be usedPositive reinforcement and avoidance can be usedto motivate desired behaviors by employees.to motivate desired behaviors by employees.


Kinds of ReinforcementKinds of Reinforcement


Extinction and punishment can be used Extinction and punishment can be used to change undesired employee to change undesired employee


Schedules of Reinforcementin Organizations

Schedules of Reinforcementin Organizations

Schedule of ReinforcementSchedule of Reinforcement Nature of ReinforcementNature of Reinforcement

ContinuousContinuous Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Fixed-IntervalFixed-Interval Behavior is reinforced according to some Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined constant schedule based on time.predetermined constant schedule based on time.

Variable-IntervalVariable-Interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span varies from one time to the next.the time span varies from one time to the next.

Fixed-RatioFixed-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant.constant.

Variable-RatioVariable-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, but the number of of behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to the next.from one time to the next.

table table 6.16.1


Organizational Behavior ModificationOrganizational Behavior Modification

Behavior Modification in OrganizationsBehavior Modification in Organizations– Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the

application of reinforcement theory to people in application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings.organizational settings.

– Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with positive consequences. positive consequences.

– Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to encourage desirable behavior in employees.encourage desirable behavior in employees.


Organizational Behavior ModificationOrganizational Behavior Modification

The Effectiveness of Behavior ModificationThe Effectiveness of Behavior Modification–Has Has not always not always been been 100%100% effective in every workplace application. effective in every workplace application.

• Managers frequently have only limited means for providing meaningful Managers frequently have only limited means for providing meaningful reinforcement for their employees.reinforcement for their employees.

–Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world. Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world. –Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time.Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time.

• The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees come to The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees come to view it as a routine part of the compensation system.view it as a routine part of the compensation system.

The Ethics of OB MODThe Ethics of OB MOD–OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice.OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice.–OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation.OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation.

Is it CULTURE BOUND?Is it CULTURE BOUND?

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6-1 Process Versus Need-Based Theories...

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