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Transcript of Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human Development Studying Change Constancy throughout the...
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Human DevelopmentHuman Development
Studying Change Constancy
throughout the lifespan
Studying Change Constancy
throughout the lifespan
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Field of Human DevelopmentThe Field of Human Development
Scientific Applied Interdisciplinary
Scientific Applied Interdisciplinary
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
TheoryTheory
An orderly, integrated set of statements that
Describes Explains Predicts
Behavior
An orderly, integrated set of statements that
Describes Explains Predicts
Behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Basic Issues in DevelopmentBasic Issues in Development
1. Continuous or discontinuous?
2. One course of development or many?
3. Nature or nurture?
1. Continuous or discontinuous?
2. One course of development or many?
3. Nature or nurture?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Basic Issues: Continuous or DiscontinuousBasic Issues: Continuous or Discontinuous
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Contexts of DevelopmentContexts of Development
Unique combinations of: Genetics Environment
Unique combinations of: Genetics Environment
Can result in different paths of development
Can result in different paths of development
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Basic Issues: Nature and NurtureBasic Issues: Nature and Nurture
Nature Inborn, biological
givens Based on genetic
inheritance
Nature Inborn, biological
givens Based on genetic
inheritance
Nurture Physical and social
world Influence
biological and psychological development
Nurture Physical and social
world Influence
biological and psychological development
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Stability and PlasticityStability and Plasticity
Stability Individuals high or
low in a characteristic remain so at later ages
Early experience may have lifelong impact
Stability Individuals high or
low in a characteristic remain so at later ages
Early experience may have lifelong impact
Plasticity Change is possible,
based on experiences
Plasticity Change is possible,
based on experiences
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Development as a Dynamic SystemDevelopment as a Dynamic System
Perpetually ongoing process Conception to Death Influences on development
Biological Psychological Social
Perpetually ongoing process Conception to Death Influences on development
Biological Psychological Social
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Lifespan PerspectiveLifespan Perspective
Development as Lifelong Multidimensional and
multidirectional Highly plastic Influenced by multiple
forces
Development as Lifelong Multidimensional and
multidirectional Highly plastic Influenced by multiple
forces
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Periods of DevelopmentPeriods of Development
Prenatal Conception to birth
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Birth to 2 years
Early Childhood 2 to 6 years
Middle Childhood 6 to 11 years
Adolescence 11 to 18 years
Early Adulthood 18 to 40 years
Middle Adulthood 40 to 65 years
Late Adulthood 65 years to death
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Influences on DevelopmentInfluences on Development
Age-Graded History-Graded Nonnormative
Age-Graded History-Graded Nonnormative
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
ResilienceResilience
The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
Factors in resilience Personal characteristics Warm parental relationship Social support outside family Community resources and
opportunities
Factors in resilience Personal characteristics Warm parental relationship Social support outside family Community resources and
opportunities
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Philosophies of ChildhoodPhilosophies of Childhood
Medieval: Contradictory beliefs about children’s basic nature
Puritan: Children as inherently evil and stubborn punitive approach to child-rearing
Locke: Tabula rasa children as blank slates shaped by experience
Rousseau: Noble savages children as naturally healthy and moral
Medieval: Contradictory beliefs about children’s basic nature
Puritan: Children as inherently evil and stubborn punitive approach to child-rearing
Locke: Tabula rasa children as blank slates shaped by experience
Rousseau: Noble savages children as naturally healthy and moral
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Philosophies of Adulthood and AgingPhilosophies of Adulthood and Aging
Tetens Origin and extent of individual differences Change during adulthood - compensation for declines Impact of historical era on life course
Tetens Origin and extent of individual differences Change during adulthood - compensation for declines Impact of historical era on life course
CarusIdentified four periods of life Childhood Youth Adulthood Senescence
CarusIdentified four periods of life Childhood Youth Adulthood Senescence
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Key Principles of Darwin’s Theory of EvolutionKey Principles of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Natural Selection Species have
characteristics that are adapted—or fit—to their environments.
Natural Selection Species have
characteristics that are adapted—or fit—to their environments.
Survival of the Fittest Individuals best adapted
to their environments survive to reproduce.
Their genes are passed to later generations.
Survival of the Fittest Individuals best adapted
to their environments survive to reproduce.
Their genes are passed to later generations.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Early Scientific Studyof DevelopmentEarly Scientific Studyof Development
Normative
Approach
•Hall, Gesell•Measured large numbers of people•Age-related averages
Mental Testing
Movement
•Binet & Simon•Intelligence tests
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Freud’s Three Parts of the PersonalityFreud’s Three Parts of the Personality
Id
•Largest portion of the mind•Unconscious, present at birth•Source of biological needs & desires
Ego
•Conscious, rational part of mind•Emerges in early infancy•Redirects id impulses acceptably
Superego
•The conscience•Develops from ages 3 to 6 from interactions with caregivers
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Freud’s Psychosexual StagesFreud’s Psychosexual Stages
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesErikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Basic trust v. mistrust Birth to 1 year
Autonomy v. shame and doubt
1–3 years
Initiative v. guilt 3–6 years
Industry v. inferiority 6–11 years
Identity v. role confusion Adolescence
Intimacy v. isolation Early adulthood
Generativity v. stagnation
Middle adulthood
Ego integrity v. despair Late adulthood
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Behaviorism & Social LearningBehaviorism & Social Learning
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus – Response
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers and Punishments
Social Learning Modeling
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Piaget’s StagesPiaget’s Stages
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete
Operational Formal Operational
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete
Operational Formal Operational
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Developmental Cognitive NeuroscienceDevelopmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Study of relationships between Changes in the brain Development of cognition, behavior
Brings together researchers from Psychology Biology Neuroscience Medicine
Study of relationships between Changes in the brain Development of cognition, behavior
Brings together researchers from Psychology Biology Neuroscience Medicine
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
EthologyEthology
Study of adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history Critical Period Sensitive Period
Study of adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history Critical Period Sensitive Period
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Critical PeriodCritical Period
Individual is Biologically prepared to acquire adaptive
behaviors during limited time span Needs support of an appropriately
stimulating environment
Individual is Biologically prepared to acquire adaptive
behaviors during limited time span Needs support of an appropriately
stimulating environment
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Sensitive PeriodSensitive Period
Later development is hard to induce
Boundaries less defined than a critical period
Later development is hard to induce
Boundaries less defined than a critical period
An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge
Individual is especially responsive to environment
An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge
Individual is especially responsive to environment
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Evolutionary Developmental PsychologyEvolutionary Developmental Psychology
Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies
Studies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with age
Expands upon ethology
Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies
Studies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with age
Expands upon ethology
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryVygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Social interaction necessary Cooperative dialogues
with more knowledgeable members of society
Social interaction necessary Cooperative dialogues
with more knowledgeable members of society
Transmission of culture to a new generation Values, beliefs, customs, skills
Transmission of culture to a new generation Values, beliefs, customs, skills
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Choosing a Research StrategyChoosing a Research Strategy
Research Methods Basic approach to
gathering information Systematic observations Self-reports Clinical or case studies Ethnographies
Research Methods Basic approach to
gathering information Systematic observations Self-reports Clinical or case studies Ethnographies
Research Design Overall plan for the
study Permits the best test of
the research question
Research Design Overall plan for the
study Permits the best test of
the research question
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Systematic ObservationSystematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation
In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens
Naturalistic Observation
In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens
Structured Observations
Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest
All participants have equal chance to display behavior
Structured Observations
Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest
All participants have equal chance to display behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
InterviewsInterviews
Clinical Interview
Flexible, conversational style
Probes for participant’s point of view
Clinical Interview
Flexible, conversational style
Probes for participant’s point of view
Structured Interview
Each participant is asked same questions in same way
May use questionnaires, get answers from groups
Structured Interview
Each participant is asked same questions in same way
May use questionnaires, get answers from groups
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Clinical/Case Study MethodClinical/Case Study Method
Brings together a wide range of information on one person Interviews Observations Test scores
Brings together a wide range of information on one person Interviews Observations Test scores
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
EthnographyEthnography
Descriptive, qualitative technique Goal is to understand a culture or social
group
Descriptive, qualitative technique Goal is to understand a culture or social
group
Participant Observation Researcher lives in community
for months or years
Participant Observation Researcher lives in community
for months or years
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
General Research DesignsGeneral Research Designs
Correlational Reveals relationships
between variables Does NOT reveal
cause-and-effect
Correlational Reveals relationships
between variables Does NOT reveal
cause-and-effect
Experimental Allows cause-and-
effect statements Lab experiments
may not apply in the real world.
Experimental Allows cause-and-
effect statements Lab experiments
may not apply in the real world.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Correlation CoefficientsCorrelation Coefficients
Magnitude Size of the number
between 0 and 1 Closer to 1 (positive
or negative) is a stronger relationship
Magnitude Size of the number
between 0 and 1 Closer to 1 (positive
or negative) is a stronger relationship
Direction Indicated by + or - sign Positive (+): as one
variable increases, so does the other
Negative (-): as one variable increase, the other decreases
Direction Indicated by + or - sign Positive (+): as one
variable increases, so does the other
Negative (-): as one variable increase, the other decreases
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Examples of Correlation CoefficientsExamples of Correlation Coefficients
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Independent and Dependent VariablesIndependent and Dependent Variables
Independent Experimenter
changes, or manipulates
Expected to cause changes in another variable.
Independent Experimenter
changes, or manipulates
Expected to cause changes in another variable.
Dependent Experimenter
measures, but does not manipulate
Expected to be influenced by the independent variable
Dependent Experimenter
measures, but does not manipulate
Expected to be influenced by the independent variable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Random AssignmentRandom Assignment
Researchers use unbiased procedure to assign participants to treatment conditions
Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions
Researchers use unbiased procedure to assign participants to treatment conditions
Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions
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Modified ExperimentsModified Experiments
Field Experiment
Capitalize on opportunities for random assignment in natural settings
Field Experiment
Capitalize on opportunities for random assignment in natural settings
Natural or Quasi- Experiment
Compare differences in treatment that already exist
Match groups as much as possible
Natural or Quasi- Experiment
Compare differences in treatment that already exist
Match groups as much as possible
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Developmental Research DesignsDevelopmental Research Designs
Longitudinal
Same group studied at different times
Cross-Sectional
Differing groups studied at the same time
SequentialSeveral similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times
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Problems in Conducting Longitudinal ResearchProblems in Conducting Longitudinal Research
Participants drop out, move away
Practice effects Cohort effects
Participants drop out, move away
Practice effects Cohort effects