Coordinating Social Media Management Interfaces Across the...
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Constance Elizabeth Kampf, Aarhus U., Department of Management, [email protected] Haahr, Marjan Mohammadreza
Coordinating Social Media Management Interfaces Across the Organization
Authors
Constance Elizabeth Kampf, Aarhus U., Department of Management, [email protected] Haahr, Aarhus BSS, Aarhus U., [email protected] Mohammadreza, Aarhus BSS, Aarhus U., [email protected]
Constance Elizabeth Kampf, Aarhus U., Department of Management, [email protected] Haahr, Marjan Mohammadreza
Coordinating Social Media Management Across the Organization 16846, p.
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Abstract: To establish a holistic framework for approaching social media
management that offers a way to approach new, amplified and emerging interfaces
affecting organizations. We apply Porter's historic value chain model as a scaffold to
approach a holistic understanding of social media management and organize highly
cited concepts related to social media management from the fields of IT and
Corporate Communication. We find that classifying current studies in relation to
secondary and primary activities from an historic value chain scaffold enables
researchers to define and classify interfaces that can inform our understanding of
social media management in a holistic manner. From an activity perspective, both
primary and secondary activities related to social media can be argued to have
interfaces with social media platforms, participants and audiences. In addition,
interfaces enabled by social media technology affordances can be classified as new,
amplified or emergent. Using a historic approach to organizational activities for
organizing social media research enables researchers and social media managers to
work with social media management strategies at a more detailed and nuanced level,
taking types of activities as well as types of activities into account. This paper offers
a cross disciplinary perspective connecting research from Corporate Communication
and IT fields--both fields that attend to organizations in holistic manners, yet focus on
different types of activities due to their disciplinary frames of reference. This
combined perspective enables a dynamic framework for developing holistic
approaches to social media management.
Keywords: social media management, Corporate Communication, IT
Paper Type: Conceptual paper
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1. Introduction
Emerging research on social media management points towards many
different directions, and does not establish itself in a holistic way. For example,
researchers tend to focus on concerns related to an internal focus, such as social media
governance (Zerfass, Fink, and Linke, 2011), or related to the nature of the
corporation to social media interface from a marketing perspective (Peters, Chen,
Kaplan, Ognibeni, and Pauwels, 2013). In their attempt at building a holistic
framework, Felix, Rauschnabel, and Hinsch (2017) integrate features of marketing on
social media with broader concepts of social media marketing as having four central
dimensions--scope, structure, culture and governance. By framing these dimensions
in a holistic way, Felix et al move towards a holistic model for social media
management from an organizational perspective, but their survey and interview data
still reflect disciplinary perspectives rooted in marketing. To go beyond the limits of
disciplinary perspectives, we need to connect social media research into a framework
that offers a holistic perspective across disciplines present in organizations which can
lead to identifying social media interfaces that are meaningful for business strategy.
Von Krogh discussed the potential of social media to disrupt company knowledge
management boundaries by serving as a substitute source of information to guarded
knowledge repositories (2012). This focus point addresses the organization as a
whole, but not the whole of the organization. To bring a focus to the whole of the
organization, our perspective enables researchers to leverage a cross-functional and
cross-disciplinary basis for connecting social media to business strategy. To do this,
we draw on Porter’s value chain (2001) as a holistic model for understanding social
media ”across” the firm because it includes value creating activities and structures
from across the different departments and structures inherent in business
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organizations that produce and sell goods and services. If we don’t have a model like
Porter’s that is built on 1). the connectedness of different value creating activities
across the organization, and 2). the premise that business activities are connected to
the external market and embedded in a larger world, we risk falling into disciplinary
perspectives that fragment our understanding of current social media activities and
relevant interfaces.
Looking at Porter’s (2001) model, each of the boxes across the bottom
represent historic interfaces to the context, and each of the internal boxes represent
historic internal interfaces. We posit that with social media technologies today,
internal interfaces are also functioning as external interfaces, so that we have an
expanded set of interfaces which researchers can map to each of the boxes across the
entire model. When we plot social media research findings across disciplines into the
Value Chain model, the model begins to deconstruct itself, so that the components
become a scaffolding for a new understanding based in an expanded notion of
interfaces.
To build a holistic, cross-disciplinary model for understanding social media
management "across" the organization, we look at current research which addresses
social media and the new interfaces it brings to organizations. Our overall research
question is: How do the uses of social media platforms for communication practices
affect the quality and quantity of interfaces across the organization related to both
internal and external communication practices? We break this down through mapping
concepts that define interfaces across Porter's value chain model (2001).
In the literature review, we set the stage for why these historic business
models are needed as a scaffold for understanding social media interfaces, practices,
and potential effects "across" the organization by examining literature from both the
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Corporate Communication and IT disciplines--demonstrating the current external
interface perspectives, internal interface perspectives, and early efforts to coordinate
between the two. Then, we discuss our methodology for finding and selecting
literature demonstrating Porter's historic value chain model. Next, we discuss our
findings at the concept level, examining how concepts used to understand social
media and social media management illuminate both historic and new interfaces
between organizations and their contexts.
2. Literature Review: From External and Internal Perspectives on Social Media
to Coordinating Social Media Uses across the Organization
Both the Corporate Communication and IT literatures are relevant for
understanding historic and new interfaces between the organization and its' context
because the fields core content touches on all disciplines and structures in the
organization. As organizations are connected through IT systems, they are also
connected through communication practices by people using IT systems. In this
section, we begin by examining the gap in connecting external and internal
communication perspectives in social media studies in both literatures. This
framework can be seen as a holistic approach to understanding how social media
technologies permeate organizations, create new interfaces and affect historic
interfaces across the organization in Porter's historic model for industry structures, as
well as supporting and primary activities.
Key social media concepts from an external communication perspective
Historic interfaces between companies and their publics are addressed in
external communication perspectives across both literatures. In the IT literature,
external perspectives related to social media interfaces focus on customer dialog
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management (Gallagher and Ransbotham 2010); stakeholder enagement (Huang,
Baptista, and Gallier, 2013; Maxwell and Carboni, 2016), and service co-creation
(Jarvenpaa and Tuunainen, 2013).
In the field of Corporate Communications, which overlaps with Marketing and
Public Relations (PR), responsibility for social media campaigns is a contested area,
with PR scholars claiming ownership of the area, and placing marketing as a subset of
PR. Four key trajectories for understanding social media interfaces emerge from this
field: Tensions between management practices and the openness in social media
platform affordances; Social media governance; Stakeholder Relationship
Management; and Corporate Reputation and Crisis Management.
Macnamara and Zerfass (2012) point out the inherent tensions between
management practices and the openness of social media based on Web 2.0
technology. They point out that PR and Corporate Communications as fields both
overlap and oscillate between 1) understandings of communication as an open
interaction with publics versus 2) a goal based interaction design to manage public
responses. They lay out the issue of control as troublesome for strategic approaches
to communication, inferring a focus on external communication due to their survey
sample with a PR bias. In their survey of German and Australian PR managers, key
findings include a lack of systematic approach to social media governance.
This definition of social media governance is elaborated by Linke and Zerfass
in 2013 as having a basis in regulatory and broader regulatory frameworks.
Regulatory frameworks include guidelines and social media policy towards ways in
which employees use social media platforms, inferring an external communication
focus. Broader regulatory frameworks begin to focus inside the organization
including budgeting, training employees, organizational structures and organizational
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cultures supporting emergent social media. In 2015, Zerfass and Sherzada develop
the notion further to include a survey of German CEOs and their attitudes towards
social media, finding that they prioritized their personal communication activities in
the public sphere to professional communication activities at the organizational level.
They also found that 70% of CEOs surveyed prioritized traditional media over social
media as affecting reputation. This research trajectory for social media governance
demonstrates tensions and issues within the organization related to external social
media presences.
Stakeholder Relationship Management becomes a strategy focus for Corporate
Communication in social media contexts. For example, Tsai and Men (2013) assume
that the purpose of strategic communication is to manage stakeholder relations
through building long term relationships with stakeholders—relationships that start
when corporate-community interactions have consequences for either party. From
this vantage point, Tsai and Men focus on antecedents to social media engagement
with corporate content, defined as social media dependency, parasocial interaction,
and community identification. They also focus on shared areas where
communications professionals can interact socially with stakeholders in social media
to build long-term relationships, which they claim will contribute to corporate
strategy. This stakeholder management approach does not directly address tensions
between the participation and the openness of social media technology and the
corporate need to represent their organizational perspective. Instead, it focuses on
antecedents to stakeholder engagement on corporate social networking site pages, as
well as types of engagement. This research focus has implications for internal
organizational actions, but highlights external communication practices as well as
understanding stakeholder motivations for engaging with companies in social media.
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Corporate Reputation and Crisis Management is the fourth category. Here,
Floreddu, Cabiddu, and Evaristo (2014) focus on optimizing online corporate
reputation by examining the link between social media communication strategy and
online reputation. They define communication strategy in terms of types of external
communication used in social media contexts (i.e. informal, customer engagement).
Their definition of optimization rests on deployment patterns of these types of
external communication. Other general external focuses include case and multiple
studies of online crises with reflections on strategic risks and responses (Guidry, Jin,
Haddad, Yang, and Smith, 2016; Etter and Vestergaard, 2015; Romenti, Murtarelli,
and Valentini, 2014) and practitioners’ experiences of the Internet in crisis
communication (Fjeld and Molesworth, 2006). Haigh, Brubaker and Whiteside
(2013) examine Facebook as a public relations tool focusing on corporate presentation
of information and effects on stakeholders. Dekay (2012) performs a cross-industry
analysis of corporate reactions to negative comments on Facebook, discussing a
general lack of corporate strategy in responses, and finding general negative fan
reactions to explicit marketing postings. Zhang and Vos (2014) focus on reviewing
the literature about monitoring social media to protect corporate reputation,
demonstrating three key areas—aims, methods and challenges in monitoring social
media—laying a basis for developing social media data competencies.
These key scholars describe social media contexts and demonstrate tensions
inherent in diverse understandings of how the field of strategic communication
addresses issues related to communication on social media. These tensions can be
seen as related to control and the effects of long term relationship building on
corporate strategy. These tensions point to an internal control issue within the
organization regarding how companies can strategize across the organization for
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social media and its’ role in the production of corporate reputation. However, only
Zerfass directly connects external social media to internal communication practices,
laying groundwork for conceptualizing social media across the organization in a
broad manner that can go beyond traditional PR and Marketing.
Key social media concepts from an internal communication perspective
Acknowledging the limits of the external communication perspective, scholars
have called for exploring implications of internal communication perspectives as a
means of moving beyond the limits inherent in an external focus for social media use.
IT scholars have focused on organizational perspectives for user-generated content
(Kurian 2016; Baym, 2013), Knowledge Management related to social media (Sigala
and Chalkiti 2015; Von Krogh 2013), and a more recent trajectory of social media
adoption strategy and approaches (Miranda, Kim, and Summers, 2015; Siamagka,
Christodoulides, Michaelidou, and Valvi, 2015; Chung, Andreev, Benyoucef, Duane,
and O’Reilly, 2017; Felix et al, 2017). In addition, Deans (2011) examined the
impact of social media on C-level roles, exploring different configurations of social
media strategy ownership in the organization, whereas Huang, Baptista and Newell
(2015) focused on developing the notion of communicational ambidexterity for
managing social media communications from an internal perspective.
In the Corporate Communication area, Arora and Predmore (2013) argue for
social media beyond the marketing function and consumer orientation, but they move
to internal social media and democratizing leadership within the organization rather
than looking at different ways that social media is employed to interface with publics
and organizations outside the firm in relation to different organizational functions
beyond marketing and PR. Agerdal-Hjermind (2014) focuses on the employee
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experiences of bloggers inside an organization, and how it affects their social media
communication strategies through focus group interviews and thematic analysis of the
responses. Key findings include discursive behaviors in blogging related to
experiences inside the organization rather than in response to external stakeholders.
Hearn, Foth and Gray (2009) use an action research approach in an organization,
leading to a model for understanding new media production as co-evolving with
social content and technology layers. They argue for approaching social and new
media as a communication tool in line with fax, phone and corporate intranets—
suggesting that social and new media competences should be developed inside and
across the organization.
Looking at effects of social media used as part of internal communication
practices, Huang et al (2013) examine social media effects on organizational
rhetorical practices, conceiving of social media as an extension of the intranet. In
their use of multiple case studies, they find that social media affects ways in which
employees communicate publicly with each other. They find that in internal
communication contexts, social media allows for multiple voices and targeted
communication together, simultaneous wider reach and richness, and combined
production and consumption of the rhetorical context. In their framework for internal
crisis communication, Frandsen and Johansen (2011) include employee roles as
ambassadors for the organization through their personal network connections in social
media. Although the ambassador role involves external communication, their
perspective on it focuses on internal communication processes, which take this social
media role into account. These internal perspectives offer useful insights into social
media as an internal communication tool, as well as content for internal
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communication. Finally, Madsen (2016) demonstrates how social media can be used
internally to engage with and co-construct organizational identity among employees.
Combining external and internal perspectives
In both the Corporate Communication and IT literatures, few scholars focus
on this combination which explicitly connects internal strategy with external
communication practices in social media contexts.
IT scholars focus on social media metrics in frameworks for managing social
media (Peters et al, 2013) and using social media platforms/tactics for business value
(Culnan, HcHugh, and Zubillaga, 2010). These use a data perspective on combining
internal and external perspectives, so that external data reflecting the social media
presence becomes a driver for internal strategy decisions. Bringing the connection to
a higher level of detail, Aral, Dellarocas, and Godes (2013) offer a framework for
social media research with three levels of analysis--users and society, platforms and
intermediaries, and firms and industries. These layers work together to offer a holistic
approach to social media research. Aral et al apply them to four kinds of activities
that organizations engage with via social media--design and features, strategy and
tactics, management and organizations, and measurement of value. This combination
offers an organizing framework that combines external and internal perspectivess for
social media research. However, they note a gap in research focusing on integrating
social media strategy with overall corporate strategy (p. 8).
In the Corporate Communication literature, Zerfass and his co-authors
implicitly approach this combination through their development of social media
governance guidelines and concepts; however, their focus remains within the realm of
PR as a field. (Linke and Zerfass, 2013; Macnamara and Zerfass, 2012; Zerfass and
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Sherzada, 2015). The combination of external and internal perspectives has been
approached explicitly by several social media scholars, who bring in discussions
about social media throughout the organization including cross-functional
perspectives. For example, Edosomwan, Prakasan, Kouame, Watson, and Seymour
(2011) discuss the history of social media in business contexts, and conceptualize the
importance of social media throughout the organization. At the same time, they focus
on dividing external communication of PR and marketing and internal communication
strategy into separate areas of social media use.
In contrast, Gur˘au (2008) focuses on a cross-functional approach to social
media through internal collaboration at the departmental level, arguing that all
employees are likely to communicate with a large range of stakeholders that could
inform social media communication practices. Breakenridge (2012) also investigates
different perspectives on cross-functional strategic roles through comparing human
resources and public relations practitioners’ understandings and visions for their use
of social media in their respective work areas leading to the identification of policing
and employee recruiter roles. Building on Breakenridge’s work, Neill and Moody
(2014) also explicitly address cross-functional social media practices through focus
groups of PR and Human Resources (HR) employees from across several
organizations. This study covers several departments including PR, Marketing,
Human Resources, Legal, IT, Sales and Customer Service. Here nine strategic roles
for social media communicators include internal collaborator, policy maker, policing,
technology tester, communication organizer, issues manager, relationship analyzer,
master of metrics and employee recruiter. From a more holistic perspective, Dreher
(2014) examines the risks of employee social media use and demonstrates an eight-
point strategy for encouraging social media use across an organization, based on a
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case of best practices from Domo—a business intelligence company. These eight
points are research, access, commitment, social media team, guidelines and policies,
training and education, integration, and goal setting and measurement. These points
are unpacked through a combination of literature and the Domo case. These themes
are useful in approaching social media across the organization, but they function as
guidelines to follow more than analytical tools for optimizing communication for
building corporate reputation in online and social media contexts. Although these
roles and themes offer a more holistic perspective on social media practices across the
organization, the overview of how they work together to produce reputation in
organizational and online settings still needs to be understood.
To build on Dreher, Breakenridge as well as Neill and Moody’s work, we
propose also considering employee social media use in a holistic way, but suggest
moving beyond guidelines and roles to understanding social media and online
interfaces across the organization. These interfaces connect internal and external
communication by demonstrating how employees in support areas of the organization
use social media tools and knowledge in their daily work. The knowledge they gain
through social media can be understood as influencing both their external and internal
communication practices, as well as strategies for connecting external and internal
information and knowledge needed to perform their work. For employees in areas of
the organization that are not traditionally external communication-oriented, this
implies the emergence of a set of new interfaces for external and internal
communication. Over time, as social media competences are integrated in support
functions across organizations, this can lead to PR and Marketing no longer being the
gatekeeping external communication interfaces between the organization and publics
using social media.
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This idea of the emergence of new interfaces also enables employees to access
knowledge from social media sources that may be strategically communicated
internally to enable the support functions to work more effectively. These new
interfaces and enhanced access to knowledge via social media sources should be
examined as part of understanding how social media strategy can be integrated into
overall corporate strategies. To address this problem through a model for
understanding social media use across the organization from a broad perspective, we
suggest that the metaphor of Porter’s value chain can be fruitful. We came to this
metaphor after our initial data analysis, and then used it as a lens for first revisiting
the literature, and second, for digging deeper in our analysis of the data. We explain
it here to orient readers to key analytical constructs of the online reputation chain,
based on the value chain metaphor. The value chain is activity focused, and connects
primary activities around producing products to secondary activities that support the
value creation process. Using the value chain as a metaphor, we shift the focus from
activities for creating value through products to activities for creating reputation
through communication. This enables us to coordinate findings in the literature
around social media activities for the unified purpose of fulfilling corporate strategy.
3. Method: Looking back to move forward
In 2001, Porter revisited his five forces and value chain models for
organizations in light of the the emerging technology of the Internet. Through this
update, Porter rethought the implications of the value chain with respect to Internet
technology. He described the Internet as "an enabling technology" that could be used
as a part of any strategy in any industry. At the same time, he argued that the Internet
is most effectively cast as a compliment to traditional business strategies, rather than a
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new paradigm. (p.64). In arguing for a return to fundamentals, he reminded us that in
transition times, business rules appear to change and then return to the old ways under
the influence of market forces. Revisiting this position in 2017, requires us to consider
whether social media is part of a transition time? And whether it affects the "old
rules" of market forces?
Following the same logic, this would imply that "uses of social media" work
to create value, as opposed to social media creating value in and of itself. Thus,
Porter's framework can be used to organize and understand uses of social media from
an organizational perspective because it scaffolds primary and secondary activities
aimed at value creation from a holistic perspective. A parallel question to ask is, if
social media is complimentary to traditional business value, where should we focus to
understand how to leverage "uses of social media" for creating business value. Using
Porter's value chain to scaffold our perspective turns attention inherently towards an
organizational perspective which enables businesses to understand how social media
relates to their core processes, interfaces, and contexts from a holistic vantage point.
We draw on Porter (2001) to demonstrate how the historically framed support
structures and interfaces of organizations are still valid in this context of changing
social media technology. We also use this historic perspective as a basis for
examining emerging interfaces between organizations and their industry, as well as
society context. These emerging interfaces still connect to the fundamental elements
of business strategy, but they also compliment it by offering the opportunity for an
interplay between interface strategies and core business strategies.
We worked first from articles that we knew from prior work that highlighted
connections between technology and the value chain. Here we focused on two key
articles-- A Long Range Planning Article from 1995--Levi Strauss Across the Value
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Chain (Preece, Fleisher and Toccacelli, 1995) and Porter's 2001 rethinking of the
effects of the Internet on the value chain. To systematically find articles with
appropriate concepts for our holistic reflection on social media through value chain
elements, we began with Google Scholar, looking for highly cited articles on the
keywords "social media management," and "social media," in both the fields of
Corporate Communication and IT. Then we chose keywords specific to each field.
For Corporate Communication, keywords included "internal communication," and
"external communication," together with "social media strategy". For IT, keywords
included "social media" and "business value." Then, we examined the texts citing
these texts, and refined keywords to include the social media related titles we used to
describe elements of the value chain to scaffold social media management from a
holistic organizational perspective, using our institutional library search engine to
look for additional and related articles. We included mainly articles from peer
reviewed journals with at least 1 citation, and also some highly cited book chapters.
Where there were numerous articles on similar topics, we chose articles from
reputable journals from the perspective of each field, with the highest citation counts,
and which were cited for the concepts we included.
4. Mapping Social Media literature using Porter's Value Chain Model as a
Scaffold
Porter’s value chain offers a key management strategy conceptualization of
the organizational practices. Applying Porter’s strategic framework to current social
media practices offers a way of systematically analyzing value activities, supporting
structures in the organization, and interfaces between the organization and context. In
this section, we focus on the relation of the literature to concepts for understanding
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social media from the fields of IT and Corporate Communication. We map these
concepts to the elements and supporting structures in Porter's historic value chain
model. The purpose of this mapping is to begin with a respect for the fundamentals of
business strategy, and then examine how additional interfaces created by uses of
social media platforms compliment traditional business strategy. The aim of this
exercise is to demonstrate the complimentarity between traditional and new business
strategies influenced by uses of social media technology. In turn, we also bring
together IT literature on social media with communication literature on social media
to enable organizations to take a holistic perspective on understanding social media
management. Our rethinking of the value chain elements in the light of social media
is inspired by a combination of Porter (2001) and Preece et al (1995). We incorporate
both technology affordances as Porter did, and communication related to building
corporate reputation along the value chain following Preece et al. This combination
leads not to a new and better value chain necessarily, but rather focuses on building a
holistic framework for understanding how social media scholarship can contribute to
overall firm strategy. This framework for social media management, scaffolded by
the primary and secondary element categories from the value chain works to point out
possibilities for research that coordinates an organizational perspective on social
media management with business strategy, and what Preece et al call "opportunities to
manage corporate reputation." (1995, p. 89).
As Porter (2001) rethought production related actions in the value chain, his
content for each of the primary and secondary elements shifted to using technology to
widen the communication of information across the organization and enable self-
service and automated through what he called "Web distributed supply chain
management," encompassing activities across the first three aspects of the value
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chain--inbound logistics, operations and outbound logistics. In this exercise, he
argued that industry structure was still the key factor for strategy, although he foresaw
the Internet reducing one of the five forces, barriers to entry. In our re-mapping of the
value chain to demonstrate a holistic approach to social media management, we argue
that new interfaces lead to a meta-structure in which organizations are interacting
with their context on multiple levels--not just the industry level, but also at the
"shaping vision" level (Hagel III, Seely Brown and Davison, 2008), which can
include shaping visions related to the power of platforms, including but not limited to,
social media platforms connecting users across industries.
As Porter's 2001 version of value chain primary activities focuses on tighter
knowledge connections between organizations, their suppliers and throughout the
company, the social media version focuses on tighter connections between the
company and its' larger context of participants in social media platforms by rethinking
"Web distributed Supply Chain Management" (p.13) in terms of social media driven
interfaces. This shifts the level of analysis from the interfaces around materials and
inventory, production and distribution of products to an analysis at a more abstract
level related to knowledge. This level reflects the current affordances of social media
which relate to sharing ideas, building reputation, and amplifying perspectives
through the use of social media posts, networks, and content choices.
Preece et al (1995) construct a similar transformation of value chain activities
with a focus on supporting activities that, in the long term, can lead to establishing
corporate reputation. This long term thinking about corporate actions, information
sharing and cooperation as part of corporate reputation was visionary back in 1995.
Through social media, technical affordances of social media platforms both enable,
and could be considered to demand some of these visionary activities described by
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Preece et al over 20 years ago. This logic places social media scholarship in a
business strategy context, looking beyond the affordances of new platforms and
technologies to meaningful activities at new and emerging interfaces enabled by
social media technologies. Recasting key concepts from social media literature that
focus more narrowly on social media practices and outcomes in parts of the
organization offers a path to rethinking social media scholarship in terms of
coordinated organizational perspectives rather than limited disciplinary perspectives.
Value chain: How can the value chain demonstrate a holistic perspective on social
media use to begin to establish an organizational perspective on social media
management?
In this section, we rethink value chain elements in terms of the technological
affordances and reputation content from previous uses of the value chain to
coordinate holistic perspectives for understanding both technology and repution in an
organizational perspective. First, we describe the primary and secondary elements of
a version of the value chain for building a holistic perspective on social media
management. Then we use tables to demonstrate highly cited concepts that can be
useful for unpacking each element with respect to the social media research literatures
in Corporate Communication and IT perspectives.
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Porter's value chain model from Figure 1 includes supporting activities (A-D) and
primary activities (1-5). When looking at social media, we can see supporting
activities as focused on the support structures needed to maintain a social media
presence. Primary activities, on the other hand focus directly on social media
interfaces between corporations and their contexts. One key difference in using
Porter's value chain (2001) to address social media rather than the Internet in general
is that interfaces go beyond the limitations of the industry context, whereas Porter
casts Web based supply chain management in terms of using the Internet for
interfacing with the Industry context. Additional interfaces also can emerge between
support structures and social media directly, for example with Human Resources
using LinkedIn as a recruiting platform, or performing social media presence searches
as part of screening applicants.
In using Porter's value chain as an organizing structure for making sense of
what Van Looy (2016) refers to as the multi-disciplinary nature of social media
management, we label the primary activities of the value chain with numbers 1-5, and
the secondary or supporting activities as A, B, C, D. In Porter's rethinking of the
value chain for the Internet, primary activities are transformed into information
intensive actions rather than the actual production actions inherent in the historical
model. Following Porter's 2001 logic, each box is transformed to demonstrate
affordances and requirements of social media technology. Box 1 focuses on inbound
ideas and concepts that the firm can learn about from interactions on social media
platforms. These incude ideas that can be used to refine operations. In the same
light, Box 2, Operations, became availability of information about product production
processes related to promises to deliver. As we rethink the value chain for social
media affordances, information related to operations is not commonly communicated
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via social media channels. However, if we consider R&D to be an operations
function, Box 2 can refer to RandD operations that involve open innovation or co-
creation. Box 3, outbound logistics, can be understood to refer to logistics of dealing
with global distributors and their social media presences. The combination of boxes
1-3 as primary activities working together can be understood as activities related to
"Knowledge chain mangement." This is inspired by Porter's (2001) labelling of
primary activities 1-3 as Web based supply chain management. The structure is
parallel, but due to the current affordances of social media, activities 1-3 are
transformed from the concrete actions of supply chains to knowledge based actions.
In the model, E-commerce connects boxes 3 and 4, since, for example, crowdsourcing
platforms can be used for distribution and marketing together. Box 4, marketing and
sales, focuses on social media marketing efforts for products and e-commerce sites
where those products can be purchased. Finally, Box 5 centers on customer service
and related activities that can be fulfilled through social media channels.
In Figure 1, the supporting activities refer to activities that historically were
internal to the organization. Through the affordances of social media platforms, these
supporting activities are currently becoming part of newly mediated and in some
cases re-mediated interfaces between organizations and their contexts. The letters A,
B, C, D are used to demonstrate these activities. A refers to Firm Infrastructure related
to managing people, as social media is inherently a people-intensive technology at the
individual level due to affordances of personal profiles built into social media
platforms. This includes not only individuals, but how these individuals represent and
belong to organizational departments and management structures in the organization.
B refers to Human Resources activities such as hiring, policy development and
enforcement, training, employee engagement efforts, and employer branding.
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Although Porter envisioned the contribution of the Internet in terms of self-service
and access to information related to HR functions, in terms of Social Media, the box
B represents Human Resource related corporate engagement on platforms such as
LinkedIn for recruitment, and YouTube as well as TEDx for training. For C, Porter
uses the title of Technology Development to refer to the Internet opening up
collaborative product design across locations and among multiple "value system"
participants. This refers to Knowledge Management capabilities of IT systems
through naming "knowledge directories accessible from all parts of the organization"
and "real time access by R&D to online sales and service information." These
categories from a 2001 Internet technology point of view emphasize internal
interfaces between departments connected through data. However, they do not
include the interpersonal aspects of communication enabled by social media
platforms, allowing technology to not only faciliate the sharing of data itself, but also
of data together with knowledge through social media's interpersonal aspects--
understood as "sticky" following Brown and Duguid's characterization of knowledge
(2000). Finally, D refers to Procurement in Porter's historic model. Historically,
Porter's understanding of Internet technology in procurement focuses on real time
planning and linking purchase, inventory and forecasting systems with suppliers, as
well as automating features such as "requisition to pay." In light of social media
affordances, procurement can be understood in terms of B-to-B relationships with
suppliers, and metadata that can be gathered from social media interactions related to
procurement issues.
In mapping literature to the value chain, Table 1. demonstrates key concepts
related to each of the secondary activities in the social media scaffolding of Porter's
value chain model.
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Table 1 goes about here
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Table 2 demonstrates how primary activities of the value chain can be used as
a scaffolding to coordinate literature for understanding social media management
from a holistic organizational perspective. Primary activities involve direct
interactions and work to operationalize business strategy at the tactical level. In
social media contexts, social media strategies can often be confused with strategies
focused on business goals. This part of the holistic framework for understanding
social media management from an organizational perspective focuses on organizing
social media tactics and strategies in a way that opportunities for aligning and
leveraging social media technologies for business strategy involving the whole
organization can be considered from a holistic, rather than disciplinary perspective.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 2 goes about here
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In summary, we were able to locate current social media research that mapped
to each of the primary and secondary activities of the value chain historic model of
the firm, demonstrating that most studies, even those searching for a holistic frame for
understanding social media from an organizational standpoint, are not yet developed
enough to encompass all of the historic primary and secondary activities inherent in
Porter's historic model for the firm focused on creating value. Thus, we posit that a
broader model is needed to develop the field of social media management more fully.
Although Porter's model is historically limited and contested, the way that activities
are divided into primary and secondary categories enables a dynamic approach to
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viewing social media management from a perspective that includes activities from
across the organization. The mapping to primary and secondary activities implies that
using this holistic view, researchers can produce questions with broader impact for
developing social media management. This is because the scaffolding from Porter
looks across organizations and opens up possibilities to examine connections between
these primary and secondary activities, as well as between primary and secondary
activities together interfacing with social media platforms, users and audiences in
different configurations.
5. Discussion: Interfaces emerging through Social Media Affordances and
Activities across the Organization
How can the notion of interfaces be applied in the value chain scaffolding for
a holistic approach to social media management? In general, as the Internet added a
layer of information about primary and supporting activities in Porter's 2001
interpretation of his historic value chain in Internet context, social media can be seen
as adding a layer of interfaces affecting primary and supporting activities. Due to the
pervasiveness of social media technologies in society and their ability to affect
corporate reputation, it can be argued that Preece et al's (2001) understanding of
activities across the value chain being relatable to corporate reputation are also
relevant. These interfaces can be seen through our coordination of social media
studies in IT and Corporate Communication disciplines. To adjust our understanding
of the layer of interfaces added by social media platforms, we move from thinking of
the parts of the framework to picture new, amplified and emerging interfaces between
value chain activities and social media platforms, participants, and audiences.
Because of space limitations, we focus on explaining one interface in each category.
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Figure 2 goes about here
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 2 Demonstrates interfaces within and across the organization which
emerge through organizational uses of social media. The arrows demonstrate that
dealing with social media technologies not only creates interfaces between primary
activities or secondary activities and social media platforms, participants and
audiences, but it also creates interfaces between the different primary activities and a
larger than industry wide.
This mapping of the literature on social media practices to value chain
activities demonstrates that primary and secondary/support activities have been
researched from different fields, and that cross disciplinary perspectives are necessary
for addressing a social media from an organizational vantage point in a holistic
manner. We propose that the value chain model will enable a holistic view of social
media management activities that includes primary activities as well as supporting
structures, and interactions between them. These interfaces can be classified as new,
amplified or emerging.
New interfaces can be seen in interfaces between secondary activities and
social media platforms, participants and audiences. One example of a new interface
would be between C. Technology development, and external social media platforms.
This interface can be focused on interactions between corporate web sites, their IT
systems and external social media platforms. Another example of a new interface can
be seen in interactions between data from user generated content, IT systems for
knowledge capture to enhance innovation and RandD processes, and Marketing
practices around key performance indicators. New social media interfaces are also
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emerging along the supply chain because globally distributed products can have local
social media presences created by product distributors and organizations selling their
products locally in different regions of the world.
Amplified interfaces can be seen in interactions between A. Organizational
structures and cultures, and B. Human Resources interfacing with Social Media
Platforms. This would include CEO communication via social media channels, as
well as changes in organizational structures balancing C-suite roles related to IT,
Marketing and possible even communication, as the field of Corporate
Communication advocates a CCO role that connects marketing, PR, and internal
communication. Historically, CEOs have been public figures such as Steve Jobs from
Apple, or Bill Gates from Microsoft during the 1980s-2000s. However, the HR
interface with social media platforms might be understood as amplified by social
media because platforms such as LinkedIn have augmented traditional interfaces with
the public that were earlier connected through other media, such as newspapers or
websites such as Monster.com, a 20-year-old job seeking website. Currently, HR
recruiters have the ability to learn more about candidates through their social media
presences--not only the more traditional recruiting site, LinkedIn, but also more
personally oriented platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. In addition, the
affordances of social media which allow applicants to craft a deliberate social media
presence have been found to affect HR processes for judging applicants (Chiang et al,
2014). Another set of amplified interfaces can be seen in the interactions between
marketing and customer services. Traditionally, these functions have been informally
linked, but the use of social media platforms for marketing purposes can lead to social
media participants using marketing or branding campaigns as a way to communicate
to companies about customer service.
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Emerging interfaces can be discussed in terms of interfaces between the
different supporting structures of the organization, which, can shift and change
depending on the stage of growth for social media integration (Chung et al, 2017)
present in the organization. In discussing how to find the most appropriate social
media metrics for an organization's dashboard, Peters et al (2013) note that "profound
organizational changes ... may be implied when setting up social media interfaces
with various functions ..."(p. 282). They also suggest that interface will start to merge
as organizations strategize and bring together inbound and outbound communication
interfaces to enhance their social media strategy.
6. Conclusion
In exploring understandings of and uses for social media across an
organization, we have demonstrated the usefulness of drawing on Porter’s value
chain. As a conceptual tool, it addresses a need for holistic framing across disciplines
to enable research strategy to take the complexity of organizations into account in
useful ways. As a practical tool it allows managers to find opportunities for
developing strategy through coordinating functions and interfaces across the
organization with respect to social media practices.
This perspective on social media management integrates internal and external
perspectives on social media management, going beyond roles and strategies to
interactions in social media environments that are both impacted by and have an
impact on organizational support structures and associated support activities. It also
offers a tool that opens up new ways to understand the emerging field of social media
management--as a field that is multidisciplinary and multi-perspectival in nature. It
also enables social media management to focus on three different kinds of interfaces
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created by the affordances of social media--new, amplified and emerging interfaces.
This classification scheme for interfaces enables a more nuanced view of ways in
which the technologial affordances of social media management lead to
organizational change and open up opportunities for developing organizational
strategy which connects concepts and perspectives from the different disciplines that
employees in various functional areas bring to the organization. Directions for future
investigation include key questions related to the analytical aspects of the value chain,
which Kaplinsky (2000) reminds us can be seen through using connections and
relationships between primary and secondary/support activities. Our framework for
classifying interfaces adds an extra dimension to this, expanding the notion beyond
relationships to include interfaces related to social media platforms, participants and
audiences.
Potential areas for investigation include examining how interfaces configured
through not only connections between primary and secondary activities, but also
social media platforms, participants and audiences can better help researchers ask
questions that will lead to the development of social media management as a field, as
well as a component to strategy. Directions for further exploration include rethinking
the 5 forces (Porter, 2001) with respect to social media. How might these forces be
rethought for social media intensive contexts? Do issues parallel to those that Porter
used to open discussions about a holistic perspective on strategy apply? How useful
would it be to investigate the five forces in Porter's historical terms? For example,
could 1) barriers to entry on different social media platforms, 2) social media
governance and 3) systemic efficiencies which support optimization of reputation
building processes be key issues for moving our understanding of social media
management forward? Could these questions help lead to a research context where
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social media management and business strategy perspectives inform each other to a
greater extent through the research process? And finally, do other holistic competing
models for the firm, such as a resource based view of the firm offer perspectives that
can lead us to find a different set of relevant interfaces for developing holistic
perspectives on social media management across the firm?
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Figure 1. Mapping Social Media to the Value Chain Model (adapted from Porter, 2001)
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Figure 2. Social Media Related Interfaces Across the Organization (adapted from Porter 2001).
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Secondary Activity Key Concepts Supporting Literature A. Organizational and Cultural Infrastructures, roles, information sharing practices
Defining roles in organizations related to social media practices and presence: issues manager, relationship analyzer, master of metrics employee recruiter Investigating the role of CEOs use of social media in the public sphere Impact of Social Media on C-Level Roles: examining configurations of CIO/CMO Leadership for social media management Social roles and Interactions as part of the S-O-R framework for social media metrics (connecting employee motives, social roles and networks with platform social roles and networks) Social Media Beyond Marketing "social media creates strategic value when it is used throughout the organization in systematic ways": organizational strategy as point of departure for developing social media presence Cross-functional approach for managing social media and online activities 9 cross functional strategic roles for social media in organizations Importance of social media for different organizational functions Communicational Ambidexterity for dealing with social media tensions with internal communication, stewardship and self ownership of communication internal and external Three orientiations towards social media use:
• Marketing Orientation • Entrepreneurship Orientation • E-commerce Orientation
Neill and Moody (2014) Zerfass and Scherzada (2015) Deans (2011) Peters et al (2013) Arora and Predmore (2013) Gur˘au (2008) Breakenridge et al (2012) Aichner and Jacob (2015) Huang et al (2015) Valos, Polonsky, Mavondo, and Lipscomb (2015)
B.Human Resources: Hiring, Training, Competence Needs for using and learning from social media platforms, social media governance, policy
Online Platforms LinkedIn and Facebook influencing recruitment practices in Belgium Candidate LinkedIn presentation skills can affect recruiter evaluations before interviews Worker as Politician: affects of social media platform use in self presentation strategies on professional reputation and career management Social media guidelines for all employees Policing role for managing social media Social media guidelines for understanding boundaries and mitigating risks, and regulatory frameworks across the organization Social Media and Employee Creativity: Complex engagement with social media as expanding employee competences
Caers, R., and Castelyns, V. (2010). Chiang, J. K. H., and Suen, H. Y. (2015) Berkelaar, B.L., Scacco, J.M. and Birdsell, J.L., (2015) Dreher (2014) Neill and Moody (2014) Linke and Zerfass (2013) Sigala and Chalkiti (2014)
C. Technology Development including RandD: Integrating connective features between systems and social media platforms
Social Media Management Systems supporting interdepartmental communication Enterprise Social Media Systems for Internal Communication in organizations Connecting Social Media data to Customer Relationship Management Systems (CRM) Social Media integration affected by ability of existing systems to link to social media platforms "Know why" component of organizing visions and social media as IT innovation
• Good citizen in corporation • Repetoires of meaning offering
prospective stakeholder opportunities
Benthaus et al (2016) Leonardi et al (2013) Arman (2014) Bharati, et al ( 2014) Miranda et al (2015)
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Table 1. Secondary Activity categories of the value chain scaffolding for social media management with key concepts and sources Table 2. Primary Activity categories of the value chain scaffolding for social media management with key concepts and sources. Primary Activity Key Concepts Supporting Literature 1. INBOUND LOGISTICS/KNOWLEDGE
Organizations as organizing co-created experiences and leveraging them, engaged co-creators working in synergy with organizations. Creative Consumers shifting value from organizations to consumers, creating inbound ideas Crisis communication, roles for dealing with inbound crisis information Social media monitoring Customer Socialization and Open Co-Creation Social Software affecting Knowledge Management:
• leveraging social media software for building knowledge resources
Ramaswamy and Ozcan (2016) Berthon et al (2012) Frandsen and Johansen (2011) Zhang B. and Vos M. (2014) Jarvenpaa and Tuunainen (2013) Von Krogh (2012)
2.OPERATIONS/OPERATIONALIZING KNOWLEDGE
Interfaces between platforms and brand experiences Positive effects of interaction via social media on public-organization relationships:
• social media dependency of participants
• parasocial interaction between participants and employees
• community identification Developing and validating flow experience in social networking Social Media affordances process of recognition: co-perception as part of engagement on social media Consumers as authors of pivotal brand stories Three orientiations towards social media use:
• Marketing Orientation • Entrepreneurship Orientation • E-commerce Orientation
Social Media Team Strategy Images of and barriers to perceived usefulness of social media in B-2-B contexts Use of Social Media Management tools to monitor activity and response, connecting internal
Ramaswamy and Ozcan (2016) Men and Tsai (2013) Kaur et al (2016) Cabbidu et al (2014) Gensler et al (2013) Valos et al (2015) Dreher (2014) Siamagka et al (2015) Benthaus et al (2016)
• Vision affecting IT diffusion about social media uses
Connections between social media platforms and client hosted forums to firm's homepage. Stages of growth in organization's social media presence Social Media, Knowledge Sharing and Innovation: Communication Visibility
Culnan et al (2010) Chung et al (2017) Leonardi (2014)
D. Absorptive Capacity for social media use and establishing presence
Absorbtive capacity for leveraging social media: Social Media integration through general learning and affected by institutional pressures indirectly, and directly affected by top management Absorptive capacity for leveraging information and knowledge gained from social media interactions for innovation in the firm Effective social media implementation: --mindful adoption, community building and absorptive capacity
Bharati, et al ( 2014) Scuotto et al (2016) Culnan et al (2010)
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and external measures of social media activity, such as informing other departments about identified social media activity influencers. Social Media Management Tools vs. Web based tools for strategy in building positive public perception Social Software for Knowledge Management:
• dynamically recreating knowledge boundaries
Benthaus et al (2016) Von Krogh (2012)
3. OUTBOUND LOGISTICS
Social Media Strategy cone elements Consumer flow experience in social commerce: Perceived interpersonal interaction. Social networking popularity and product launching. Critical of Twitter use as outbound channel, stakeholder engagement
Effing and Spil (2016) Liu et al (2016) Waters et al (2009) Lovejoy et al (2012)
4. MARKETING and SALES
S-O-M model for social media marketing interfaces:
• marketing input as stimulus • interconnections between motives,
social roles and interactions, network structure and content
• marketing outcomes as response Four generic dimensions of social media marketing:
• scope • culture • structure • governance
User engagement at the marketing interface, stakeholder relationship management Social media as providing strategic opportunities for marketers, integration of social media into marketing plans. Interactive Marketing Paradigms with consumer and corporate roles—consumers act, corporations gather data and make assumptions.
Peters et al (2013) Felix et al (2017) Maxwell and Carboni (2016) Constantinides (2014) Deighton and Kornfeld (2009)
5. AFTER SALES SERVICE
Customer engagement cycle and market orientation Virtual Customer Environments and engagement Social Media based customer dialogue as Megaphone, Magnet and Monitor Collaborative Experiences and dialog that customers value
Sashi (2012) Verhagen et al (2015) Gallaugher and Ransbotham (2010) Heller Baird and Parasnis (2011)