Contents 2 List of Office Bearers

6 Editorial

An Old Recipe for Pea Soup: The Royal Society and Air Pollution - Early Days

9 President's Column

Notes from the President

10 New Zealand News

11 News from Environment Australia

National Fuel Quality Standards for Australia

13 Welcome to New Members

14 Company and Industry News

Potential for Exports to Gulf Countries

Global Positioning System Decision Helps Australia

Solar Energy

Organic Waste Collection Trials

Fodder and Greenhouse Gases

BP to Recycle Water at Kwinana Oil Refinery

ABS Energy Use Publication

Australia's Vehicle Noise Limits: NRTC Report

Australian Company Discovers Non-Toxic Insecticide

'Green' Industry Wins from R&D

Eucalypt Hydrocarbon Study

Volcanic Eruptions and Solar Activity Detected in Ice Core

Davis Lidar Commences Atmospheric Observations

Green Energy Power Plant for South Australia

Clean Energy Boat Race

Laws and Environmental Education: NSW Residents' Views

Clean, Green Energy - Or is it?

Mapping Earth's Past and Future

Australia and North America Once Connected

Macquarie Island Marine Park Protection Plan

Australian Quarantine and Inspection News

Computer Code for Contamination of Aquatic Species

Testing NASA Satellite at Lake Frame

Slowing in Australia's Greenhouse Emissions Growth

World Health Organisation Drinking Water Guidelines 15th International Clean Air Conference - Modelling Workshop

26 D.G. Ross Modelling Workshop Report

An overview of the CASANZ Modelling Special interest Workshop, held as part of the 15th International Clean Air and Environmental Conference.

28 P. Hurley TAPM: Current Status and Future Developments The paper presents an overview of the status of the model and proposes future developments.

30 P.C. Mannis The Gaussian Plume Model - Strengths and Weaknesses The use of Gaussian Plume Models in complex conditions can be misleading. The use of alternatives is discussed.

Clean Air and Environmental Quality is the journal of

the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand

ISSN 1444-2841

Website: www.casanz.org.au

Technical Articles All technical articles are externally peer reviewed.

Editor Jack O'Heare

12 Pall Mall, Mt Waverley Vic 3149

Tel: 03 9807 1942 Fax: 03 9888 3545

Email: cleanairjournal@ozemail.com.au

Associate Editors (Review) Dr H. Bridgman, Mr D. Collins, Dr P. Manins,

Dr L. Morawska, Dr R. Strauch

Editorial Board

J. O'Heare, H.F. Hartmann, P. Manins, R. Strauch

CASANZ Executive Officer & Advertising

Geoff Angus

1 Denman Street, Mitcham Vic 3132

Tel: 03 9872 5111 Fax: 03 9872 5111

Email: casanzSozemail.com.au

Design & Production

B&B Design Australia

Helen Burbery, Graham Fry, James Rule,

Darren Rath, Emma Smart

133 High Street

Prahran Vic 3181

Tel: 03 9529 8999 Fax: 03 9525 2207

Email: studio@bbda.com.au

Printer York Press

1-9 Doonside Street, Richmond Vic 3121

Tel: 03 9427 9700

Subscriptions Annual subscription rates (inc. postage)

for non-members and libraries:

Australia $A115.50*

NZ & Overseas - surface mail SA105.00

Overseas -a i rma i l $A105.00

plus extra cost

Single copies -Australia $A 33.00*

- NZ & Overseas SA 30.00

•Includes 10% GST.

Enquiries about subscriptions, payment of invoices,

and requests for back numbers should be directed

to the Executive Officer.

Deadlines for Copy

Closing date for editorial material is first day

of the month prior to month of issue.

Three months may be required for refereeing

of Scientific and Technical Articles.

Publication Dates

Quarterly in February, May, August and November.

The opinions expressed by authors and contributors

are their own and do not necessarily represent the

view of the Society.

All material appearing in CLEAN AIR is subject to

copyright. Reproduction in whole or in part is not

permitted without the written permission of the

Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 1

Contents

President Len Ferrari Team Ferrari Environmental 3 Sturt Street, South West Rocks NSW 2431 Tel 02 6566 5584 Fax 02 6566 7584 Email: lferrari@ozemail.com.au

Deputy President Dr Phil Morgan Environment Protection Authority of NSW PO Box 29, Lidcombe NSW 1825 Tel 02 9995 5020 Fax 02 9649 8768 Email: morganp@epa.nsw.gov.au

immediate Past President Dr Neville Bofinger School of Natural Resource Sciences Queensland University of Technology GP0 Box 2434, Brisbane Qld 4001 Tel: 07 3864 2244 Fax: 07 3864 1508 Email: n.bofinger@qut.edu.au

Secretary Mr Brian Winch PURE (Photographic Uniform Regulations for the Environment) 9 Murphy Street, Richmond Vic 3121 Tel: 03 9421 0310 Fax: 03 9421 0310 Email: btoinch@ozemail.com.au

OUR COVER

Our cover p icture shows n igh t - t ime laser l ight

t ransmit ted by a UDAR developed by the Australian

Antarct ic Division and Adelaide University.

The inst rument is located at Davis, Antarct ica.

I t measures atmospher ic temperatures be tween

50 a n d 95km al t i tude. See page 20 for details.

Specific information on the instrument and

its scientific program are outlined on the LIDAR

w e b page a t http: / /www.aad.gov.au/science/

AntarcticResearch/AtmosphericSciences/lidar.asp

Austral ian Antarc t ic Division pho to by Mark Tell

© C o m m o n w e a l t h of Austral ia

Treasurer Mr David Johnson Environment Protection Authority of NSW PO Box 29, Lidcombe NSW 1825 Tel: 02 9995 5062 Fax: 02 9649 8768 Email: johnsond@epa.nsw.gov.au

Executive Officer & Secretariat Mr Geoff Angus Geoff Angus & Associates Pty Ltd 1 Denman Street, Mitcham Vic 3132 Tel: 03 9872 5111 Fax: 03 9872 5111 Email: casanz@ozemail.com.au

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS (SIGs):

indoor Air & Environment Chairperson: Assoc Prof Martin Hooper Monash University Switchback Road, Churchill VIC 3842 Tel: 03 5122 6450 Fax: 03 5122 6738 Email: martin.hooperrasci.monash.edu.au

Modelling Chairperson: Dr Graeme Ross Consulting Air Pollution Modelling & Meteorology (CAMM) PO Box 292, Ashburton VIC 3147 Tel: 03 9560 9555 Fax: 03 9560 9554 Email: graeme.ross@camm.net.au

Odour Chairperson: Mr Robin Ormerod Pacific Air & Environment Pty Ltd PO Box 3306, South Brisbane Qld 4101 Tel: 07 3004 6400 Fax: 07 3844 5858 Email robin.ormercd@pae.net.au

Policy and Legislation Chairperson- Dr Phil Morgan Environment Protection Authority of NSW PO Box 29, Lidcombe NSW 1825 Tel: 02 9995 5020 Fax: 02 9649 8768 Email: morganp9epa.nsw.gov.au

Risk Assessment Chairperson: Dr Tom Beer CSIRO Environmental Risk Network Private Bag 1, Aspendale VIC 3195 Tel: 03 9239 4546 Fax: 03 9239 4444 Email: tom.beer@dar.csiro.au

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

32 N.R. Gimson Developments in Air Pollution Modelling -New Zealand Issues and Perspectives

Applications of air pollution models to New Zealand cases are discussed.

35 J.J. Godfrey CALPUFF - Overview and Future Enhancements An overview of CALPUFF is presented and recent developments discussed.

36 D.Hearn Ausplume Version 5 Release

Enhancements made to Ausplume, following a survey of users' requirements, are discussed.

38 Conference Notes

Technical Article:

39 C. Wardrope, S. Rutherford, R. W. Simpson

Air Pollution and Allergens in Two South East Queensland Schools The paper describes a pilot study undertaken at two primary schools. Levels of air pollutants and allergens (fungi, dust mite and cockroach allergen) were measured. Sampling design and methods are presented and results are described.

47 Indoor Air and Environmental News L Morawska Biological Contaminants in Indoor Air. What do we know about them?

There are many unknowns associated with the measurement of concentrations of Indoor air pollutions and their effects on health. The development of guidelines by the WHO to address the above are discussed.

2

EDITORIAL

An Old Recipe for Pea Soup: The Royal Society and Air Pollution - Early Days Jack O'Heare

Let's start with a quotation. 'So it was in some Discomposure of Mind

that I coached it to Crane Court where the Greshamites, or Fellows of the Royal Society or Virtuosi, or Mountebanks, or Dogs, dissect the Mites in Cheese and discourse upon Atomes: they are such Quacks as you would desire to Piss upon, and I would rather stay in my Closet than indure one of their Assemblies where they tittle-tattle on their Observations and Thoughts, their Guesses and Opinions, their Probabilities and Conceptions, their Generations and Corruptions, their Increasings and Lessenings, their Instruments and Quantities'.

This somewhat irreverent summing-up of the R.S. is attributed to the architect Nicholas Dwyer by the Peter Ackroyd in the novel 'Hawksmoor', Dwyer being on his way to the Society's headquarters to deliver plans to his master (and R.S. member) Sir Christopher Wren*.

The Royal Society was formed during times of great unrest in England. Many of the early members had political, religious and philosophical enemies. In addition, the notion that happenings in the physical world are governed by laws rather than by arbitrary decisions of a God, was not accepted by everyone. Sentiments like Dwyer's were probably not all that uncommon.

The Royal Society evolved from informal meetings that started in 1645 between a group of educated men including such notables as Robert Boyle and Francis Bacon. In 1662, following the restoration of Charles II to the throne, it was incorporated by royal charter. Among the founding members were Christopher Wren (astronomer turned architect), Robert Boyle (physicist), Robert Hooke (inventor and microscopist) and John Wallis (mathematician).

Another founding member was John Evelyn. His name will be familiar to some readers on account of his paper written in 1661 which is sometimes mentioned in air pollution texts. The title of the paper was 'Fumifugium: Or the Inconvenience of the Aer and Smoake of London Dissipated'. I thought it might be of interest to devote a little space to his publication.

i have produced a summary of this paper but retained the original wording as far as possible. [When I have anything to say it will be in square brackets.)

PART 1

It is not without some considerable Analogy that sundry of the Philosophers have named the Aer the Vehicle of the Soul not only for the necessity of common Respiration and

functions of the Organs; but likewise for the use of the Spirits and Primigene Humours which doe most neeriy approach that divine entity.

Let it be farther considered, what is most evident, That the body feeds on Meats commonly, but at certain periods and stated times be it twice a day or oftener; whereas upon the Aer or what accompanies it, it is always preying, sleeping or waking; and therefore doubtlesse, the election of this constant and assiduous Food, should something concerne us, I affirme, more than the very Meat we eat.

Therefore it might well proceed, that all, should mention it as a principle for the accomplishment of their Architect, that being skillful in the Art of Physick, among other Observations, he sedulously examine the Aer and Situation of the places where he designs to build.

The City of London is built upon a sweet and most agreeable Eminency of Ground. I forbear to enlarge on the rest of the conveniences which this August and Opulent City enjoies, because it belongs to the Orator and the Poet, and is none of my Institution. But I will infer that if this goodly City is to merit her Title; she is to be relieved from what really offends her, and which darkens and eclipses all her other Attributes. And what is this but the Hellish and dismal Cloud of SEA-COLE, which is mixed with the otherwise wholesome and excellent Aer, so that her Inhabitants breathe nothing but an impure and thick Mist, accompanied with a fuliginous and filthy vapour, which renders them obnoxious to a thousand inconveniences, corrupting the Lungs,

and disordering the entire habit of their bodies; so that Catharrs, Phthisicks, Coughs and Consumptions, rage more in this one City, than in the whole Earth besides.

The use of Sea-Cole in the City of London, exposes it to the foulest inconveniences and reproaches, that can possibly befall so noble and otherwise incomparable City: And, that not from Culinary [cooking i.e. domestic] fires, which for being weak, is with such ease dispelled and scattered above, but from some few Tunnels [Chimney stacks] and Issues, belonging only to Brewers, Diers, Lime-burners, Salt and Sope-boylers, and some other private trades, One of whose Spirades alone, does manifestly infect the Aer, more than all the [domestic] Chimneys of London put together besides.

This pernicious Smoake superinduces a sooty Crust or Fur on all that it lights, spoyling the movables, tarnishing the Plate, Gildings and Furniture, and corroding the very Iron-bars and hardest Stones with these piercing and acrimonious Spirits which accompany its Sulphure; and executing more damage in one year than pure Aer could effect in some hundreds.

This horrid Smoake which obscures our Churches, and makes our Palaces look old, which fouls our Clothes and corrupts the Waters, so as the very Rain, and refreshing Dews that fall in the several Seasons, precipitate this impure vapour, which, with its black and tenacious quality, spots and contaminates whatever is exposed to it. It is deadly to Fowl, and kills our Bees and Flowers abroad, suffering nothing in our Gardens to bud.

How prejudicial it must be to the Bodies of Men; for that can never be Aer fit for them to breath in, where not Fruits, nor Flowers do ripen, or come to a seasonable perfection.

There is, I confess, certain Idiosyncrasia in the Composition of some persons, which may fit and dispose them to thrive better in some Aers, than in other: But it is manifest that that those who repair to London, no sooner enter it, but they find a universal alteration in their Bodies, which are either dried up or enflamed, the humours being exasperated and made to putrifie, with loss of Appetite, succeeded with such Catharrs and Distillations which never quit them so long as they abide in the place, yet are immediately restored to their former habit as soon as they are retired to their homes and enjoy fresh Aer again.

This Smoake is a plague in so many other ways; because it kills not at once but always, since still to languish is worse than death itself.

And what may be the cause of these troublesome effects, but the inspiration of

...continued page 8

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 6

EDITORIAL .. continued from page 6

this infernal vapour, accompanying the Aer, which first heats and solicits the Aspera Arteria, through one of those conduits, partly Cartilaginous, and partly Membranous it enters by several branches the very Parenchyma and substance of the Lungs, violating in this passage, the Larynx and Epiglottis together with those multiform and curious Muscles, the immediate and proper instruments of the Voyce.

For all subterrany Fuell hath a kind of Virulent or Arsenical Vapour rising from it; which as it speedily destroys those who dig it in the Mines; so does it little by little, those who use it here above them.

From the material of our London fires there results a great quantity of volatile Salts which doth infect the Aer, and though the Bodies of these corrosive particles escape our perception we soon find their effects. Men find all things covered by a black thin Soot,

. and the Inhabitants of London, find it in all their Expectorations. Soot produces another sad effect as it comes in time to exulcerate the Lungs, a mischief so incurable that it carries away multitudes by languishing and deep Consumptions, as the Bills of Mortality do weekly inform us.

The consequences of all this is that almost half of those that perish in London, dye from Phthisical and Pulmonic distempers; That the Inhabitants are never free from Coughs and importunate Rheumatisms spitting of Impostumated and corrupt matter.

I do farther affirm, that it is not the Dust and Ordure which is daily cast out of their houses, much less what is brought in by the Feet of Men and Horses; or the want of more frequent and better conveyances, which renders London dirty even to a Proverb: but chiefly this continual Smoake which ascending in the day-time, is, by the descending Dew and Cold precipitated at Night.

And may this suffice concerning the Causes and Effects of this Evill, and serve to introduce some happy Expedient, whereby they [the citizens of London] may be freed from so intolerable an inconvenience. I hope what I produce and offer next may in some measure contribute to it.

PART2

But the Remedy which I would propose, has nothing in it of this difficulty, [problems associated with replacing coal by wood - local and imported, discussed but not included here], requiring only the Removal of Such Trades that are manifest Nuisances to the City, which I would have placed at farther distances; especially such as in their Works and Furnaces use great quantities of Sea-Coale, the sole cause of the prodigious Clouds of Smoake which in no City of Europe would be permitted where man had respect for Health or Ornament.

Such we named to be Brewers, Diers, 5ope and Salt-boylers, Lime-burners and the like: these I affirm, together with a few others of the same Classe removed to a competent distance would produce a considerable (though but partial) Cure. For the Culinary fires (and which charking would greatly reform) contribute little compared to these foul mouth'd Issues.

The Columns and Clowds of Smoake belched forth from the sooty throats of these works, are so thick and plentiful that rushing out with great impetuosity, they are capable to resist the fiercest winds, and being extremely surchag'd with a fuliginous Body fall down upon the City before they can be dissipated.

I propose therefore, that by an Act of this present Parliament, this infernal Nuisance be reformed; enjoyning that all those works be removed five or six Miles from London below the River of Thames.

I know no great inconveniency since by the commodiousnesse of the passage [River Thames] they may bring up their Wares with so great ease. He that considers what quantities are transported from Dantzic, Lubeck, Hamborough and other remote places into Holland, cannot think this an unreasonable proposition.

At least by this means Thousands of able Watermen may be employed in bringing Commodities to the City, to certain Magazines and Wharfs, commodiously situated to dispense them by Cans or other Sleds, into the several parts of the Town. [This notion of creating employment might not go down well today.]

The Places and Houses deserted [as a consequence of the transfer of noxious trades], which commonly take up a great space of Ground, might be converted to Tenements, and some of them into Noble Houses for use and pleasure.

Add to this that it could be a means to prevent Fireing, those sad Calamities, for the most part, proceeding from some accident or other, which takes beginning from places, where such great and exorbitant Fires are perpetually kept going.

[Evelyn next discusses at length Legislation enacted by the King's grandfather that banned burning-off. The nuisance of which was such as to bring complaints from vineyards in parts of France lying south-west of England. The Act was titled: 'An Act against burning of Ling, and Heath, and other Moor-burning in the Counties of Yorke, Durham, Westmoorland, Lancaster, Darbie, Nottingham and Leicester, at unseasonable times of the year'. This discussion was introduced by Evelyn to support his above proposal, to justify the banning of less noxious fuels than sea-coal and to pave the way for further recommendations concerning other industries.]

So for the [above] Act. And here you see what care was taken in it for Fowl, Game Fruits, Corn and Grasse which were incommoded by these unwholesome vapours; how much greater care ought there be for the City, where such Multitudes of Inhabitants are concerned.

Even in the very Service of God, the Sacrifices were to be burnt without the Camp by Jewish Law and the Romans did not allow Men to burn or bury the dead within the City Walls.

I am perswaded, that the frequency of Church-yards and Charnel-houses, that contaminate the Aer in many parts of this Town as well as the Pumps and Waters which are anything near to them, ought to be directed some other way, or carefully looked after.

We might add to these. Chandlers and Butchers, because of those horrid stinks, which proceed from the Tallow and corrupted Blood:

At least should no Cattel be kill'd within the City since Flesh and Candles might so easily be brought to the Shambles and Shops from other places, (Erasmus said people would rather dwell neer Ten Bawds than One Butcher). The same might be affirmed of Fishmongers.

I could yet wish our nasty Prisons and Common Goales might bear them Company.

What a new Spirit would these easy Remedies create among the Inhabitants of London; for how heavy and less disposed to motion, yea, even to good humour and friendly inclinations are we when the Heavens are clowded, and discomposed?

At least let the continual sejourn of our Illustrious CHARLES, who is the very Breath of our Nostrils, make for the speedy removal of this universal grievance.

PART3

I propose that all low-grounds circumadajacent to the City, especially East and South-west, be cast and contrived into square plots, or Fields of twenty to forty Akers. That these Palisads be elegantly planted, diligently kept and supply'd, with such Shrubs, as yield that yield the most fragrant and odoriferous Flowers, and are aptest to tinge the Aer upon a very gentle emission at a great distance. [He goes on to list a variety of appropriate species.]

The remainder of these pleasant Fields to provide better Shelter and Pasture for Sheep and Cattle than now; that lie bleak, expos'd and abandoned to the winds.

And this is what [in short] I had to offer for the Improvement and Melioration of the Aer of London, and I will conclude this discourse.

FINIS

*The character Nicholas Dwyer was based on Nicholas Hawksmoor, a brilliant architect and onetime pupil of Wren. Hawksmoor's churches have been described as the work of genius, brilliant and sinister. They were often built on sites of ancient pagan practices and frequently incorporated features found in ancient pagan buildings. Some, if not all, are now listed as important historical buildings.

The version of Evelyn's paper used here was a second reprint (1972) of one reprinted by the National Society for Clean Air in 1961.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 8

PRESIDENT'S COLUMN

Notes from the President Len Ferrari

SAD PASSING OF SOME OF THE LEADERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN AUSTRALIA AND A CALL FOR NEW BLOOD

Only last issue we reported the passing of D. John Harry and in this issue we have to advise that Dr Graham Cleary and Mr Paul Le Roy have also passed away. These names may not be known to some of the newer Members of the Society but in the decades past they were leaders in the development of air quality management programs in the various States. I knew them well and the air quality fraternity and the Society will miss them dearly. These three men were leaders in government and supported the Society very significantly in the early days. Their work is to be recorded and I encourage you to read it in due course. John spent most of his working life in NSW and Paul in Victoria while Graham spent the earlier part in NSW and the later part in Queensland.

Today we have many honorary officers serving the Society in the Branches, the Special Interest Groups, the Journal, the Training Executive and elsewhere and I wish to thank them for their efforts without which this organisation could not function. I know however that the average age of these officebearers is not 'young'. In these days of 'work overload' we all find it difficult to find the extra time but I would encourage the newer members to come along to Branch meetings and have your say. The Council of the Society has asked the Branches to seek views from new members to help shape the future. If you wish to contribute please contact your Branch or myself.

PROFESSIONAL ACCREDITATION

It is with great pleasure that I acknowledge Dr Ken Suliivan has been appointed a Fellow of the Society. Ken was President for many years and was instrumental in gaining international recognition for the Society, which culminated in the 7th IUAPPA Clean Air World Congress held in Sydney in 1986. I invite Members having over five years experience in air quality to seriously consider professional accreditation. Details and an application form can be found on the web at www.casanz.org.au

THE FEDERATION OF AUSTRALIAN SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES (FASTS)

As one element of raising our profile, CASANZ joined FASTS several years ago but, as it did not clearly fit into one of the existing eight clusters of like interests, it has until now

remained unattached. FASTS has over 60,000 members drawn from over 50 National Associations representing a wide range of interests. FASTS works to influence the formulation of science and technology policy to the economic, environmental and social benefit of the nation. In this area it is very successful and has the attention of Government. Once a year it organises a Science Meets Parliament Day which provides an opportunity for pairs of scientists to meet visiting MPs and Senators at Parliament House in Canberra.

Recently a new cluster was proposed comprised initially of CASANZ, the Australian Acoustical Society and the Australia Society of Biomaterials. I attended the FASTS Board Meeting in Canberra on 12-13 July as the inaugural Board representative of this new Technology cluster. CASANZ, and the cluster it represents, will now have a say in influencing national science and technology policy.

IUAPPA

The Society is a member of the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations (IUAPPA) as is mentioned above, and is proud to confirm it will be hosting the 14th World Congress and Exhibition in Brisbane in 2007. This Congress is only held every three years and it is thanks to others, especially Dr Neville Bofinger and Dr Ken Sullivan that Australia is once again going to host this prestigious Congress after an absence of only six occasions. Preliminary planning has commenced and if you are interested to be part of this major event you should contact Dr Neville Bofinger, the Immediate Past President of the Society.

AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS COMMITTEE EV/007 -NEW STANDARDS

A new Standard AS 3580.9.8 on the continuous measurement of PM10 (by TEOM) was published earlier this year and the long awaited and very comprehensive new standard AS/NZS 4323.3 on the determination of odour by dynamic olfactometry should be published about the time of publication of this journal.

PM2.5 AS A NEPM?

The Society has been participating in discussions and meetings convened by Environment Australia and NEPC on the need or not for a PM2.5 standard or NEPM. The Society is supportive of a NEPM on PM2.5 as it would address this fraction of particles which is regularly linked with health effects. A decision on the matter is likely soon.

CONFERENCES

There are many conferences to cater for your needs but I would like to commend these international Conferences: • 12th World Clean Air Congress in Seoul

Korea in August 2001 • Environment 2002 Conference in

Melbourne in April 2002 (CASANZ is a partner in this major conference)

• CASANZ 16th Clean Air and Environment Biennial Conference in Christchurch in August 2002.

REBUILDING THE SOCIETY'S WEBSITE

A major revamp of the Society's website has been under way during the last few months, so why not take a look at www.casanz.org.au

The site includes membership information, Office Bearers, Special Interest Groups (SIGs) information, a publications list and order form, registration documentation for conferences and workshops.

Society Secretary, Brian Winch, has been the main liaison with the website designer and would appreciate any feedback from members regarding the website.

Information can be sent to: Brian Winch Tel or Fax: 03 9421 0310 Email: btwinch@ozemail.com.au

We plan to make greater use of the website in future with Branches displaying their programs of meetings, training courses and new initiatives. SIGs will also use the web site to advertise their activities, provide documents for comments, etc.

The Society's use of the website is expected to involve such diverse activities as: (a) A register of Members (will only be

available to Members); (b) Lodging of votes for ballots for

elections or proposed changes to the constitution;

(c) Ordering publications; (d) Paying membership subscriptions

via a secure system; and (e) Registering for conferences and major

seminars and workshops.

Clean Air Volume 35 Mo.3. August 2001 9

NEW ZEALAND NEWS

New Zealand News G.W. Fisher

AIR POLLUTION AND VEHICLES

The NZ Energy Federation, in collaboration with the Ministry of Transport and others, held a very well attended conference in Wellington on 27 and 28 June. The 'Road to Cleaner Air' event attracted input from a wide range of stakeholders in the transport sector, including Councils, government departments, energy companies, vehicle manufacturers, consultants and the public. Presentations at the conference covered many of the important trends in technology development, and what these are likely to mean for air quality in NZ in future. Proceedings will be available on CD-ROM.

Contact: p.irving@transport.govt.nz.

SULFUR IN DIESEL

The Auckland Regional Council has been concerned with the variable - and sometimes high - concentrations of sulfur in the diesel fuel used in the city. The diesel fleet has grown dramatically over the last few years, and sulfur emissions are on the increase. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in air are still low by international standards, but the contribution to particulates is of concern. Council Chairman Phil Warren has been spearheading a major publicity campaign to encourage suppliers and the public to be more conscious about the effects of high sulfur fuels on air quality. The campaign included a series of full-page newspaper adverts, and has attracted considerable public support.

Contact: kmahon@arc.govt.nz

NEW USES FOR THERMAL POWER STATIONS

Many New Zealanders will be familiar with the Marsden Power Station complex near Whangarei. This large thermal station was expanded during the 1980s Think Big' development phase, but has never really been fully used. The operators finally mothballed the station recently - but what do you do with a retired power station? How about turning it into a fish research and breeding centre. NIWA has announced plans to develop parts of the old station into a new aquaculture facility. The attraction is the availability of the large-volume pipes used for cooling water. These are ideal for getting the circulating sea-water needed for many of the fish breeding programs. The station is set to become a national centre for aquaculture research. A further potential benefit is a nearby supply of waste heat from the NZ Refining Company plant which can be used by the aquaculture programs.

Contact: simon.hooker@niwa.cri.nz

CHRISTCHURCH AIR QUALITY -THE SAGA CONTINUES

The efforts by Environment Canterbury to clean up Christchurch's air have slowed down again. The Council has delayed plans to introduce new rules concerning the installation and use of solid fuel burners for home heating.

The issues are essentially social, rather than environmental. The Council is concerned that the tough policies needed will affect disadvantaged people in the community too harshly, and has commissioned further studies on this. An ironic twist to this case is that Christchurch has been particularly cold this winter and experienced a number of bad air pollution days.

Contact: phil.gurnsey@ecan.govt.nz

ODOUR GUIDELINES

A new set of Good Practice Guidelines for Odour are nearing completion. The Ministry for the Environment held a final consultative meeting in June, and the final document will be released shortly. The guidelines are intended to provide comprehensive information on most of the aspects of assessing odour effects, and mitigating these where appropriate.

Contact: guilia.musto@mfe.govt.nz or see www.mfe.govt.nz

DISPERSION MODELLING GUIDELINES

The Ministry for the Environment is further extending its program of Good Practice Guides by commissioning one for Dispersion Modelling. Various ad-hoc versions have been in use, but with this move we hope to see a comprehensive, and definitive guide for a wide range of users (until we get a new model coming along!).

Contact guilia.musto@mfe.govt.nz or see www.mfe.govt.nz

NZ MEMBER MOVEMENTS

Although she is not a member, we regret the moving on of one of our long term supporters - Denise Church, Chief Executive of the Ministry for the Environment. Denise has been in charge of New Zealand's environment programs since 1996, and now moves on to concentrate on her young family. CASANZ and the Ministry have worked closely on a number of projects - and we wish Denise well for the future.

ODOUR GUIDANCE UNDER REVIEW

Odour is a major issue for air quality managers in New Zealand. In 1995, the Ministry for the Environment provided guidance at a national level to help air quality managers, practitioners and the public understand odour issues. The guide provided tools to assess the effects of odour and to assist both the management of and decision-making about odour discharges under New Zealand's Resource' Management Act.

The Ministry for the Environment is currently reviewing the 1995 odour guide. The review is needed to reflect advances in odour assessment and management techniques made in the past five years and to promote consistent practice among odour management practitioners and regulators in New Zealand.

A survey of air quality practitioners carried out last year identified a number of key issues for consideration in the review. These include: • the subjective definition of objectionable

and offensive odour; • the selection of the most appropriate

odour assessment tools and how these can be used to assess odour effects in different situations;

• the development of odour modelling concentration guidelines appropriate for differing circumstances. The first stage of the review is almost

complete. Consultants have produced a technical background and issues document and a workshop with practitioners was held in June. The feedback from the workshop is being incorporated into the technical document. This document will be available from the Ministry for the Environment's website in September www.mfe.govt.nz A draft of the new guide is expected to be available for consultation in November.

If you want to know more about this project, contact: Deborah Ryan or Giulia Musto Ministry for the Environment, Email: deborah.ryan@mfe.govt.nz or

giuila.musto@mfe.govt.nz Tel: +64 9 177 400

10 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

ENVIRONMENT AUSTRALIA

National Fuel Quality Standards for Australia

INTRODUCTION

For the first time Australia has in place national legislation to ensure all Australians can benefit from improved fuel quality. In December 2000, the Australian Parliament enacted national fuel quality standards legislation as the first step in providing a nationally consistent approach to improving the quality of fuel in Australia.

The first set of standards to be regulated under the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 was announced by the Minister for Environment and Heritage on 8 May 2001. The standards were developed following robust and transparent consultation with a wide group of stakeholders. The main vehicle for these consultations was the report from the Review of Fuel Quality Requirements for Australian Transport (2 volumes) released in March 2000. To facilitate public consultation on the proposed standards, a number of public discussion papers were also released which drew a wide response. These discussion papers are available on the Environment Australia website at www.ea.gov.au/epg/fuel

FUEL QUALITY STANDARDS ACT 2000

The Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 provides a legislative framework for setting fuel standards which will reduce fuel-based pollutants and emissions and ensure that fuels are available throughout Australia which enable new vehicle engine and emission control technologies to be widely adopted.

The main object of the Act is to regulate the quality of fuel supplied in Australia in order to: • reduce the level of pollutants and emissions

arising from the use of fuel that may cause environmental and health problems;

• facilitate the adoption of better engine technology and emission control technology; and

• allow the more effective operation of engines. The Act imposes significant penalties

for breaches of fuel standards. For example, individuals face a maximum penalty of $110,000 for altering or supplying fuel that does not comply with a fuel standard. Corporations face a maximum penalty of $550,000. The Commonwealth will conduct fuel sampling from service stations, and enforce mandatory reporting requirements for industry, in order to ensure that the standards are met. The importation or supply of a fuel additive that is entered in the Register of Prohibited Fuel Additives established by the Act carries a maximum penalty of $55,000 for an individual and $275,000 for a corporation.

Fuel standards may be varied by an approval granted by the Minister under the Act, but only for specified periods. Applicants who unsuccessfully seek approvals will have merits review appeal rights to the Administrative Appeals Tribunal. The Act also enables more stringent standards to apply in specified areas of Australia where those standards have been made in accordance with written guidelines made under the Act.

The Act sets out the process that the Minister must follow when making standards for other fuels (e.g. LPG, CNG biodiesel and diesohol) including consultation with the Fuel Standards Consultative Committee which has been established by the Act.

FUEL STANDARDS CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE

The Committee is established as a formal consultation mechanism under the Act. It will ensure that the interests of State and Territory governments and other stakeholders are taken into account in the development of fuel standards.

The first standards to be considered by the Committee will be operability standards for petrol and diesel. The Ministerial instrument that makes these standards binding will be made and tabled in the Federal Parliament in 2001.

The Membership of the Committee is determined by the Minister, however it must include at least one representative of the Commonwealth, each State, the Australian Capital Territory, and the Northern Territory. It must also include at least one person representing each of, fuel producers, a non-government body with an interest in the protection of the environment, and consumers. Additional members can be appointed at the Minister's discretion.

PETROL AND DIESEL FUEL QUALITY STANDARDS

On 8 May 2001, the Minister for the Environment and Heritage, Senator Robert Hill, announced that he would put in place new fuel quality standards for petrol and diesel under the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000. Senator Hill will, as soon as practicable, table appropriate instruments to implement the standards set out in Tables 7 and 2. These standards are also available on the Environment Australia website.

KEY ISSUES OF CONCERN

In developing the standards a number of contentious issues arose, some of which are still to be resolved. The Government has

deferred a decision on standards for MTBE, olefins and ethanol in petrol pending a further assessment of these issues.

Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)

The Commonwealth's initial proposal for fuel standards recommended banning the use of MTBE as an octane-enhancing additive in petrol. Whilst MTBE, as an oxygenate, can contribute to a decrease in vehicular air emissions, it poses a considerable risk to ground water supplies. If it leaks into underground aquifers, minute concentrations of MTBE can make vast quantities of water smell and taste like kerosene rendering the water undrinkable.

Three states in Australia have already banned the use of MTBE in petrol. In line with state limits, it was initially proposed to set a national standard of 0.01 % by volume. In the US, 11 States have either banned MTBE or limited its use to minimal levels by 1 January 2004 due to ground water contamination. A bipartisan bill is before the United States Senate to ban the substance outright in four years time. Indications are that Denmark is also considering action to ban its use and New Zealand has in place a voluntary industry agreement to limit its use to a residual 1 % in petrol.

Following the release of this proposed position, the Government received representations from independent importers of fuel into Australia stating that such a low limit would prevent them from obtaining an ongoing supply of fuel on overseas markets and would result in fuel shortages and price rises. Major oil companies in Australia that voluntarily do not use MTBE and those states which have banned its use argued strongly for its banning under the national standards. Concern was also expressed by water supply utilities.

In order to ensure that all stakeholders' concerns were adequately addressed, the Government requested a further assessment of this issue and will consider the outcome of that assessment in finalising its decision.

Olefins

Olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons (such as propylene and butylenes) and, in many cases, are good octane components of petrol. They can, however, lead to engine deposit formations and increased emissions of ozone-forming hydrocarbons and toxic compounds such as 1,3-butadiene, a known carcinogen. They tend to be chemically more reactive than other hydrocarbon types.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 11

ENVIRONMENT AUSTRALIA

expressed, however, by the ethanol industry in Australia arguing that blends higher than 10% would not have a detrimental effect on engine operability. The Government, therefore, decided that further scientific assessment over a 12 month period was necessary to assess vehicle operability, environmental performance, effect on engines and any health and safety implications of ethanol.

For that reason Australia has not set an ethanol standard and a process has commenced to assess the implications of ethanol blends higher than 10% for RVP, vehicle componentry and engine operability and performance.

Sulfur in diesel

Environment Australia would have preferred a 500 ppm standard for diesel at 1 January 2002 to facilitate the introduction of Euro 3 emission standards. This was, however, inconsistent with the stated Measures for a Better Environment commitment and placed investment pressure on three of the four oil majors. The Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries would have preferred a diesel standard of 350 ppm for sulfur from 1 January 2002 but this meant a stranded investment pathway for the refiners. It was therefore decided, not to set a 350 ppm sulfur standard. The agreed date of introduction of 31 December 2002 for 500 ppm sulfur in diesel reflects a compromise outcome.

Benzene

The agreed outcome for benzene also reflects a compromise between environmental objectives and industry capacity to reduce petrol benzene levels. The preferred standard of 1 % in 2005 (1 % being Euro 3 consistent) would place investment pressure on several oil majors. A 1 % standard for 2006 allows Australia to harmonise with the EU but gives the industry, some additional time to spread the necessary investment.

As with MTBE, independent importers opposed the Commonwealth's proposal for 2002 which recommended an 18% pool average over six months with a cap of 20%. It was then proposed to regulate all grades at a flat maximum of 18% from 2005.

Importers claimed that they could not source fuel to meet the proposed standards on a continuous basis from the Asia/Pacific region and that a higher price premium would apply, which would increase prices at the pump.

A decision on a standard for olefins was also deferred and the Government requested a further assessment of this issue together with MTBE.

Ethanol

The commonly held view is that a 10% limit of ethanol in petrol is acceptable and would avoid any adverse impacts on engines from higher petrol/ethano! blends. Concern was

Cleanerburn

The preliminary Commonwealth proposal for diesel standards recommended a 500 ppm sulfur standard from January 2002, advancing the MBE timetable by 12 months. The earlier introduction date would align the introduction of the new fuel with the associated new vehicle emission standards (ADRs) which were gazetted by the Minister for Transport and Regional Services in December 1999, and come into effect from 1 January 2002. The lower sulfur will facilitate Euro 2 light duty and Euro 3 heavy duty diesel vehicles which will be introduced from 1 January 2002.

Mobil Oil Australia advised that it could not commit to supply diesel fuel meeting the 500 ppm sulfur specification from 1 January 2002. It submitted that the MBE timetable should not be advanced as it would be unable to evaluate, design and construct new facilities to meet an 'accelerated' timetable, and could not guarantee supply from its regional refining facilities in this time frame.

Mobil proposed the use of the additive Cleanerburn in diesel with a sulfur content

12 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

ENVIRONMENT AUSTRALIA

of 1300 ppm (the current Australian refining industry average) as an alternative to meeting the 500 ppm sulfur standard. It submitted that the combustion improver in Cleanerburn provides immediate and sustained reductions in particle emissions equivalent to that achieved by reducing fuel sulfur to below 500 ppm.

The government agreed to assess the claims made by Mobil and an assessment protocol was developed by the Commonwealth and provided to Mobil on 4 January 2001. The protocol has been designed to provide a means of objectively assessing the health and environmental impacts of an alternative fuel consisting of Cleanerburn with 1300 ppm sulfur diesel. A copy of the assessment protocol is available on the Environment Australia website.

On 26 March 2001 Mobil submitted data to Environment Australia based on the prior evidence provision of the assessment protocol. Under section 3.2 of the protocol, Environment Australia may consider prior evidence as an alternative to testing specified under the protocol to demonstrate that the alternative fuel proposed by Mobil (i.e. Cleanerburn with 1300 ppm sulfur diesel) would satisfy the requirements of the protocol. An assessment of this data has now commenced with the assistance of independent technical experts.

A final decision on Mobil's proposal for an alternative standard will be made by the Minister for Environment and Heritage on the basis of a number of considerations, which include, but are not limited to, the outcomes of the assessment undertaken in response to the protocol. Additional policy issues and assessment of potential implications for competition and trade, as well as an evaluation of the potential for such an alternative standard to add to regulatory complexity and enforcement costs will also be considered.

NEXT STEPS/FORWARD AGENDA

The development of quality standards for petrol and diesel fuels is just one step, in the continuing process of improving emissions from the transport sector. While Australia ' remains some way behind Europe and California

these standards are a significant step forward for Australia towards cleaner fuels.

A number of projects have commenced or have been included on the agenda for future action to ensure continued improvement of both emissions and fuel quality. • The future agenda for fuel standards

which includes operability standards for petrol and diesel, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), Compressed Natural Gas, Biodiesel and Diesohol.

• Action to harmonise with Euro 4 petrol and Euro 5 diesel vehicles - the Department of Transport and Regional Services has listed a review of Australian Design Rules for these vehicles on the Motor Vehicle Environment Committee's workplan for later this year when the process will begin.

• The Diesel National Environment Protection Measure was passed by the National Environment Protection Council on 29 June 2001 setting out guidelines to assist jurisdictions in reducing in-service emissions in order to meet the in-service emission standards being developed by the National Road Transport Commission.

CONCLUSION

The agreed petrol and diesel standards will yield significant medium to long-term environmental benefits. The standards introduce Euro 3 equivalent petrol in 2005 and the sulfur content of diesel will be reduced to 50 ppm in 2006. As estimated by the Fuel Quality Review, the standards will result in emissions reductions of particles by approximately 25%, benzene by up to 53% and hydrocarbons by up to 25%. Australia is a small player in the international oil industry and fuel market. The agreed standards provide an appropriate balance between environmental objectives and what can actually be achieved by the domestic refining industry and importers. They will bring Australia a step closer to international best practice in the production and supply of cleaner fuels, improved vehicle technology resulting in reduced emissions from the transport sector and ultimately cleaner air.

A LITTLE BIT OF HISTORY- PART 1

The Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand was formed in 1966 with the Foundation Meeting taking place in Sydney on the 3rd March of that year. It may be surprising to some present day members that CASANZ still has a number of members who joined the Society in its first few years.

An analysis of the current membership shows that a significant number extend back to the early days of the Society. The make-up of our current membership in terms of the length of membership, expressed in 5-year periods, is as follows:

1966-1970 3.0% 1971-1975 3.9% 1976-1980 4.0% 1981-1985 6.3% 1986-1990 7.2% 1991-1995 20.7% 1996-2001 52.1% Unknown joining year 2.8%

Although a clear majority of the current members joined the Society within the last decade, over 10% of our members have continued their membership for more than 20 years. The Society's membership database shows the following individuals have been members since the 1966-1970 period.

Dr Ken Basden, NSW John Court, NSW Prof Ian Doig, NSW Dr Allen Gale, SA Ralph Goode, NSW Hans Hartmann, Vic Warren Hicks, Vic Neville Lamb, NSW Alan Lawson, NSW John McLead, NSW Dr Noel Norman, Vic Jack O'Heare, Vic Prof Siemon, Vic Alec Smith, SA Dr Ken Sullivan, NSW Bevan Thiele, Qld (To be continued in the next issue of the Clean Air journal.)

WELCOME TO NEW MEMBERS

The following are the new members who joined the Society during May, June and July. We hope

that their membership is both rewarding to themselves and their organisations and that they become personally involved in the activities of their respective Branches. (* = Rejoining member)

INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS

New South Wales/ACT Branch Mr Brian Butler * BHP - Newcastle Environment Manager Mrs Tania Notaras Australian Environmental Laboratories Manager Mr Greg Collins Metford Laboratories Pty Ltd Environmental Technician Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr George Garagonoulis Cleana Air Managing Director

Mr Stuart Glen Agriquality Australia Business Development Manager Ms Leonie Walker Beca Beca Simons Environmental Engineer Western Australia Branch Ms Carol Burns Wesfarmers CSBP Environment Officer

ORGANISATION MEMBERS

New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory Branch Ms AnneTibbett CSIRO Energy Technology Analytical Chemist Mr Ross May Waste Management and Environment Media Pty Ltd Director/Publisher New Zealand Mr Steve Goldthorpe URS New Zealand Limited Energy Analyst

Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr Kieth Ashby WMC Resources Ltd Group Manager Environment South Australia/Northern Territory Branch Mr Ron Oliver Advanced Airflow Technology Pty Ltd Director

SUSTAINING MEMBERS

New Zealand Ms Teresa Aberkane Environment Canterbury Air Quality Officer

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 13

LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL NEWS

Company and Industry News

POTENTIAL FOR EXPORTS TO GULF COUNTRIES

© Emma Smart

The Gulf region's export potential for Australia's environment industry was explored by Environment Australia (EA) delegates at the Arab world's first major environment conference.

Australia was among more than 30 countries to participate in the Environment 2001 Exhibition and Conference at Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) from 4-8 February.

Over 350 companies and corporations were represented, with Germany, France and Britain having the largest environment industry presence at the trade exhibition. SEPTECH was the only Australian company to be represented.

Environment Australia's Deputy Secretary Anthea Tinney, who attended the conference with Acting Director of the Environment Industries Focus Unit, Mary Kilcline Cody, identified water supply and water quality as among the many issues Australia and the UAE had in common.

'The conference was a landmark event, and we were pleased to accept the invitation to attend,' she said. 'Australia and the UAE have much to learn from each other and much to share in the areas of environmental expertise and technologies.'

'The UAE is expected to invest US$46 billion in environmental projects over the next 10 years and it is dear that oil, gas, water and waste management, including the adoption of cleaner production processes, are vital to the sustainability of the Gulf environment.'

'! was pleased to invite UAE officials to Canberra to pursue issues of mutual interest.'

According to Australia's Ambassador to the UAE, John Hines, at least 74 Australian companies operaie in the Emirates and more than 4,000 Australians live in Abu Dhabi and Dubai.

Dubai and Abu Dhabi are high tech gateways to the rest of the region. Highly modernised and with a high proportion of expatriate companies, Abu Dhabi is a particularly worthwhile, but initially costly, market to break into.

In cooperation with the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), and under the patronage of His Highness Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the conference discussed the development of sustainable environmental strategies to assist decision making, standard setting and technology transfer in the Gulf Region.

Issues included policies and planning for sustainable development, standards, regulation and enforcement and new, appropriate and transferable environmental technologies.

The opening of a South Australian Industry Office in Dubai by SA Premier John Olsen was a highlight for Australian delegates, local business and government officials. Mr Olsen said he was confident of Australia's capacity to deliver to the UAE market and commended SA companies and their capabilities.

For information about doing business in the UAE, contact Julie Bayliss, Austrade Trade Commissioner Emaii: julie.bayliss@austrade.gov.au Tel: +97 1 4331 6916

For further information contact: Adam Rush Acting Assistant Director, Environment Industries Focus Unit, Environment Australia Tel: +61 2 6274 1938 Fax: +61 2 6274 1640 Email: adam.rush@ea.gov.au

Source: Envirobusiness Update Issue 6 April, 2001.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM DECISION HELPS AUSTRALIA

Photo courtesy AUSLIG

It is understood that the decision by the previous United States President (Bill Ciinton) to discontinue the intentional degradation of satellite based Global Positioning System (GPSI signals will be followed by the Bush Administration. The decision will benefit Australian users.

GPS provides location and timing data to users worldwide. The decision will mean civilian users will be able to pinpoint locations up to 10 times more accurately than they can presently.

According to preliminary tests conducted at AUSLIG, Australia's national mapping agency, an everyday user of a hand-held GPS in Australia may now be able to measure their location to within 10 metres. The improvement in height positioning and time distribution is also significant.

The potential now exists for Australian businesses to significantly improve the range of innovative uses of GPS for business, agriculture and land management, emergency services and recreational purposes at a reduced cost.

The increased performance of GPS will bring benefits particularly to Australia's agricultural and resources sectors. Benefits for these and other sectors include: • improved vehicle navigation and fleet

management; • improved aviation safety; • emergency response - help rescue teams

search for people lost at sea, on mountains or ski slopes, in deserts or the wilderness and locate disabled cars for roadside assistance;

• tracking wildlife; • satellite tracking and data processing; and • safer hiking, camping, boating and fishing.

There will also be an increased demand for high accuracy mapping in both digital and hard copy formats because GPS is not a stand-alone device, but is used with maps to pinpoint locations.

AUSLiG uses the US OPS system for its Australian Regional GPS Network (ARGN), which provides the positioning framework for Australian mapping, and is the most accurate positional information available to industry in Australia.

More information can be found on the AUSLiG website: www.auslig.gov.au

SOLAR ENERGY

Like natural gas, solar energy is increasing in importance as an energy source for households. Household use of solar energy in 1995-96 was 3.4 PJ, more than 30 times the amount used in 1974-75 (0.1 PJ). While this increase seems very large, solar energy accounted for only 1 % of total household energy consumed in 1995-96. However, this figure is likely to be underestimated as the passive uses of solar energy for space heating and clothes drying are not measured. These uses are too difficult

14 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

to quantify but are estimated as being high. For example, 56% of all households used solar exposure as a form of space heating in 1994.

The recorded 3.4 PJ of solar energy used in households in 1995-96 was mainly for hot water systems. The relatively low usage of solar energy as a household energy source is reflected in the small number of households with these systems - only 5% of households in 1994, although this figure varied substantially between the States and Territories. The Northern Territory (58%) and Western Australia (21%) had the highest proportions of households with solar hot water systems.

The main barrier preventing solar energy from being a more common household energy source is the cost. The installation costs of solar energy for households are high as expensive equipment is required to collect the energy. It takes time, usually years, to recoup these costs but it has been proven that solar

energy is a very cheap energy source in the long run. It is predicted that household solar energy use will grow as the costs of solar energy equipment reduce over time. These costs are expected to fall by as much as 80% in the next 20 to 30 years.

Household use of solar energy is projected to increase to 4.3 PJ in 2009-10. While this will still represent only 1 % of total household energy consumption, there is great potential for household, and total, solar energy use to increase further as its costs fall and environmental advantages become more significant. (Figure 7)

ORGANIC WASTE COLLECTION TRIALS

With the kerbside recycling assessment report confirming the benefits of recycling paper, plastic and glass, Environment Australia and other agencies are watching with interest a kerbside organic household waste recycling

initiative by the ACT Government. The collection is part of the ACT

Government's No Waste by 2010 Waste Management Strategy which builds on a 98 per cent participation rate in kerbside recycling, and recovery rates for some materials, such as HDPE milk containers, of over 90 per cent.

Kerbside recycling currently collects 24,000 tonnes of waste a year, or 220kg per household in the ACT. Residents rate the service as the most important municipal service the ACT Government provides. The organic materials collection includes kitchen food scraps, animal waste, shredded paper and tissues, and small amounts of grass clippings, leaves and prunings.

The trial is being conducted in the inner-south Canberra suburb of Chifley, where single dwellings received an 85 litre bio-bin and multi-unit complexes received a 240 litre bio-bin for shared use. All households have received a bio kitchen bin to collect food wastes within their home and an information kit. The bio-bins are collected weekly.

The material collected is being audited for contamination. So far, most households are using the bins as intended with very low levels of contamination. The Chifley trial will assist in the development of future collection systems for Canberra.

The ACT Government is also establishing a resource recovery and transfer station in the northern Canberra suburb of Mitchell and at the city's existing landfill site at Mugga Lane, which will enable the free drop-off of a variety of materials, including white goods.

When the two centres are operating, most residents will be within 15km of a recovery and transfer station. This proximity is considered important to encourage people to use the stations.

The ACT Government is working on other fronts to eliminate waste. The Government is a signatory to the National Packaging Covenant and is preparing an Action Plan detailing the measures it will take to reduce packaging waste.

It is also participating in discussions with the Commonwealth on ways to reduce electrical and electronic waste.

For more information about the No Waste Strategy, visit the website at: http:/www.act.gov.au/nowaste or contact Hilary Rossow at ACT Waste Tel: + 61 2 6207 5370 Email: no.waste@act.gov.au

FODDER AND GREENHOUSE GASES

Between 1990 and 1998 Australia's production of greenhouse gases increased from 389.8 million tonnes (1990) to 455.9 million tonnes (1998) of CO2. equivalent. This equates to a 16.9% jump in greenhouse gas production over and above 1990 levels, exceeding the written commitment Australia made to keep its emissions down to 8% above 1990 levels.

Fodder King Limited specialises in producing high quality, disease-free fodder utilising unique patented technology to add value to lucerne (also known as alfalfa). Unique characteristics make lucerne extremely effective.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 15

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

Some 15% of Australia's greenhouse gases are attributable to methane production by livestock. This can be reduced by up to 75% simply by feeding the animals a nutritionally balanced diet.

Lucerne contains a well balanced nutritional profile of protein, energy, minerals, vitamins and fibre which produces a high impact, all-in-one, feed package for animals. Because it is so easily digested, animals are able to extract virtually all of the goodness from lucerne, leaving little waste including the production of methane gas. Methane is considered to be one of the worst of the greenhouse gases producing 21 times more damage to our atmosphere than does carbon dioxide, and the vast majority of methane produced comes from animals poorly digesting their food.

Lucerne grows profusely when intensively farmed. It generates biomass at an estimated rate of 100-150 tonnes per hectare per year. It is arguable that lucerne is the irrigation crop equivalent of trees - only much more 'instant'. It takes only one to two years for a lucerne plant to reach maximum productivity whereas trees take as much as 20 years.

This actively growing lucerne biomass takes up large amounts of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

Lucerne has a five metre long tap root and a profuse root system in the top 60 centimetres of soil. It sequesters substantial amounts of carbon into a large volume of soil - not just the top few centimetres - like most other crops.

Lucerne is a perennial crop. It only needs to be planted every five years or so. This means that the soil remains undisturbed for long periods of time. Every time old crop stubble is burnt it releases significant quantities of nitrous oxide. Like methane, nitrous oxide is much more detrimental than carbon dioxide. Because an intensive lucerne farming system results in approximately 80% less stubble burning, it results in significant reductions in nitrous oxide per hectare.

Lucerne is a legume. In other words it actually creates natural nitrogen fertiliser in the ground for the next crop to use. This means there is less need for additional nitrogen fertiliser and less production of nitrous oxide, from the use of manufactured nitrogenous fertilisers.

Lastly - because of Fodder King's technology and marketing, intensive lucerne production at mass scale is now profitable and large world markets mean that an industry as big as rice or cotton could arise, but without any of their nasty environmental side effects. And with that scale comes the opportunity to substantially reduce greenhouse gases, particularly the huge quantities of methane currently generated by livestock eating poorer quality feed.

Fodder King Limited is currently raising funds to expand its operation, and its new prospectus, registered with the ASIC, can be obtained from the company's office.

For further information contact: Fodder King Limited, Suite 1, Level 1, 252 lllawarra Road, Marrickville, NSW 2204.

BP TO RECYCLE WATER AT KWINANA OIL REFINERY

Kwinana's BP oil refinery is using Federal Government funding to begin a new venture to reduce pollution in Cockburn Sound.

Funding of $20,000 will be used to recycle over half a million litres of ground water removed from the earth to cool refinery pumps.

By recycling water used in the refinery process, BP will help to improve ground water quality and prevent the used ground water from flowing to and contaminating Cockburn Sound.

The reliance of BP and other industries in the region on ground water places enormous pressure on one of Australia's most precious and limited resources. Excess fresh ground water use causes marine water from Cockburn Sound to seep into and mix with fresh ground water, rendering it useless.

This project will also ease pressure on limited supplies of drinking water. Kwinana, located 40 kilometres south of Perth, is home to Western Australia's only oil refinery, which supplies most of the State's fuel needs and employs about 400 people.

By 2002, a water alliance including the WA Water Corporation and BP, plans to build a $20 million water recycling plant. Up to one fifth of treated effluent from the local Woodman Point-Cape Perron pipeline will be further treated for use in the refinery and by other local industries.

Funding will come through the Commonwealth Government's Cleaning Our Waterways Industry Partnership Program which encourages industry to control its waste products, providing dividends for the company, the environment and the local community.

For further information contact: Belinda Huppatz (Senator Hill's Office) Tel: +61 2 6277 7640 or 0419 258 364

ABS ENERGY USE PUBLICATION

Drawing on a wide range of information sources, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) recently released a comprehensive snapshot of Australian energy consumption, usage patterns and associated greenhouse gas emissions, (Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Accounts, Australia, 1992-93 to 1997-98, Cat. No. 4604.0).

In addition to comprehensive information on direct energy consumption and generation of selected greenhouse gas emissions by industries and households, the indirect impacts of household consumption, Australia's exports, capital formation and government final consumption are also explored.

Australia is heavily reliant on fossil fuels for its energy resources. Over 90% of total energy consumed in Australia is based on an energy source derived from fossil fuels, reflecting Australia's economic structure and the significant role coal plays as a fuel source, particularly for power generation.

About 40% of Australia's total primary energy use is for electricity generation. About 30% of the energy used in Australia is lost in the conversion of primary energy to secondary energy mainly through electricity generation.

The combustion of fossil fuels contributed over 70% of Australia's energy related greenhouse gas emissions in 1997-98. Electricity generation contributed 50% of these emissions, followed by transport activity at about 25%.

Results show that Australian households are responsible - either directly or indirectly through the consumption of goods and services that require energy to produce - for the generation of most of our energy-related greenhouse gas emissions (around 56%), mainly through household electricity use (about 17%) and motor vehicle use (about 12%).

Just under one quarter of Australia's energy-related emissions are generated in the production of goods and services for export. The most greenhouse-intensive of these are basic non-ferrous metals and products, the production of which generates around 6% of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions.

The estimated total value of Australia's coal, oil, gas and uranium energy reserves was nearly $76 billion in June 1998.

\ 16 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

This information and a copy of the main features of the publication can be found on the Internet at: www.abs.gov.au.

For further information contact: Bob Harrison Tel: +61 2 6252 7369

AUSTRALIA'S VEHICLE NOISE LIMITS: NRTC REPORT

Australia's vehicle noise limits permit double the noise allowed by international standards and need to be upgraded, according to a report issued by the National Road Transport Commission.

The report compares Australia's vehicle noise regulations with those in Europe, the USA and Japan, and presents a wide range of strategies and initiatives to address engine and engine brake noise.

The report was commissioned as part of a major project to reduce vehicle noise levels, particularly engine brake noise, and to bring Australia into line with international noise standards. The project is scheduled for completion in 2002.

Vehicle noise and especially loud engine brake and motorcycle noise, is consistently rated as a major community concern. It can have a major impact on sleep, lifestyle, property values and driver fatigue and stress.

Studies have shown-that nearly 40 per cent of Australia's population is exposed to undesirable traffic noise and a further 1 0 per cent to excessive traffic noise.

The report provides the most comprehensive review of vehicle noise regulations since the mid

1980s. It was prepared for the NRTC by Harry Close and Apelbaum Consulting Group PA..

Noise standards for new vehicles are set by the Australian Design Rules, which in the case of motor vehicles, permit up to seven decibels of noise higher than international limits, or a doubling in noise.

The approach for monitoring in-service levels also needs to be overhauled to make sure that vehicles continue to meet original equipment standards. Strategies suggested in the report include: • adopting international new vehicle noise

standards, in whole or in part; • adopting the international approach

to stationary noise testing; • prescribing specific exhaust designs; and • increasing enforcement resources,

including those to local councils. When releasing the report, NRTC Chairman,

Stuart Hicks, said finding comprehensive long-term solutions to reducing vehicle noise was a top priority for Australia.

'Excessive vehicle noise is a major social and environmental problem plaguing too many Australians,' he said,

'However, the solutions are not straight­forward. Because the problem is so widespread, we must look to cutting noise at its source.'

'A multi-level approach is going to be needed to address the different causes and impacts of noise from trucks, cars, motorcycles and other vehicles', said Mr Hicks.

The majority of complaints about engine brake noise result from poorly designed and inferior mufflers, which do not match the vehicle's engine and engine brake systems.

The consultants suggest that the best approach to controlling engine brake noise is to ensure that vehicles are well designed and properly maintained. Special mufflers are readily available, and although they cost around $300 more than standard mufflers, the extra is not a major item in the cost of a truck.

The report also showed that it was feasible to test for engine brake noise.

A draft policy proposal will be released for comment. Draft recommendations will be considered by the Motor Vehicle Environment Committee, and recommendations submitted to Australia's Transport and Environment Ministers in late 2001. (Comments were invited, closing date, 29 June 2001.)

The NRTC was formed in 1991 to work with governments, user groups and other stakeholders to improve the safety and efficiency of road transport and reduce its environmental impacts.

For further information contact: Peter Makeham Director Safety and Environment Tel: +61 3 9321 8444

WTfWTs - .

, m> *»' . „ „

AIR«WATER«NOISE

MELBOURNE 3-4/18 Thomos Street Ferntree Gully VIC 3156 Tel: (03 )9758 7299 Fax: (03) 9752 2694

SYDNEY 8/16A Hearne Street Morfdale NSW 2223 Tel: (02) 9584 1900 Fax: (02) 9584 1068

BRISBANE 2 1 Elouera Road Ashgrove OLD 4060 Tel: (07 )3864 2244 Fax: (07) 3864 1508

Environmental Engineers & Scientists Environmental impact Assessment Pollution Moni tor ing & Control Environmental Management

• NATA accredited laboratory for the monitoring of atmospheric contaminants:

- ambient air

- stack emissions

- workplace environment

• Environmental and waste audits (EPA (Vic.) environmental auditor)

• Pilot scale control equipment trials

• Plume dispersion modelling

• Air pollution control equipment design and specification

• Environmental authority negotiations, submissions and applications

• Workplace and environmental noise surveys/statistical analysis

• Vegetation studies

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 17

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

AUSTRALIAN COMPANY DISCOVERS NON-TOXIC INSECTICIDE

Drug discovery company BioProspect Limited announced today that it had identified a new natural insecticide which appears virtually non-toxic to mammals.

The insecticide, discovered in an endemic Queensland plant, is set to have a major effect on worldwide domestic and agriculture insecticide markets.

BioProspect Executive Director Greg Eaton said future uses of the organic chemical may include household, veterinary and crop insecticides - a market in Australia worth more than 5500 million per annum.

Mr Eaton said BioProspect had already initiated discussions with the Queensland Government to develop a possible commercial crop industry based on the plant extract.

This breakthrough has enormous potential as our testing has indicated that the discovered plant extract is virtually non-toxic to mammals,' Mr Eaton said.

'Preliminary tests performed by both the University of Western Sydney and Southern Cross University in collaboration show that the plant extract is a very potent insecticide.

'We are not aware of any chemical that can claim a natural, organic pedigree combined with such demonstrated potency.

'BioProspect has recently lodged patent applications based on this new chemical, and we are extremely enthusiastic about its potential for the world insecticide market which is conservatively valued at $A25 billion annually.'

Mr Eaton said the new insecticide had demonstrated high laboratory efficacy against at least two major Australian agricultural pests: Twospotted Mites and the Diamondback Moth.

'Twospotted Mites and its relatives, commonly known as spider mites, can cause severe damage and heavy losses to crops including citrus, avocado, beans, cotton, apples, pears, peaches, plums, vegetables and other horticultural and ornamental crops. We believe it may prove just as successful against a range of other insects as well,' Mr Eaton said.

BioProspect has been awarded a $250,000 Federal Government Collaborative Research Grant to research insecticides from a specific family of Australian endemic plants.

The Strategic Partnerships with Industry Research and Training (SPIRT) grant research partners - Southern Cross University's Centre for Phytochernistry and University of Western Sydney's Centre For Horticultural and Plant Sciences- will collaborate with BioProspect over the next three years to investigate the plants for chemicals with Insecticida! properties.

Perth-based BioProspect Limited collects, extracts, purifies and supplies samples of biota for licensing to pharmaceutical companies and others to screen and test for drug discovery programs. BioProspect has established long-term arrangements to collect plant material from around the worid including Western Australia.

For further information contact: Mark Gold, Tel: +61 2 9252 0622 or 0411 221 292

Testing the non-toxic insecticide on native flora.

'GREEN' INDUSTRY WINS FROM R&D

Research that reaped environmental benefits for Australia was highlighted at the national Conference of the Cooperative Research Centres' Association in Perth in May.

The CRC for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST) will help the expansion of Queensland's magnesium industry through the development of a new greener method for producing magnesium for car parts, laptop computer covers and mobile phones.

The new technology eliminates the use of a potent greenhouse gas, sulfur hexafluoride, (SF6) resulting in reduction of emissions comparable to taking one million cars off the road. Due to its light weight, strength and ease of casting, magnesium is increasingly being used in the manufacture of car parts and other equipment.

For example, it is predicted that four kilograms of the average car will be magnesium parts by 2005. Of the 25 million laptop computers sold this year, 30 percent wiil have magnesium cases. Magnesium dissipates heat 100 times better than plastic and currently half the power consumption of laptops is for cooling.

Sulfur hexaflouride has a global warming potential that is 22,200 times greater than carbon dioxide. It has been used for over 20 years to protect molten magnesium from burning in air. Used at operating concentrations of around 1 % SF6, it has been estimated by the US EPA that 0.1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions is due to this SF6 usage for magnesium processing.

CAST recognised that this use was an •unsustainable situation. It was felt that the best approach was to first understand how SF6 is effective in preventing magnesium from burning, and then use this knowledge to develop an improved cover gas system.

Research showed that fluorine was the active component of SF6. In this system, fluorine is incorporated in the thin oxide layer that forms on the surface of molten magnesium, and changes the characteristics of the interface between the oxide layer and molten metal.

The fluorine bearing oxide layer is very elastic and self-repairs, and thus is a very effective barrier against further oxidation, or burning. This was an important discovery, as previously It had been thought that sulfur

was the active ingredient. This new knowledge led to a search for potential replacement gas systems containing fluorine. The search was directed towards gases with much lower global warming potentials than SF6.

The most promising candidate gas t he hydrofluorocarbon gas HFC-134a which has a global warming warming potential of one fourteenth of SF6. Importantly, this gas has recently been introduced as the major refrigerant gas, and is used in car air conditioners. It is therefore widely available and hence cost effective.

The new protection system will help the development of a new magnesium industry in Australia. CRC partner, Australian Magnesium Corporation, has planned a commercial plant set to produce one quarter of the world's current magnesium production.

For further information contact: Natalia Veldman Tel: + 61 7 3365 3675

EUCALYPT HYDROCARBON STUDY

CSIRO Energy Technology researchers have been commissioned by the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA) to investigate emissions of organic compounds from Australian eucalypt trees that contribute to the formation of photochemical smog. Plants release highly reactive hydrocarbons that can add significantly to photochemical smog problems. That is, smog caused by the reaction of sunlight with chemical compounds like those from industry and car exhausts.

'We are measuring the emission rates of hydrocarbons from three Australian eucalypt species, using large branches of mature trees,' says Dr Peter Nelson, senior research scientist with the Urban and Industrial Air Quality Group.

'We deliberately sought trees that hadn't been grown under controlled conditions, but were 'real world' specimens. Previous studies have concentrated on a small number of single leaves of cultivated plants and performed measurements under very controlled conditions of temperature and radiation,' says Dr Nelson.

'One of the things we have found already is a close relationship between the amount of the sun's radiation, of the type that is important for photosynthesis and the plant's growth, and the level of hydrocarbons they

18 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

emit. Emission rates are highest during the day and drop off towards evening.

'We can use this information to assist the EPA to more accurately estimate chemical emissions from Australian trees,' he says.

Researchers measured the emissions by two enclosure methods: a flexible teflon film bag and a teflon film chamber. The enclosures were ventilated with ambient air to control temperatures to near ambient conditions. Concentrations of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and non-methane volatile hydrocarbons were monitored continuously with gas analysers to determine emission rates.

The plant compounds being measured include volatiles like isoprene and monoterpenes. 'Such compounds were always the major contributors to hydrocarbon fluxes,' says Dr Nelson.

Gas samples were periodically collected for detailed, high resolution, gas chromatographic analysis of isoprene and other hydrocarbons. Other physical parameters measured included temperature, total light intensity and photosynthetically-active radiation (PAR), or the portion of the sun's radiation spectrum that is important to plant photosynthesis.

By measuring each of these parameters, the emission rate of these hydrocarbons can be linked to both plant temperature and light intensity.

For further information contact Dr Peter Nelson Tel: +61 2 9490 8660

Source: CSIRO Interface No. 28, 2001. Measuring emissions from eucalypts using teflon enclosures.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND SOLAR ACTIVITY DETECTED IN ICE CORE

The deep ice core extracted from Dome Summit South (DSS) at Law Dome (120km from Casey station, Antarctica) provides a climatic and environmental record extending back over 80,000 years, well into the last ice age. The DSS drill site has a very high snow accumulation rate by polar standards (equal to approximately 64cm of water per year), making the record particularly detailed.

Recent analysis of trace chemicals in the ice at approximately monthly resolution has provided precise timing of more than a dozen major global volcanic events over the past 700 years, and also revealed subtle signals of 17 solar events in the past 112 years.

Solar activity and volcanic eruptions are both natural mechanisms for climate. Proxies of these, such as the ice core chemical markers described here, are important keys for understanding how much of the observed climate variations today are attributable to human influence.

Volcanic signal

Major volcanic eruptions eject large quantities of dust and fine aerosols into the atmosphere. Some of the aerosols find their way into the stratosphere where they can persist for several years, producing the spectacular sunsets familiar to many following the Mt Pinatubo eruption in 1991. These aerosols influence climate by reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the

KATESTONEENVIRONMENTAL A new company within The Katestone Group

For first-class consulting services in:

==> Air quality modelling and assessment ==> Meteorological and climate applications ==> Health risk assessment ==> Expert witness and mediation ==> Monitoring, surveys and interpretation ==> Environmental data analysis and reporting ==> Specialist environmental modelling ==> Permit and audit services

Katestone Environmental

Brisbane: PO Box 2184 Toowong 4066 07 3720 8755

Adelaide: PO Box 356 Walkerviile 5081

08 8362 4967

environmental @ katestone.com.au www.katestone.com.au

Other members of The Katestone Group include: Katestone Scientific

Provision of software products, quantitative skills and forecasting, prediction and decision support services to the non-energy sector.

Katestone Analytic Forecasting and risk management for the electricity industry.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 19

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

Earth's surface. Eventually, depending on the location of the eruption and prevailing atmospheric conditions, the chemicals from the aerosols (principally sulfate) find their way into precipitation, increasing the acidity slightly. It is this increase in sulfate levels that can be detected in the ice core.

The Law Dome ice core shows that the lag between eruptions and the arrival of detectable fallout varies from 10 months to 2.5 years for 10 well-dated eruptions. It also shows a very large eruption in about 1459 (the largest sulfate producer in the 700-year record). An event around this time had been recorded in other ice cores, but with less precision. Historical and tree-ring records, suggested an event in 1453 which is thought to be the eruption of the volcano Kuwae in Vanuatu. Because of the variation in transport time and general dating uncertainties, the DSS ice core signal cannot be made to match an eruption much earlier than 1456, and so an interesting puzzle is emerging. The matter is of more than academic interest, because large events like this tend to be used to tie the dating in records from a wide range of sources.

Solar Signal

The solar activity signal in the DSS core shows as increases in nitrate following solar outbursts called solar proton events. Nitrate is one of the more poorly understood major atmospheric chemicals, but theoretical calculations have pointed to the potential for production by solar proton events. In fact, some ice core studies have reported large nitrate spikes, which have been tied to solar events, but other studies have failed to find any connection at all. The Law Dome result is significant because it uses the good dating control in this core to search for, and detect, nitrate elevation following 17 known solar events.

© Commonwealth of Australia Tas van Ommen and Vin Morgan, Glaciology Program, Australian Antarctic Division.

Source: Australian Antarctic Magazine Autumn 2001.

DAVIS LIDAR COMMENCES ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS

A powerful green laser beam is now routinely probing the skies above Davis, Antarctica, in the investigation of climate change at high altitudes. The laser light is transmitted by a novel atmospheric LIDAR instrument, developed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD), in collaboration with Adelaide University. During the 2000-01 summer, Atmospheric and Space Physics (ASP) Program and AAD trades personnel installed and commissioned the instrument at Davis, a culmination of five years of preparation by ASP, Science Technical Support and Engineering Branch staff.

The Davis LIDAR is a remote sensing instrument which profiles atmospheric density, temperature and wind velocity as a function of altitude. It operates in a manner akin to

radar; pulses of laser light are transmitted into the sky, and the weak 'light echo' scattered back to the instrument from atmospheric gases and aerosols is collected and analysed.

The LIDAR is housed in a modular 'observatory' which consists of a temperature controlled laboratory, an ambient-temperature enclosure with a retracting roof, and a general purpose operations room. The observatory was progressively fitted out and tested at Kingston between early 1997 and mid-2000, and was shipped to Davis by RSV Aurora Australis on voyage one. Only three weeks were required to reassemble and commission the building.

The first LIDAR observations from Davis were undertaken in early February 2001. Initially, the instrument was operated in a 'biaxial' configuration, with the laser beam being transmitted independently of the receiving system. An advantage of the biaxial configuration is that it allows backscatter to be received from altitudes up to the mesopause (around 90km) which is currently an area of intense interest in the atmospheric sciences community. There is evidence to suggest that the mesopause region may be cooling as a result of the current warming trend near the Earth's surface. Tenuous clouds of ice particles form near the mesopause in the summer at high altitudes. The visual manifestations of this phenomenon are called 'noctilucent clouds', and these have been observed by expeditioners at Davis, albeit rarely. One of the first tasks of the LIDAR is to examine the frequency of occurrence and structure of these ciouds.

The Davis LIDAR is currently one of only three such instruments capable of retrieving temperatures in the mesosphere (the region between 50km and about 95km altitude) from the southern hemisphere. Northern hemisphere measurements have suggested that a general cooling is taking place in the mesosphere and stratosphere (15km to 50km altitude), but little published data currently exists regarding trends at southern latitudes.

Biaxial operation will also allow further testing and refinement of the mechanical and optical system as the low temperatures of winter set in. Currently, a program of temperature comparisons between the LIDAR and Bureau of Meteorology balloon-borne radio-sondes is being undertaken up to altitudes of 40km in order to test the LIDAR temperature retrieval techniques. It is hoped that the 'coaxial' operating mode of the instrument, in which the laser can be steered around the sky for horizontal wind measurements, will be tested before spring.

© Commonwealth of Australia Andrew Klekociuk, Atmospheric and Space Physics Program, Australian Antarctic Division.

Source: Australian Antarctic Magazine, Autumn 2001.

Specific information on the instrument and its scientific program are outlined on the LIDAR web page at http://www.aad.gov.au/science/ AntarrticResearch/AtmosphericSciences/lidar.asp

GREEN ENERGY POWER PLANT FOR SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Publicly listed South Australian plantation timber group Auspine plans to construct a 60MW 'green energy' power plant at Tarpeena near Mount Gambier in the South East of South Australia. The 60MW output is equivalent to the annual consumption of about 70,000 households.

Auspine's Managing Director Adrian de Bruin, said that a Board decision on the $90 million plant would precede the completion of feasibility studies and finance raising, allowing construction to commence immediately the final decision is made with the aim of having the plant operational by summer 2003.

Mr de Bruin said the project could be the largest single-site 'green energy' plant in Australia.

The plant would also be modular in design allowing for further expansion as more fuel became available.

Auspine is a fully integrated plantation products company with its primary business being sawmilling, timber preservation and woodchip export to Japan. Auspine is the World's largest exporter of softwood plantation woodchip.

Mr de Bruin said that Auspine had a renewable resource base of some 45,000 hectares of plantation that was expanding in volume and value and included mature plantations of up to 30 years of age.

He said that the sawmilling operations in particular consumed large quantities of electrical and thermal energy - thermal energy which Auspine generates itself from sawmill residues.

'Plans to construct a green energy power plant flowed from a decision to significantly boost production at Auspine's Tarpeena sawmill to take advantage of better economies of scale,' he said.

'To achieve the expansion. Auspine needed to almost double its own electrical and thermal energy usage. However, electricity supply in South Australia is already at peak capacity and there are no immediate plans to upgrade the main transmission infrastructure connecting the South East with Victoria.'

Mr de Bruin said that in reviewing its own energy requirements - existing and future - Auspine realised the potential for its world scale Tarpeena sawmill to underpin a move into co-generation of electrical and thermal energy.

With the construction of a proposed natural gas pipeline from Port Campbell in Victoria to Adelaide, Auspine is also examining plans to complement the biomass plant by adding a natural gas-fired co-generation power plant on the same site.

Further information contact: Adrian de Bruin, Managing Director, Auspine Tel: +61 8 8721 5555

20 Clean Air Volume 35 flo.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

CLEAN ENERGY BOAT RACE

Trevor Peterson from Back to Basics Electrical and friend Frank Wheeler spent the two weeks prior to this year's SolACT Smart Race putting the finishing touches on the entry that enabled them to break the fastest lap record. The new record was set at an average speed of 22 knots over the three kilometre course.

The boat, Back to Basics Instinct, is a four-seater runabout. With the assistance of outboard motor manufacturer, Mercury, Trevor and Frank were able to fit it with a 50 horsepower outboard engine adapted to run on hydrogen gas.

After taking delivery of the outboard, Trevor and Frank fine tuned the engine making sure technical issues such as the fuel/air mixture ratio was correct and that no back firing would occur during the race.

Trevor Peterson said: 'It was actually a display boat on the day as it wouldn't be fair to compete with most of the other boats as

they average speeds of only l0km/h. Back to Basics Instinct is capable of doing 80km/h. The boat has the power and speed of a conventional outboard engine but is totally clean.'

Robert Simpson, mechanical engineer and boat race coordinator said the record had to go eventually, but that the trial outboard represented a breakthrough in the use of clean-energy fuels.

'The environmental advantages of the engine are that the only by-product is water and there are no greenhouse gas emissions. Compared to regular boat engines, that is phenomenal. The implications for the use of this technology could be great and far reaching.'

In other race results, the major prize, the solar prize for the best-performing solar vessel over all classes, went to Lake Tuggeranong College's Green Choice. The overall endurance prize for the most number of completed laps went to Murray Baker's Great Southern Energy Express and the most Environmentally Sensitive Vessel was Lotsa Knots, a Telopea Park School entry.

The SolACT Smart Race is Australia's only clean-energy boat race of its kind and is a five-hour endurance race around a course on Lake Burley Griffin.

The race, sponsored by AGL's solar initiative SolACT, was held on Lake Burley Griffin, on Saturday, April 28. It incorporated the main race, a madcap Sink-Or-Swim Regatta, a Renewable energy fair, children's activities, centre-stage entertainment, gourmet food stands and the chance to win a Hunter Valley Ecoretreat for two.

The race was the highlight of the Australian Science Festival, held in May.

For more information contact boat-race coordinator, Robert Simpson Tel: 0402 416 086

LAWS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: NSW RESIDENTS' VIEWS

NSW residents want tough environmental laws and information about what they can do to help protect the environment, according to new research released today by the Environment Protection Authority.

Speaking at the launch of a report into the environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of the NSW community, EPA Director-General Lisa Corbyn said 88 per cent of NSW residents are concerned about the environment.

'The largest proportion of people surveyed (17%) identified, unprompted, education as the single most important environmental initiative for the NSW Government over the next few years.

'The second largest proportion of respondents (12%) nominated stricter and harsher environment laws as the most important initiative.

'The findings confirm the priority the Government has placed on promoting education and enacting strong environmental legislation in recent years.

'Water and air remain the two most important environmental issues in NSW today, though less people express concern about these issues than in 1997. Water issues were mentioned by 27% of respondents in 2000,

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 21

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

down from 35% in 1997; air issues were mentioned by 22% of respondents in 2000, down from 24% in 1997.

'More people are now expressing concern about land degradation, including soil erosion, waste, and protection/loss of trees, forests and bushland than in 1997.

'While concern for the environment remains high, the latest survey shows an increased confidence that the environment is being well managed.

'People see improvements in the cleanliness of our beaches and oceans (up to 55% from 42% in 1994), water quality in rivers and creeks (up to 35% from 13% in 1994) and better protection of endangered plants and animals (up to 61 % from 51 % in 1994).

'Since 1994, the research shows that education about environmental issues over the past decade has created an awareness about what individuals can do to protect the environment.

'At least four in five people now recycle (94%), re-use things for environmental reasons instead of throwing them away (85%), and are making an effort to reduce electricity consumption (82%).

'In 2000, there was an increase in the number of people adopting very important but less common strategies to protect the environment.

'Five per cent more people now report using their car less for environmental reasons by car pooling, using public transport, bicycling or walking, than in 1997. (44% of people report this behaviour in 2000, up from 39% in 1997.)

'Yet, the research also highlights areas where we all need to do better.

'While the 2000 survey shows three out of four people can see benefits in reducing water consumption, 11 % less people report making an effort to use less water than in the 1997 survey. (Decrease from 82% in 1997 to 7 1 % in 2000.)

'Focus group discussions revealed a perception in the community that the urgency to use less water is declining, as memories of water shortages in the mid-1990s fade,' said Ms Corbyn.

'New questions in the 2000 survey found a high level of community concern about pesticide use with 80% of the community concerned about the harmful effects of pesticides on human health, and 85% expressing concern about their harmful effects on the environment.'

The report is the third in the NSW EPA's social research series Who Cares About the Environment.

CLEAN, GREEN ENERGY- OR IS IT?

The Australian share-market is starting to take notice of the fact that greenhouse gas emissions and pollution from coal-fired power stations are combining to make renewable energy more competitive, as regulation begins to price in the environmental costs of the fossil fuel industry.

As enthusiasm for renewable energy grows, however, the danger is the assumption that all 'green power' is environmentally benign. From the AEI (Australian Ethical Investment) perspective, a truly renewable energy source should result in no lasting damage to the environment. There are several projects offering investors the chance to participate in the

© James Rule

renewable energy boom that on closer examination raise environmental and social concerns.

One form of renewable energy aims to utilise the kinetic energy of the seas, via waves and tidal flows, to generate emission-free electricity. The vast expanse of the Australian coastline makes this a particularly attractive proposition and recent advances have seen this technology become more technically and financially feasible. The design of these facilities however, should not needlessly mar the appearance

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

of the coastline. Nor should there be negative impacts on estuaries that provide a nursery for many important aquatic species.

For example, AEI will not be participating in a recent development proposal involving the damming of an entire river mouth in order to generate renewable power from its large tidal flows. Such a scheme could have had detrimental and potentially devastating implications for the affected river system.

The use of native forest wood for the generation of renewable energy is another questionable practice. The argument from the proponents of such schemes is that the wood is waste.

It would otherwise be left to rot or burn after logging. In reality, the native forest wood that would be used will predominantly be pulp logs that would otherwise be wood chipped, together wi th some sawmill by-product.

Current extraction policy for native forest wood in Australia is dominated by the production of pulpwood for woodchips. Allowing these chips to be burned in Australia for electricity production is clearly as ecologically unsustainable as the native forest export woodchip industry itself. By labelling power generated from such sources as green, regulators are creating a new market for native forest woodchips. This entrenches low cost, high volume timber extraction f rom Australia's native forests.

Direct or indirect investment in renewable energy companies represents 5-12 per cent of AEI's portfolios (just under 10 per cent of overall funds). Holdings include Advanced Energy Systems (solar energy), Energy Development (landfill gas-fired power generation) and Pacific Hydro (wind power

and hydro-electricity from pre-existing dams). Investments also extend to a range of

businesses with a strong related involvement in the sector, such as consultancies and manufacturers of components and highly energy efficient products.

AEI has written to the Australian Greenhouse Office encouraging the closure of existing loopholes in the draft regulations that allow electricity generated from native forest sourced wood to be labelled renewable power.

Source: 'Aim High' (Aust. Ethical Investments Newsletter), Feb, 2001.

MAPPING EARTHS PAST AND FUTURE

Driving from Melbourne to Indonesia may seem like a crazy idea but to a group of Monash University scientists at the helm of new virtual time-machine, it is an inevitable reality.

According to earth sciences expert Professor Gordon Lister, Australia and Java are on a collision course that will eventually see the two land-masses come together due to continental drift.

To create an image of the event. Professor Lister and his team of scientists at Monash University's Australian Crustal Research Centre have utilised Virtual Earth, an ambitious project that will realise the first full 3D reconstruction of the earth at a planetary level.

'The aim of Virtual Earth is to develop virtual reality capability on a planetary scale, so that we can visually analyse the earth, both inside and out, at various stages of its evolution,' Professor Lister said.

'The system will enable researchers to reconstruct Earth through 4.5 biilion years of

its history, as well as into the future, to a level of detail never before attempted.

'To bring Virtual Earth to life, the team are using the recently iaunched VPAC computer cluster, regarded as the most powerful general-purpose supercomputer in Australia, in combination with the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology's Virtual Reality Centre, to bring a new level of visualisation to the research.

'The High Performance computing system at VPAC has the capacity to handle the large amounts of data and complex calculations needed for the modelling and graphical rendering of Virtual Earth at a range of scales,' Professor Lister said.

Members of the team, joined by researchers from CSiRO, are confident they can use Virtual Earth to aid the prediction of earthquakes and climatic changes, for locating untapped deposits of mineral resources, and to help understand the earth's processes in greater detail.

'By using Virtual Earth, we can 'fly' inside the Earth, much like a virtual reality time machine, to look at configurations and identify patterns at a level of visual detail never before possible,' Professor Lister said.

Source: Monash University Newsline http://www.monash.edu.au/nevvs

AUSTRALIA AND NORTH AMERICA ONCE CONNECTED

if you've ever been to America and immediately felt at home, it could be partly due to the fact that you were standing on very familiar soil.

Structural geologists at Monash University

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 23

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

have applied modern theories of tectonics to determine that large pieces of western North America once belonged to Australia.

According to Dr David Giles and Dr Peter Betts of the Australian Crustal Research Centre, Australia had numerous interactions wi th North America more than one billion years ago - interactions that altered the shape of our continent forever.

'By applying modern tectonic ideas to ancient terrain we have been able to piece together a large part of the Australian jigsaw during the Proterozoic period,' Dr Betts said.

'We have discovered that a very complex link existed between the two continents and that large parts of Australia may have actually become part of Canada and the United States.'

Over the past 10 years there has been growing support among the geological community for an ancient link that once existed between eastern Australia and western North America as part of the super-continent, Rodinia.

This new research conduced by Dr Giles and Dr Betts presents the idea that the link was not a continuous one, but instead a series of complex interactions between the two continents that began about 1.8 billion years ago.

'Over a 700 million year period, Australia and western North America were connected three times, during which there were extended periods of up to 150 million years when they were separated. Every time they broke away from each other, Australia was missing a piece,' Dr Giles said.

There was an extension to Cape York Peninsula which today forms the northern piece of Canada. Parts of Idaho also once belonged to us. So we have had some very generous geological interactions with them, some of which were also economically significant in terms of mineral deposits.'

Dr Giles said the research formed part of the Mountains and Metal initiative being coordinated by the Australian Crustal Research Centre in the quest to understand the link between mountain belts and metals.

'We are part of the way to creating some sort of predictive model about where certain types of ore deposits may be located today' he said.

Source: Corey Nassau, Monash University Newsline http:/AA/ww.monash.edu.au/news

MACQUARIE ISLAND MARINE PARK PROTECTION PLAN

Federal Environment Minister Robert Hill released earlier this year a draft management plan for the Macquarie Island Marine Park, located in the Southern Ocean some 1,500 kilometres south-south-east of Tasmania.

'The draft plan outlines the conservation values for which the Marine Park was established, the potential pressures on these values, and a management regime to ensure that these values are in fact protected,' Senator Hill said.

'The waters of the Macquarie Island Marine Park are crucial foraging grounds for many animals that breed and nest on the island. The Marine Park protects pristine habitat for threatened species like the royal penguin, rockhopper penguin, subantarctic fur seal, southern elephant seal and five

species of albatross, including the wandering albatross. The Park also includes the world's largest marine highly protected zone, although the size of the proposed Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve announced last week will exceed this in area.'

The draft management plan describes the management arrangements applying to the three zones making up the Marine Park. The central portion of 5.8 million hectares will be managed as a Highly Protected Zone, primarily for scientific research and environmental monitoring. Commercial activities such as fishing and petroleum and mineral exploration will not be allowed in this zone.

The northern and southern portions of the Marine Park, totalling 10.4 million hectares, will be managed as Habitat/Species Management Zones and will allow for commercial fishing activities under specific

management arrangements. The Marine Park, and the broader region, is of global significance for science and education due to its geological and bio-geographic characteristics. The marine habitats of the Marine Park are little known so fostering further scientific research will become an important focus of the plan's implementation. The Marine Park abuts Tasmania's Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and the Commonwealth plan will provide for complementary management of these adjoining marine areas.

Public comment on the draft plan closed on 30 March 2001. The draft plan is available from Environment Australia's Community Information Unit on: Tel: 1800 803 772, or on the Internet at www.environment.gov.au/marine/ marine_protected/macquarie/main.html

24 Clean Air Volume 35 flo.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

AUSTRALIAN QUARANTINE AND INSPECTION NEWS

Cuisine and quarantine

Over the past year, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) staff have learned a lot about innovations in cuisine, love potions and personal hygiene - to name a few. Throughout Australia's international airports, travellers continue to test the boundaries. Recently seized culinary delights include: • vacuum packed possum; • 'bush meat' containing cuts of rock-hard

dried paws, shoulders and heads of several large armadillo and a small monitor lizard;

• cow lung, cooked and battered in cheese; • four kilos of cooked horse meat, • homemade Giant African Snail curry; and • AQIS detector dog 'Jackson' recently

discovered a passenger concealing a fellow canine - stewed in turtle juice - for human consumption.

Hitchikers from East Timor

The Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) will conduct regular surveys over the next four years for pests which might hitchhike into Australia with personnel and equipment returning from East Timor. The first of these planned surveys was completed last May.

Quarantine surveys of military sites will take place once or twice yearly at more than 20 locations in Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. They are being conducted by AQIS and State government agencies.

Between December 1999 and May 2001, AQIS maintained 100 per cent inspection of passengers and cargo arriving in Australia from East Timor. This included: • 592 ADF flights; • 1,300 commercial flights; and • approximately 7,000 military troops

(including 1,500 ADF vehicles and equipment). The greatest quarantine concern is Siam

weed, because an outbreak in Australia could radically alter our vegetation. The seed of Siam weed is very small and could survive the pre-departure wash down of equipment leaving Dili.

AQIS has detected Siam weed, giant African snail, exotic mosquitoes and Asian honey-bee among military equipment and personal effects during pre-departure inspections in East Timor.

AQIS has allocated additional resources to defend Australia against pests from East Timor, including 10 staff out-posted to East Timor and extra staff in Darwin where the bulk of the traffic enters Australia.

Media enquiries: Mr Carson Creagh, AQIS Media Tel: +61 2 6272 5156 or 0414 577 472

COMPUTER CODE FOR CONTAMINATION OF AQUATIC SPECIES

The Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organisation (ANSTO) has developed a new computer software code, (AQUARISK). It is able to collate known facts like water quality measurements and toxicity data and then realistically predict the likelihood of adverse biological impact.

Scientists and companies will now be able to quantify the improvement needed in water quality to prevent any adverse effect on the ecosystem.

In accordance with the Australian and New Zealand Water Quality Guidelines, AQUARISK is a valuable tool for the mining industry, environmental consultants, regulators, universities and other research groups. It offers an ideal means to ensure wastewater, particularly from mine sites, will not pose an environmental risk.

AQUARISK can predict the risk imposed by contamination on individual species of aquatic life. The risks identified are reported in terms that address regulatory criteria. AQUARISK then evaluates the reduction needed to meet agreed environmental engineering targets.

The computer code can also be used to predict the effect of most pollutants in any environment making it an ideal method of ascertaining the impact on freshwater environments of urban development, village expansion in developing countries and landfill sites near water courses.

Sulfide Solutions, an Australian Technology Showcase member and ANSTC business, is currently marketing the software.

For further information contact: Gerard Noon, Australian Technology Showcase, Tel: +61 2 9338 6921 Mobile: 0412 447 562

. Company and Industry News continued on page 45

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 20(11 25

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

Modelling Workshop Report D.G. Ross

1. INTRODUCTION

The Modelling Special Interest Group (ModSIG) held a one-day Workshop on 30 November 2000 following the 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference in Sydney. The morning session Developments in Air Pollution Modelling was organised by ModSIG, while the afternoon session Issues Associated with Regulatory Modelling was organised jointly by ModSIG and the Odour Special Interest Group (OSIG).

The morning session was a specialist meeting comprising presentations and discussion on a range of topics including: • New model developments: TAPM,

CALPUFF/AUSPUFF, and other modelling approaches; roles and relationships.

• The AUSPLUME Upgrade: Results of the ModSIG survey; status of EPA Victoria's AUSPLUME Upgrade project; and recommendations for future upgrades.

The formal presentation comprised: • TAPM - Current status and future

developments (Peter Hurley). • CALPUFF - Recent advances (Jenny Godfrey). • The AUSPLUME Upgrade - Status report

(Dennis Hearn). • NZ Issues and perspectives (Neil Gimson). • The air pollution forecasting system/

plume chemistry options (Martin Cope). • The PRIME building wake algorithm

(Jenny Godfrey). • The Gaussian Plume Model - Strengths

and weaknesses (Peter Manins). A series of short papers based on a

selection of these presentations are included as part of this Workshop Report.

Following the formal presentations, the workshop participants divided into three discussion groups to address a number of issues/questions related to model development, model application, and the role of ModSIG in these and other areas. The issues/questions focused on 'regulatory' models and their application, where it was recognised that a range of modelling approaches are currently available as primarily represented by: • AUSPLUME/ISC3; • AUSPUFF/CALPUFF; and • TAPM.

The issues/questions the discussion groups addressed included:

Model Development

• Identify the current and future roles for each of the three modelling approaches.

• Identify any new developments required for each of the modelling approaches in

order to overcome any current deficiencies and to enhance their future roles.

• Is the current range of modelling approaches adequate?

• What recent research developments are waiting to be incorporated into 'regulatory' models?

Model Application

• Identify any model limitations in the context of output interpretations.

The Role of ModSIG

• Identify any activities you would like to see ModSIG undertake in the future. The morning session concluded with

a plenary session with the discussion group leaders Dr Nigel Holmes, Dr Ken Rayner and Dr Peter Manins presenting their findings to the entire group. Section 2 provides an overview of the outcomes from both the discussion and plenary sessions under the main discussion group headings.

2. DISCUSSION GROUP OUTCOMES

Model Development

Identify the current and future roles for each of the three modelling approaches.

There was general agreement that an important role existed for all three modelling approaches, with the specific choice(s) depending on factors such as: • The spatial scales over which modelling

impact results are required and/or significant impacts are expected;

• The site-specific meteorological processes of importance (e.g. complex geographical influences);

• The dominant source release processes (e.g. building influences and temporal variations in emission characteristics);

• The role and importance of pollutant removal and transformation processes (e.g. wet and dry deposition and/or plume chemistry). It was recognised that the 'easy to use'

Gaussian Plume Models (GPMs), such as AUSPLUME and ISC3, will continue to play a major role in the regulatory arena, however, it was noted that, in practice, the choice of model is not always made on an objective scientific basis. In particular, concern was expressed that the GPMs are frequently applied beyond the bounds of their validity by persons whose knowledge of air pollution

science is limited and who are therefore not adequately equipped to make the best selection of model type and options.

In regard to the AUSPLUME versus ISC3 choice, it was noted that any deficiencies that AUSPLUME (version 4) had in comparison to ISC3 have now been eliminated as a result of the recent upgrade of AUSPLUME to version 5.

TAPM and AUSPUFF/CALPUFF were seen as potentially superior alternatives to GPMs, particularly when spatial and temporal changes in meteorology are important factors. AUSPUFF/CALPUFF was seen as a viable alternative to the GPMs on a 'local scale', particularly given the equivalent range of source types available, the treatment of building influences, and the ability to select a '2D mode' which uses an 'AUSPLUME-type meteorological file', but retains 'plume history'. It was noted that the PRIME building wake algorithm is not implemented in the current versions of AUSPUFF/CALPUFF, although it is planned for implementation in a future version of CALPUFF.

TAPM was generally regarded as superior to AUSPUFF/CALFUFF on a 'regional scale', particularly when the available input wind data are inadequate, especially above the surface, and when plume chemistry is important. The complementary relationship between the three modelling approaches, resulting from the use of TAPM-produced meteorology, was highlighted. Figure 1 illustrates this relationship, whereby TAPM can assist in ensuring 'consistency' of meteorology from the synoptic to the local scale by producing input meteorological data (upper air and surface) for AUSPUFF/CALPUFF, as well as 'single wind vector meteorological files' for use with GPMs.

There was a split between the Australian and New Zealand participants with the New Zealand participants saying that New Zealand was playing 'catch-up' with Australia in the use of models. However, others thought the reverse applied and that some of the more advanced models had been taken up earlier in New Zealand than in Australia. There was general agreement that there was a need for effective training in the use of all models.

Identify new developments required for each of the modelling approaches in order to overcome current deficiencies and enhance their future roles.

General The future for these models was seen to involve minor development, including the incorporation of improved algorithms as they become available and refinements to the input and

26 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

output components of the models that would make them easier to use. Points raised under this discussion included the following: most of the models still need further work done on the GUIs; there needed to be more guidance and more default suggestions as to what are the most appropriate selections to make, in particular for the more complicated models; there is a need for verification of meteorological data and for verification of predictions; there was a need for a forum in which this type of work can be presented and debated.

It was felt that some of this verification work would not be suitable for presentation in the formal parts of conferences but that there is still a need for presenting results of validation studies within the workshop components of these conferences. It was also seen that there was a need for accreditation for models and guidelines as to how models should be used and guidelines that provided a framework in which air quality assessments could be undertaken. A set of guidelines prepared by the WA Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) was distributed at the Workshop. These were considered to be a useful example, although they need to be developed further.

The way in which modelling studies were undertaken and the supervision of consultants doing model assessment was discussed and was contrasted with the way in which this type of work is done in the US where there is close liaison between proponents, consultants and the regulatory agency, in particular, in the choice of meteorological data and the settings that should be used for the model.

Specific The following were identified as desirable new developments or enhancements to specific models or approaches: • Inclusion of a four-dimensional data

assimilation (FDDA) scheme and different source types in TAPM;

• Improved options for diagnostic and/or prognostic meteorological data generation for AUSPUFF/CALPUFF;

• More default guidance for AUSPUFF/AUSMET and CALMET/CALPUFF;

• Standardised procedures for processing Bureau of Meteorology data (surface and upper air);

• An option for TAPM meteorological data to be directly input to AUSPUFF/CALPUFF;

• A PDF scheme for convective dispersion, a shoreline fumigation scheme (as per DISPMOD), plus standardised emissions files for AUSPLUME/ISC3;

• Better post-processing diagnostics (e.g. ratio of pollutants) for all models, including an easier method for examining the wind fields output from AUSMET/CALMET; and

• Inclusion of a line source algorithm suitable for roadway impact assessment in all three models.

Is the current range of modelling approaches adequate?

It was generally agreed that the range of modelling approaches was adequate but that each approach was in need of refinement and improvement as part of the continuous improvement required of any enterprise.

What recent research developments are waiting to he incorporated into regulatory models ?

This topic resulted in a number of suggestions. The first being the need to incorporate the effects that multiple buildings have on dispersion. At present, the building wake effects appear to relate to only the effects of one building on a stack. The need to also incorporate 'peak to mean' information into the model outputs was identified. In particular, methods which deal with peak to means for multiple sources were needed.

Model Application

It was felt that many models could do with improved output, which would make the communication of model results to community groups easier, and that this particularly applied for roadway modelling.

The discussion once again highlighted the need for more formal guidelines on the selection and use of models and raised the issue'of accreditation of modellers.

The rote of ModSIG

The role of ModSIG was discussed. The current workshop, attached to a conference, was seen as useful. There was some question as to what else was undertaken by ModSIG and it was pointed out that a number of training programs such as the training sessions for AUSPLUME and AUSPUFF/CALPUFF were in fact CASANZ training activities group functions. Stronger linkages between ModSIG and the training activities group were seen as important.

The question as to whether ModSIG needed to assemble a meteorological database was raised and the difficulties in actually developing a useful database were also canvassed given that very few people holding meteorological data appeared to be willing to release them and provide them in the public forum. The need for this repository of meteorological data has been greatly reduced by the availability of the feature in the TAPM model which allows meteorological data sets to be generated for any part of the country without reference to local measurement site data.

It was also suggested that ModSIG could play an important role in regard to providing guidance on the selection and use of models. The preparation of a flowchart/decision tree on model selection was suggested, which would include the important questions to be asked in order to determine whether particular models might be validly used in particular situations, and which might link to guideline documents such as that prepared by the WA DEP.

Other specific suggestions for possible ModSIG activities included: • The creation of a web-based user forum

such as the MM5 user group. • The creation of linkages with the State EPAs.

For example, the establishment of ModSIG as the modelling reference for the EPAs.

• Communicate with councils and the community to indicate what can be done via models for land use planning etc.

Dr Graeme Ross is chair of ModSIG and the Managing Director Consulting Air Pollution Modelling and Meteorology (CAMM), PO Box 292 Ashburton, VIC Australia 3147

Chas Air Volume 34 flo.3. August 2SGQ 27

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE-MODELLING WORKSHOP

TAPM: Current Status and Future Developments P. Hurley

CSIRO Atmospheric Research, PMB 1, Aspendale, Vic 3195, Australia

SUMMARY

Air pollution predictions for environmental impact assessments usually use Gaussian plume/puff models driven by observationally -based meteorological inputs. An alternative approach is to use prognostic meteorological and air pollution models, which have many advantages over the Gaussian approach and are now becoming a viable tool for performing year-long simulations.

This paper gives a brief overview of the current status (including recent verification work) and proposed future developments of The Air Pollution Model (TAPM), a newly developed prognostic meteorological and air pollution model.

Key words: air pollution modelling, prognostic models, regulatory models.

1. INTRODUCTION

Air pollution models that can be used to predict pollution concentrations for periods of up to a year are generally semi-empirical approaches based on Gaussian plumes or puffs, and typically use a surface-based meteorological file derived from available observations. These types of models are computationally very fast, but they need meteorological information in the region of application that is generally not available. These approaches also have difficulty in handling complex terrain and coastal regions, and cannot account for chemical reactions that are important for many pollutant species.

The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) (Hurley 1999a,b) is a different approach in that it solves the fundamental fluid dynamics and scalar transport equations to predict meteorology and concentrations for a range of pollutants important for air pollution applications. It consists of coupled prognostic meteorological and air pollution components, eliminating the need to have site-specific meteorological observations. Instead, the model predicts the flows important to local-scale air pollution, such as sea breezes and terrain induced flows, against a background of synoptic-scale meteorological analyses.

Section 2 of this paper briefly describes the current status of TAPM and outlines some of the recent verification work performed with it, Section 3 provides some general guidelines on model use, and Section 4 looks at proposed future developments.

2. CURRENT STATUS

TAPM is driven by a PC-based graphical user interface (GUI) that allows the user to configure and run the model and analyse the model output. The GUI provides access to databases of terrain, land use, sea surface temperature, and synoptic meteorological analyses used to drive the model. The only other input required is pollutant emissions information, which needs to be entered by the user. The model can be run to predict meteorology, or both meteorology and pollution concentration for any region. Output tools provided include visualisation, extraction of time-series and summary statistics, and extraction of meteorological files for regulatory models including DISPMOD, AUSPLUME, ISC, AUSMET/CALMET and AERMOD. No local meteorological data are needed to drive the model.

TAPM version 1.0 was released in November 1999 (see Hurley, 1999a,b). The current version of TAPM is version 1.3.1, which is freely available to users of version 1.0, and includes improvements to version 1.0 made in response to user feedback and further verification work. In particular, improvements were made in the use of synoptic analyses, microphysics and rainfall, urban characterisation, plume rise, and to various aspects of the GUI.

TAPM version 1.4 has recently been completed to allow access to global databases of terrain, land-use and synoptic analyses for the regions shown in Figure 1, and is freely available to users of version 1.3.1 who need to access regions outside of Australasia. A document detailing the changes from TAPM version 1.0 to version 1.4 is also available on the web at http://www.dar.csiro.au/res/aq/TAPM

Several verification studies have been performed by CSIRO scientists. TAPM has been used to model: • and evaluate turbulence closures

(Hurley, 1997); • meteorology in Cape Grim (Hurley, 1999a); • meteorology in Kwinana (Hurley and

Luhar, 2000); • meteorology and air pollution in the greater

Sydney region (e.g. Azzi etal., 1999); • 44 events of transport of pollutants from

Melbourne to Cape Grim (Cox etal., 2000); • year-long meteorology and air pollution

in Kwinana (Hurley etal., 2001, and Hurley, 2000b);

• a winter and a summer month of meteorology (Hurley, 2000a), and summer photochemical pollution in Melbourne (Hurley, 2000b);

• meteorology and air pollution in the Pilbara (e.g. Physickefa/., 2000);

• pollutant dispersion in Mt. Isa and Port Pirie (e.g. Hibberd, 2000);

• the pollution impact of a hybrid car (Manins, 2000);

• wind energy potential around Australia; and • meteorology of high air pollution in

Melbourne; and in various industrial and urban regions for environmental impact assessments.

TAPM has also been used in Launceston and Malaysia to complement specialist air pollution measurements. The model is also increasingly being used, under licence to CSIRO, by regulators, governments, universities and private consultants (currently there are 42 TAPM users, including 33 external users in Australia and overseas).

3. SOME GUIDELINES FOR MODEL USE

TAPM is suitable for horizontal domain sizes below approximately 1000km by 1000km. It should not be used for larger domains because of the neglect in the model of the curvature of the earth, the use of a constant Coriolis force and the assumption of horizontally invariant synoptic-scale pressure, temperature, and sea surface temperature fields. The recommended outer grid domain size is somewhere between 1000km by 1000km and 500km by 500km - large enough to remove the outer grid boundaries, an acceptable distance from the inner regions of the domain, and also large enough to capture upwind terrain influences that may affect the inner regions of the domain.

The model is nestable for both meteorology and pollution, which means that a number of grids can be selected, with outer grid characteristics as described above, and then nesting down to smaller domain sizes with grid spacing ratios of successive grids in the range 2-4. An example of this for meteorology is to use 30 by 30 horizontal grid points with nested grids of 30, 10, 3 and 1 km spaced grids, which have nesting ratios of 3, 3.33 and 3 (i.e. 30/10, 10/3 and 3/1). It is also recommended that when deciding on grids, the edges of each grid should be examined (and perhaps laterally shifted) to avoid steep and variable terrain in the nesting region (the five edge grid points). For pollution, the domain can be a sub-region of the meteorology grids and at the same or higher resolution.

If meteorological numerical instability problems occur with TAPM, they are usually a result of either problems with the terrain near grid boundaries (see above), or a result of high wind speeds, or a result of using some of the non-default advanced/experimental options such as non-hydrostatic mode or rain.

28 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE-MODELLING WORKSHOP

These problems can be usually be overcome by slightly shifting or expanding grids, by using a larger maximum synoptic wind speed (the default is 30 m s-1) that will also decrease the advection timestep, or by switching-off non-hydrostatic or rain options.

The third-party plotting packages optionally used by the GUI are Excel and Surfer. Recently Surfer 7 has been released, but with a non backwards compatible script language. Therefore, the current version of the GUI can only use Surfer 5 or 6, and if a user only has Surfer 7, then plotting should be done manually using the *.grd files rather than automatically through the Surfer option.

Some other limitations in the use of TAPM are that TAPM cannot be used to accurately represent deep atmospheric circulations or extreme weather events. TAPM cannot be used for very steep terrain because of the use of a terrain-following coordinate system in the model, TAPM assumes that cloud processes are resolved by the typical inner grid spacings used in the model (i.e. 3km or less) and that ice and snow processes are not important, and the GRS photochemistry option in the model may not be suitable for examining small perturbations in VOC emissions. See the Limitations Section in the TAPM Technical Paper and the User Manual (Hurley, 1999a,b) for more detail.

4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

The next major release of TAPM will be version 2.0 in early 2002. Planned major enhancements/options to the current version 1.4 include: • User-defined databases; • Near-surface wind data assimilation; • Options for an extra tracer (TR4) and for

fine particulate matter (FPM or PM25); • Building wake effects;

• GUI enhancements, including: - Meteorological profile visualisation; - Peak-to-mean ratios and probabilities; - Extra utilities (e.g. GLC file options); and

• Updated documentation and web tips. Synoptic analyses for all regions for 1999

and 2000 are available (see Figure 1 for regions and years), and will be available on CD for the year 2001 early in 2002. Surface information databases for each region are also provided on CD, as necessary, for each region.

REFERENCES

Azzi, M., Hyde, R., Hurley, P. and Nelson, P. 1999, 'Evaluation of The Air Pollution Model (TAPM): Comparison of meteorological predictions with observations in Sydney', Proceedings of the International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Hamilton, New Zealand, 6-9 December 1999.

Cox, M., Hurley, P., Fraser, P., and Physick, W. 2000, 'Investigation of Melbourne region pollution events using Cape Grim data, a regional transport model (TAPM) and the EPA Victoria carbon monoxide inventory', Clean Air, 33, 35-40.

Hibberd, M. 2000, 'Comparison of peak concentrations predicted by AUSPLUME, AUSPUFF and TAPM', Proceedings of the 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney, Australia, 26-30 November 2000.

Hurley P.J. 1997, 'An evaluation of several turbulence schemes for the prediction of mean and turbulent fields in complex terrain', Boundary-Layer Meteoro!., 83, 43-73.

Hurley, P. 1999a, 'The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) Version 1: Technical description and examples', CSIRO Atmospheric Research

Technical Paper No. 43. Available at http://www.dar.csiro.au/res/aq/TAPM

Hurley, P. 1999b, 'The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) Version 1: User Manual', CSIRO Atmospheric Research Internal Paper No. 12. Available at http://wwwdar.csiro.au/res/aq/TAPM

Hurley, P. 2000a, 'Verification of TAPM meteorological predictions in the Melbourne region for a winter and summer month.' Australian Meteorol. Mag., In Press.

Hurley, P. 2000b, 'The Air Pollution Model (TAPM): Summary of some recent verification work in Australia', Proceedings of the 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney, Australia, 26-30 November 2000.

Hurley, P. and Luhar, A. 2000, The Kwinana Coastal Fumigation Study: III. Meteorological and turbulence modelling on selected days', Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 94,115-138.

Hurley, P., Blockley, A, and Rayner, K. 2001, Verification of a prognostic meteorological •and air pollution model for year-long predictions in the Kwinana industrial region of Western Australia', Atmospheric Environment In Press.

Physick, W., Rayner, K. and Mountford, P. 2000, 'Dispersion Meteorology of the Pilbara Region', Proceedings of the 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney, Australia, 26-30 November 2000.

Manins, P. 2000, 'Environmental impact of the new Australian hybrid cars', Proceedings of the 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney, Australia, 26-30 November 2000.

dean Ah Valame 35 Ho.3. August 2001 29

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

The Gaussian Plume Model - Strengths and Weaknesses P.C. Manins

CSIRO Atmospheric Research, PMB 1, Aspendale, VIC Australia 3195

SUMMARY

Gaussian plume/puff models driven by observationally-based meteorological inputs are fast to run and are perfectly adequate for most tasks where the source and receptor are near and conditions are uncomplicated. However, for conditions of high thermal convection, near-coastal or other complex terrain locations, time-varying conditions, and photochemical smog issues, the approach is inadequate, erroneous, and should not be used. There are better, now practical alternatives and these should be employed.

Key words: Gaussian air pollution modelling, prognostic models, regulatory models.

/. INTRODUCTION

The Gaussian plume model is the workhorse of the air pollution modelling community, for reasons that have just about disappeared. Here I will illustrate the strengths (there are precious few of these!) and weaknesses with some examples.

2. CONVECTIVE CONDITIONS

The paper by Hibberd (2000) illustrates the first point.

Far Field

In the far field downwind from a source, there is no need for model complexity; any model that is supplied with the mixing height of the atmosphere will give good results, including a Gaussian plume model.

The question is, how far is 'far field'? and this depends on the strength of the convective mixing and the mixing height.

Near Field

In the near field, Ausplume substantially underestimates ground-level concentrations because of the way vertical dispersion is calculated. This problem is not usually seen in comparisons with observations because 'near field' is actually so close to the source that there are often no relevant monitoring data.

Puff and prognostic models do well in the near field. Gaussian plume models can be corrected, and the CTDM+ model is an example of a popular approach.

[

3. PROCESS SCIENCE - THE SEA BREEZE

Gaussian plume models are greatly lacking in the science of atmospheric processes other than straight-line dispersion. In particular in Australia, dispersion in the sea breeze is a very common and important industrial air pollution problem that is not dealt with well by standard Gaussian plume models such as ISC or Ausplurne. The specialised sea breeze dispersion model, DISPMOD, from Department of Environmental Protection, Western Australia, shows that it is possible for a Gaussian plume model to deal with the important processes (Rayner & Blockley, 2000).

The paper by Hurley (2000) illustrates this point by including a comparison of results for all hours of 1997 for Kwinana for sulfur dioxide. Results shown in Figure 1 are from observations at eight sites, and predictions from TAPM (using no local meteorology), Ausplurne using observed winds, Ausplurne using winds predicted from TAPM, DISPMOD using observed winds, and DISPMOD using winds predicted from TAPM.

The results show that Ausplurne gives the worst results - the lack of process information on dispersion in the thermal internal boundary layer of the sea breeze is important for correct results at all observation stations. TAPM and DISPMOD do well, with TAPM achieving a slightly better result. Remarkably, DISPMOD also does reasonably well using TAPM's predicted meteorology, demonstrating the value of TAPM's meteorology output to drive the much faster Gaussian models when speed is an issue.

4. STATIONARITYASSUMPTION

A major weakness of Gaussian plume models is the assumption that each hour is independent of the next. Plumes of emissions stretch to infinity during each hour in a straight line, with no recognition of the time it actually takes to reach a given distance nor of the possibility to change direction meanwhile.

The limitation is not important for travel times of less than an hour (the usual time step in Gaussian plume models): that is, out to distances of a few kilometres or so. However, for larger distances a puff model or prognostic model is required.

The point is well illustrated by two pictures on the website of Pacific Air & Environment (see http://www.pae.net.auAA/hyUseTAPM.htm). They show the dramatic difference in footprint from Ausplurne compared with TAPM, though a puff model would likely have given much the same result as TAPM. The difference is a result of the better accounting for temporal variations by the latter models.

5. AIR CHEMISTRY

In an earlier presentation at the ModSIG Workshop, Martin Cope spoke on 'The Australian Air Quality Forecasting System/plume chemistry options'. He well illustrated the points that • the simple conversion of S02 to sulfate

can be handled in a Gaussian plume model by a depletion term;

30 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

Source: Pacific Air & Environment Pty Ltd. • more complex chemistry requires a more

complex approach, beyond the capability of Gaussian plume models. For urban smog modelling, models such

as UAM V, CIT, SAQM, AAQFS and to some extent TAPM, are necessary.

TIME TO OBTAIN A RESULT

Gaussian plume models are fast. This is their abiding strength and is important if, for example, the user is faced with investigating the consequences of 20 variations of emissions and it needs to be done quickly.

For example, the one year runs for the Kwinana modelling discussed above and illustrated in Figure 1 were all done on a 450 MHz PC. The approximate timings were: • Ausplume 3 minutes • DISPMOD 1.0 minutes • TAPM 1 week.

A week is a long t ime to wait for one run. But of course PCs are readily available so there is nothing to stop the user setting up as many runs as they have PCs with TAPM; also, PCs are now much faster than 450MHz and that week can be reduced to about a day and a half with a 1.5GHz Pentium 4 machine.

An issue often forgotten or ignored is the setup time for different models. • Generating input data files for AUSPUFF

and CALPUFF can be a painfully slow process and the need to work with binary files is a drawback.

• Obtaining a file of meteorological data relevant to the region of application can be easy if the region has been studied in the past and there are adequate meteorological data available. However, if it is a region that does not have the information then it can take over a year to obtain relevant measurements and construct the necessary file. Even an application just 10 kilometres from the nearest meteorological measurement site may be too far away for the data to be useful because of, fo r example, dominant terrain or coastal features.

• By contrast, it may take as long as 10 minutes to set up TAPM to run In a new region. (Of course, it would take rather longer to define the pollution sources.)

CONCLUSION

The Gaussian plume model continues to be the major workhorse, reinvigorated by efforts such as the AERMIC (American Meteorological Society/Environmental Protection Agency Regulatory Model Improvement Committee) effort in developing AERMOD (see http://www.epa.gov/scram001/t29.htm #aermod). However it is now the case that there are viable alternatives available that incorporate much better science. AUSPUFF and CALPUFF are two versions of the same Gaussian puff approach and are able to make use of spatially and temporally varying meteorology. The very usable advanced alternative of TAPM is also available and offers now a view of what all models will be within a few years (see http://www.dar.csiro.au/res/aq/TAPM;.

REFERENCES

Hibberd M.F. 2000, Comparison of peak concentrations predicted by Ausplume, Auspuff and TAPM', Proc. 15th Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney 26-30 November Vol.1 p.83-88.

Rayner K. & Blockley A. 2000, 'improvements in the coastal dispersion model DISPMOD', Prcc. 15th Clean Air and Environment Conference, Sydney 26-30 November Vol.1 p.165-171.

Hurley P. 2000, 'The Air Pollution Mode! (TAPM): Summary of some recent vesication work in Australia', Proc. 15th Clean Airland Environment Conference, Sydney 26-30 November Vol.1 p.98-103!

Special Interest Groups (SIGs) are an integral part of the Society. They cater for the particular pollution related interests of members.

If you would like to join an existing special Interest Group contact the chairperson listed.

If you have an interest in some facet of pollution or environmental quality that Is not currently catered for in SIGs and for which you think a SIG would be appropriate and viable, contact the CASANZ Secretary Brian Winch tel & fax: +61 3 9421 0310 Email: btwinch@ozemail.com.au

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS (SIGS)

Indoor Air & Environment Chairperson: Assoc Prof Martin Hooper Monash University Switchback Road, Churchill VIC 3842 Tel: 03 5122 6450 Fax: 035122 6738 Email: martin.hooper@sci.monash.edu.aL

Modelling Chairperson: Dr Graeme Ross Consulting Air Pollution Modelling & Meteorology (CAMMs PO Box 292, Ashburton ViC 3147 Tel: 03 9560 9555 Fax: 03 9560 5554 Email: graeme.rossfflcamm.net.a'J

Odour Chairperson: Mr Robin Orrrerod Pacific Air & Environment Pty Ltd PO Box 3306, South Brisbane Q'd 4101 Tel: 07 3004 6400 Fax: 07 3844 5358 Email: robin.ormerod®oae.net.au

Policy and Legislation Chairperson: Dr Prd Morgan Environment Protection Authority of NSW FQ Box 29. Lidccmoe NSW 1825 Tel: 02 9995 5020 Fax: 02 9549 S763 Email: mcrganpeep3.risw.gov.au

Chairperson: Dr Tom Beer CSIRO Environmental Risk Network Private Bag :, Aspendale ViC 3195 Tei: 03 9239 4546 Fax: 03 9239 4444 Email: tom.beer@dar.csiro.au

C/sas Air Vsiume 35 ife.3. August 2801 31

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd, Wellington, New Zealand

SUMMARY

Some applications of air pollution models to New Zealand cases are discussed. The models used range from simple Gaussian plume models to prognostic rr.esoscale meteorological models and urban photochemistry models. Regulatory applications predominantly use plume models, but the use of time-dependent puff models is slowly becoming more popular. For scientific applications (for example, to urban air quality or emergency response), various models are used, depending on the type of pollutants, the space and time-scales of interest and the availability of emissions, and ambient air quality data. The major hurdle to be overcome in most applications - for New Zealand as elsewhere - is the scarcity of local meteorological data in many regions of interest. This has serious consequences for case study validation.

Key words: AUSPLUME, CALMET, CALPUFF, RAMS, HYPACT, TAPIvl, urban airshed modelling, regulatory applications, emergency response.

1. INTRODUCTION

Air pollution nnodelitrsg is carried out in New Zealand ;'NZ) in response to national regulatory requirements ithe Resource Management Act i'RMA'; o~ 1991), to tne environmental policies of Regional Councils ana government m.nistrles (.environment and transport}, and by public perception of air quality problems. Air pollution models have seen in regular use in NZ since the advent of the RMA, and for most industrial ano commercial applications, simple Gaussian: plume models were considered sufficient. As air quality problems have become more noticeable in urban areas, with higher levels of pollutants being cbserved, models of increasing sophistication are being employed, and it has become necessary to elucidate the detailed chemical and physical processes impotant to air quality in NZ cities.

In Christchurch for example, high levels of particles during winter have been

experienced for decades 'see Wilton and Ayrey 2000. However., data have been insufficient

until recently -with the development of an emissionsinventory- to run and validate

regional scale air pollution dispersion models.

This article is divided into a number of themes important to air pollution modelling in general, but which have specific relevance to NZ Section 2 discusses issues relating to

North Isiand using both CALPUFF and AUSPLUME. The maximum concentration - which would be reported as part of the resource consent process - is similar in both model runs. However, that given by AUSPLUME occurs far from the source, under light winds. The plume would not have reached this location in one hour. The CALPUFF maximum is near the source, under similar conditions (but on a different occasion), and is thus more realistic. For moderate, less variable winds, and flatter terrain, the two models give similar results.

For resource consents under the RMA, models such as AUSPLUME or ISC are in much more common usage than AUSPUFF or CALPUFF. it is true to say that due to the time-dependent nature of the puff models and their treatment of terrain they are at least as realistic as plume models. However, puff models are more difficult to use, require more meteorological data to get improved results, and they become more open to question by industry, consultants and lawyers.

3. METEOROLOGICAL DATA AND MODELLING

Simulations of air pollution dispersion require meteorological data or meteorological model results. High quality meteorological inputs are arguably tne most Important component of a dispersion simulation, and data from ciimate stations in NZ are available from the national climate database (CLIDB, see Penney 1999.) for stations shown in Figure 2.

32 Ztszn Air VB!BSW 35 Na3. August 2BS1

Developments in Air Pollution Modelling - New Zealand Issues and Perspectives N.R. Gimson

the use of plume and puff models; section 3 describes the availability of meteorological data for input to dispersion models, section 4 discusses recent urban airshed modelling endeavours, section 5 outlines emergency response modelling and section 6 indicates potential future directions for pollution modelling in NZ.

2. REGULATORY APPLICATIONS - PLUME AND PUFF MODELS

For regulatory applications, Gaussian plume models such as AUSPLUME (Lorimer 1990) and ISC3 are widely employed. They are relatively easy to use, require very little input data, have become popular with environmental consultants and their results are used in court for resource consent hearings. However, they are not always appropriate to NZ cases, as the terrain of NZ is often too complex for plume modei results to be realistic. Early methods of accounting for complex terrain in plumes are incorporated into CTDMPLUS, but in any case the time-dependence of pollutant dispersal is not well simulated by a plume model under conditions of light and variable winds. Somewhat more sophisticated are puff modeis such as CALPUFF (Scire etal. 1999), which simulate time-dependent pollution transport through a diagnosed three-dimensional wind-field that accounts for terrain features. Figure 1 illustrates this by comparing modelled sulfur dioxide concentrations from a fertiliser factory In NZ's

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

Although the coverage of surface stations appears adequate, many areas do not have representative meteorological data nearby. This is due to the complexity of the terrain. Thermally and orographically-driven flows are further complicated by land/sea breeze flows as most regions of interest are near the coast. Conditions change within a few kilometres, and this requires care when assimilating local meteorological data. There are only three locations where 12-hourly vertical soundings of wind, temperature and humidity are made. None of these are near Christchurch, where air pollution studies are currently under way.

The amount of meteorological data available affects modelling endeavours on all scales. Regulatory modelling of industrial source complexes would ideally use on-site meteorological data, but this is rare and 'screening' exercises, or the use of meteorological data from distant sites, have to suffice. At larger scales, puff models have the potential to simulate orographically forced flows, but will only realistically do this if surface data are available at many locations on slopes and in valleys. Also, they need vertical profiles from at least one location. Prognostic mesoscale models such as RAMS (Pielke etal. 1992) orTAPM (Hurley 1999) require no local data to run. They are driven by large-scale forecast analyses and solve numerically the equations of atmospheric dynamics to determine conditions locally. However, local data should be available for model validation.

RAMS is probably the most commonly used prognostic meteorological model in NZ for short-term case studies. However, it is highly demanding of computational resources. Careful formulation of the model dynamics can increase the run speed, enabling longer runs to be contemplated for regulatory applications. This has been achieved with TAPM, although this model has not been used in NZ. Of the types of meteorological models and pre-processors mentioned in this section, the prognostic mesoscale models contain the most realistic dynamical and physical formulations, and should therefore produce the most realistic meteorological simulations for regions where data are sparse.

4. URBAN AIRSHED MODELLING

Auckland

In Auckland, levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,) are comparable with other western cities, such as London. To investigate the chemical reactions between these and other air pollutants, It is appropriate to apply a photochemical urban airshed mode; to the Auckland region. This is being carried out using the CALGRID photochemical grid model (see Gimson (2000a; 2000b) and Yamartino ef al. (1992))

The meteorology of the region is simulated by CALMET, and there are fortunately a reasonable number of climate stations around Auckland, including soundings from Whenuapai Auckland is the only city in NZ for whose emissions inventory includes the speciations of volatile organic compounds (VOC) (ARC 1998), and hense is the only place where a photochemical model may be effectively applied. Simulations of present-day levels of ozone and its precursors show promising resuits, and indicate potential locations of future air quality monitoring sites

Air quality problems in Christchurch are dominated by particulates from domestic fires under calm inversion conditions during winter. A good dispersion model simulation requires an accurate representation of the nocturnal boundary layer. Prognostic models

have so far had little success in this, due to

the high vertical resolution needed near the

surface, and, as pointed out in section 3,

regular vertical soundings are not available

in Christchurch. However, some tethered

balloon soundings are available from intensive

observational periods in winter 1995 ( van den

Assem 1997 ). Coupled with a suburb-by-suburb

emissions invertory ( CRC 1998), simulations

of tne dispersion of particulates ( PM10 ) have

been successfully carried out using CALMET

and CALPUFF (Barna and Gimson 2000 )

Simulations of PM10 Ievels for winter 1995

have been carried out, with good agreement

betwwen model results and observationa

-a t present various control scenarios are being

modelled, Figure 3 shows model output in

which the typical structure of the overnight

PM10 plume is visible in the central city.

I

Christchurch

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

in concentration within a few tens of metres from the roadside. Plume models which are adapted to deal with vehicle-generated turbulence and traffic signal phasing, are . more applicable, and simulations of CO dispersion from traffic have been carried out using CAL3QHC (Fisher etal. 1997). However, plume models should not be used for chemically active pollutants.

In NZ a state of readiness exists for the prediction of dispersion of pollutants resulting from emergencies such as foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks and volcanic eruptions. The RAMS model runs at 20km resolution in forecast mode over NZ. Coupled to this, the HYPACT particle dispersion model is used to simulate the dispersion of airborne microbes and volcanic ash (Turner 2001). Recent nowcasting work with CALMET during America's Cup 2000 (Turner etal. 2000) has resulted in an enhanced state of readiness, whereby CALMET and CALPUFF will provide high-resolution dispersion simulations In a forecast mode, using the RAMS wind fields as the 'first guess' in the CALMET wind-field calculations.

6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Regulatory applications of air quality models predominantly use steady-state plume models. In many cases, time-dependent puff models should give more realistic results. These generally require more meteorological data, which are difficult to obtain in many NZ locations. Nevertheless, a growing interest in the CALMET/CALPUFF modelling system in MZ Is leading to a gradual change to the use of the more physically realistic models for resource consents.

Whilst there are a number of parameters and options that need to be chosen when -unning, say, AU5PLUME, that number is far greater for CALMET/CALPUFF. Also, the user must possess a greater knowledge of Boundary-layer meteo'oiogy and pollution dispersion to be able to set up the model and understand the resuits obtained. If the applications and the poiicy decisions resulting from them are to be scientifically based and 'ealistic, this is a desirable situation.

The above comments on choice of model also apply to u:-ban air quality modelling. Additionally, this choice is influenced by the spatial and temporal scales of Interest. 7b resolve horizontal features at scales less than, say, 1km, the computatlonal cost of a prognostic mesoscale model is prohibitive, anc w::l remain so for some years. Hence it is common to combine the prognostlc/diagnostic approach by running the prognostic mode! as coarser resolution and allowing the diagnostic mode; to reso:ve terrain effects at high resolution ;Roce and Scire 1998). This Is being addressed with models of both the Auckland and Ch-istchurch airsheds, and in current emergency response work in NZ.

Models are at present being used as tools Tc aid tne -nde-standing of urban air quality processes. Applications to emissions reduction scenarios, visibility, exposure and human health

are in progress, where air quality scientists are working closely with health professionals, regional councils and government ministries. It is recognised that a further level of model sophistication will be needed: a description of the particle size distribution, the formation of 'secondary' particulates and interactions between particles and gases will be necessary to predict light extinction and visibility. Models of these processes are still undergoing development, but will eventually be employed in New Zealand. They are complex, but they simulate the consequences of poor air quality that are most immediately amenable to human perception - namely visibility degradation, odour, and public health effects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This article has benefited from discussions with Gavin Fisher, Mike Barna, Jeff Bluett, Clive Heydenrych and Richard Turner. Figure 1 was supplied by Tom Clarkson.

REFERENCES

ARC, 1998. Auckland Air Emissions Inventory - Final Report. Technical Publication No. 91, Auckland Regional Council, Auckland.

Barna, M. and Gimson, N., 2000. Application of the RAMS/CALMET/CALPUFF Airshed Model in Christchurch, New Zealand, 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference. Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand Inc., Sydney, Australia, pp. 10-14.

CRC, 1998. Christchurch Inventory of Total Emissions. Report R98/20, Canterbury Regional Council, Christchurch, ISBN 1-86937-353-7.

Fisher, G., Gimson, N., Kuschel, G. and Petersen, J., 1997. Transport Emissions Study. Report No. AK97066, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., Auckland.

Gimson, N.R., 2000a. 'Model Simulation of the Air Quality of Auckland', Clean Air and Environment, 34:37-42.

Gimson, N.R., 2000b. Urban Airshed Modelling In Auckland: Recent Developments, 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference. Clean. Air Society of Australia and New Zealand Inc., Sydney Australia, pp. 68-72.

Hurley, P., 1999. The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) Version 1: Technical Description and Examples. CSIRO Atmospheric Research Technical Paper No. 43, CSIRO, Melbourne.

Lorimer, G., 1990. The Ausplume Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model. Publication No. 264, Victoria Environmental Protection Agency, Melbourne, Australia.

Penney, A.C, 1999. Climate Database (CLIDB) User's Manual. NIWA Technical Report 59.

Pielke, R.A., Cotton, W.R., Waiko, R.L, Tremback, C.J., Lyons, W.A., Grasso, L.D., Nichoils, M.E., Moran, M.D., Wesley, D.A., Lee, T.J. and Copeland, J.H., 1992. 'A Comprehensive Meteorological Modelling System - RAMS', Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 49:69-91.

Robe, F.R. and Scire, J.S., 1998. Combining Mesoscale Prognostic and Diagnostic Wind Models: a Practical Approach for Air Quality Applications in Complex Terrain, 10th Joint Conference on the Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology with the A&WMA. American Meteorological Society, Phoenix, Arizona, pp. pp223-226.

Scire, J.S., Strimaitis, D.G. and Yamartino, R.J., 1999. A User's Guide for the CALPUFF Dispersion Model (Version 5.0), Earth Tech, Inc., Boston.

Turner, R., 2001. 'Factors Influencing Volcanic Ash Dispersal from the 1995 and 1996 Eruptions of Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand', J. Appl. Meteor., 40:56-69.

Turner, R., Clarkson, T., Copeland, J., Gimson, N.R. and Edsall, C, 2000. High Resolution Real-time Half Hourly Wind Analyses for the Hauraki Gulf, Fresh Perspectives, Christchurch, New Zealand, pp. 34.

van den Assem, S., 1997. Dispersion of Air Pollution in the Christchurch Area. Ph. D. thesis in Environmental Science, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 175 pp.

Wilton, E. and Ayrey, R., 2000. Air Quality Management in Christchurch, 15th International Clean Air and Environment Conference. Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand Inc., Sydney, Australia, pp. 398-403.

Yamartino, R.J., Scire, J.S., Carmichael, G.R. and Chang, Y.S., 1992. The CALGRID Mesoscale Photochemical Grid Model - 1 . Model Formulation', Atmos. Environ., 26A:1493-1512.

WHAT TO DO TODAY?

• Why not log onto the website:

www.casanz.org.au and check out the latest information?

• If you have any comments on this column, the web or any other area of the Society please contact Brian Winch or any other office bearer; we appreciate your feedback.

DO WE HA VE YOUR EMAIL ADDRESS? HAS IT CHANGED RECENTLY?

Please ensure that the Society is aware of your current email address.

If you haven't received an email message from us recently, and you have a new or changed email address, please send details of your email address to the Secretariat at:

casanz@ozemail.com.au

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE-MODELLING WORKSHOP

CALPUFF - Overview and Future Enhancements J.J. Godfrey

EARTH TECH Inc., C/O 47 Waipapa Road, Hataitai, Wellington, New Zealand

SUMMARY

An overview of the CALPUFF modelling system is followed by a discussion of the major features. The recent and future developments of the model are also detailed.

Key words: Gaussian puff modelling, CALPUFF modelling system.

1. OVERVIEW OF THE CALPUFF MODELLING SYSTEM

CALPUFF is an integrated modelling system consisting of:

Diagnostic meteorological model (CALMET) Non-steady-state puff model (CALPUFF) Postprocessors (CALPOST, PRTMET, POSTUTIL, CALSUM, APPEND) Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) Terrain, land use and meteorological processors.

CALPUFF is suitable for: Fenceline impacts (-metres) to long-range transport (hundreds of km) Averaging times from one hour to one year Wet and dry deposition calculations Simple chemical transformation (SOx, NOx, SOA) Plume extinction/visibility effects Complex terrain Coastal areas, overwater transport Calm, stagnation, recirculation, reversing flows Point, area, line and volume sources Cumulative impact assessments.

Why would you want to use a puff model?

Non-steady-state conditions • Causality effects • Curved, recirculating, stagnating flows. Spatial variability in meteorological fields • Coastal effects, terrain-induced flow effects • Non-homogeneous land use and surface

characteristics • Cumulative impact analyses • Many sources within a spatially-varying

flow field. Calm/light wind speed conditions • Multiple hours of emissions contributing • Pollutant build-up and fumigation.

2. MAJOR FEATURES

Source types (buoyant or non-buoyant) • Point, area, volume or line sources

• Constant, cyclical or arbitrarily-varying emissions and source parameters.

Dispersion • Direct turbulent measurements • Similarity theory (turbulence-based

dispersion) • PDF for convective conditions • Pasquill-Gifford (rural), McElroy-Pooler

(urban) • Time-averaging and roughness

adjustments to PG curves. Dry Deposition • Resistance model for gases and

particulate matter • Predicts pollutant removal

and deposition fluxes. Wet Deposition • Scavenging coefficient approach • Function of precipitation type

and intensity • Predicts pollutant removal

and deposition fluxes. Chemistry • S02 to S04, NOx to HNO/NO,, SOA • Aqueous phase chemistry (SO, to SO.)

(currently being developed). Building downwash

Huber-Snyder, Schulman-Scire downwash PRIME (currently being developed).

Subgrid-scale complex terrain module Dividing streamline formulation (CTDM-like) Lift and wrap components.

Overwater/Coastal Interaction Overwater PBL parameters Plume fumigation Subgrid scale coastal module (TIBL, coastline definition).

Wind Shear Effects Puff splitting Horizontal and vertical splitting Differential advection and dispersion.

Plume Rise Buoyant and momentum rise (pt, area, line, vol) Partial penetration into elevated inversions Stack tip effects Building downwash effects Vertical wind shear effects Rain hat effects.

Visibility Light extinction coefficients New FLAG screening methodology (Method 6)

• Deciviews and percent change in extinction

• Sulfate, nitrate, coarse and fine ?M, SOA, EC.

Interfaces to External Programs/Models • MM 5 - prognostic meteorological model • EPM - emissions production mode:

• TAPM - CSIRO prognostic meteorological model.

Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).

3. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Fogging and Icing (Cooling towers) • Visible plume lengths • Frequency of plume-induced fogging

and icing • Emissions processor (wet and hybrid

(abated) cooling towers) • Postprocessors - plume mode • Post processors - receptor mode.

Horizontal puff splitting - Puffs are now able to split in the horizontal direction as well as the vertical, this is important at far downwind distances when puffs become very large.

Boundary condition module-An important module for estimating the effect of incoming pollutants into a modelling domain.

Mass/Flux tracking options - This module allows the user to very quickly see how much of the original plume emitted is advected out due to wet and dry depletion and how much is chemically transformed with time.

Flagpole receptors - this module allows the user to estimate ground level concentrations above the ground.

Rain, hat option on stacks - Rain hats affect the plume's initial rise not the buoyancy. The model compensates for these effects.

Visibility - Flag methodology implemented Chemistry - secondary organic aerosols Chemistry - aqueous phase chemistry-Chemistry - non-linear repartitionlng of NO3

Processors • Appending files (APPENDS » Summing fiies (CALSUM) • Scaling files (CALSUM, POSTUTIL! • Repartlticnlng of HNO3/NO3(POSTUTIL)

- Source ccntrloutlon analysis - Nan linear chemists effects <,NIG,! - Commutator: o* total S and N deposition

- Wet plus dry deposition - S from SO2 S04

- N from ^Cv, HMC3 NH4NO3 (NH2)SO4

4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

GUI for Pre and Post Processors A new GUI will Incorporate both the pre

ano post processors In a similar lookailke GUI to tne CALPUFF GUI. This will alleviate the need to run separate programs often with

repetitive detail in MS DOS windows. PRIME in CALPUFF

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

Aqueous phase chemistry Aqueous phase chemistry will also be released in an upcoming version of CALPUFF. MOD 6 Currently there is a version of CALPUFF that allows a less than 1 -hour time step. Version 6 of CALPUFF allows the emission time step and the basic sampling step to be any value (e.g. one second, one minute, 10 minutes, etc.). However, these time step changes have not been Implemented into CALMET as yet. MOD6 is not publically available. MM5 only MM5 is a three dimensional prognostic meteorological model. MM5 is fully non-hydrostatic, can handle complex terrain, and has sophisticated 4-dimensional data assimilation, which keeps the model on track relative to observations. MM5 is free, the code is free for examination and has been extensively peer reviewed by the scientific community.

There wiil soon be an option where you can use MM5 data as observations, which means that no surface observations or upper air data is needed. There is currently the option to interface TAPM with CALMET directly.

There are several reasons why the hybrid approach of a prognostic model with the diagnostic model is important. The link of CALMET to MM5/TAPM couples the strengths of the prognostic model for mesoscale and synoptic scale features with the ability of the diagnostic model to reproduce ultra-fine scale effects down to a couple of hundred metre

EPA 27 Francis St. Melbourne Vic. 3001

SUMMARY

Ausplume is a Gaussian plume dispersion model designed for regulatory use. Since the release of Ausplume version 4 in 1997, there have been significant mode! improvements in estimating the impact of building wakes, particle deposition and dispersion from area sources. These new algorithms were recognised as providing more realistic estimates of ground level concentrations than the algorithms in the current version of Ausplume. Ausplume Version 5 now contains the PRIME building wake algorithms and the deposition and area source algorithms used in the current US EPA ISC3 model. As well as changes to these underlying algorithms, Ausplume version 5 also incorporates a range of improvements, such as the ability to enter variable emission rates and background concentrations from external files and the integration of statistical programs and the BPIP utility Ausplume's graphical user interface.

Key words: Ausplume Gaussian plume air dispersion model.

resolution. It is not practical to run TAPM/MM5 down to small scale resolutions due to exorbitant computational times. The prognostic models do not have a history of reliability or accuracy at fine scale resolutions ~<1 km, a scale which does not suit most dispersion modelling applications.

A second big advantage of the MM5ATAPM-CALMET hybrid over either MM5 or TAPM alone is the ability to incorporate observational data in the wind fields in a strong manner in CALMET. TAPM currently has no data assimilation and MM5 assimilates data on its coarse grid, but not on a fine grid.

CALMET provides a mechanism for incorporating fine-scale observational data into the simulation. This is a big advantage for dispersion modelling purposes. Multiple Nests This option will allow multiple nests within one run of the model. Sea breeze module A full sea breeze module will determine both the onshore flow and return offshore flow aloft without the need for any overwater station. So wen Ratio An important parameter that determines the water vapour content in the sensible heat flux equations. Currently the Bowen Ratio is fixed in time. A full soil moisture module will allow temporal variability of this parameter. Radiation MM5 radiation data will be used instead of cloud observations and there will also be

7. INTRODUCTION

In response to feedback from Ausplume users and regulatory authorities both within Australia and overseas, the Victorian EPA initiated a survey of the needs of Ausplume modelling groups. At the same time, the CASANZ Modelling Special Interest Group (ModSIG) also sent a questionnaire to their members asking for suggestions on how this model might be improved. As a result of these surveys, a number of enhancements were identified that were considered to be either important to the users or reflected recent advances in modelling science and thus needed to be incorporated into the regulatory model. The combined surveys were used to rank the importance to the users of each of the suggested changes to Ausplume.

A ModSIG subcommittee with the EPA representation compiled the final list of enhancements to the model. Ausplume Version 5 now contains the PRIME building wake algorithms and the deposition and area source algorithms used in the current US EPA ISC3 model. As well as changes to these underlying algorithms, Ausplume version 5

an option to use radiation observations in place of cloud observations.

5. US EPA RECOMMENDATIONS

CALPUFF has been proposed by the US EPA as an Appendix A guideline model with: • applications to long range transport cases • include chemical transformation

and removal; • visibility analyses (plume extinction); • deposition of sulfur and nitrogen; and • screening technique and refined

modelling. CALPUFF has been proposed as the

guideline model by the US EPA on a case by case basis for complex flow and dispersion situations for all source-receptor distances in situations of: • complex winds; or • in cases when the steady-state

assumptions break down, such as: - calm wind conditions; - stagnation, recirculation, flow reversals; - complex terrain applications; - coastal applications; and - spatial inhomogenities in flow and

turbulence conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Part of these notes were written from slides generated by J. S. Scire for the US EPA 7th Modelling Conference (June 2000).

also incorporates a range of improvements, such as the ability to enter hourly variable emission rates and background concentrations from external files, and the integration of statistical programs and the BPIP model within Ausplume's graphical user interface. The computational model has been converted to use dynamic memory allocation and now runs seamlessly from within the graphical user interface, rather than as a separate program.

The modifications were carried out by Consulting Air pollution Modelling and Meteorology (CAMM) with the documentation and electronic help produced by the EPA. CAMM were the original developers of the Ausplume model whilst associated with Monash University. The model was delivered as a beta test version in August 2000, and after undergoing extensive testing was approved by the EPA in December 2000 for regulatory use within Victoria.

2. BUILDING DOWNWASH

Ausplume version 4 calculated the effects of buildings and other structures on elevated plumes using the Schulman-Scire

Austplume Version 5 Release D. Hearn

36 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE - MODELLING WORKSHOP

methodology. While this method is still available within version 5 as an option, building wake effects are now estimated using the PRIME algorithm. The PRIME building wake algorithms are also likely to replace those currently employed by the US ISC3 regulatory model which currently uses a hybrid scheme (a combination of the Schulman-Scire and the older Huber-Snyder methods).

The PRIME algorithms estimate the influence of nearby buildings on the concentrations predicted in the building cavity wake and further downwind. Since building dimensions need to be calculated using a modified version of the US building input profile program (BPIP), this utility has been integrated within Ausplume.

Building cavity concentrations

Emissions from low stacks may be entrained within the recirculating cavity wake of nearby buildings. Previous versions of Ausplume assumed that the emissions from the stack were either totally entrained within the wake or failed to be entrained at all. If the plume was entrained within the wake, Ausplume calculated a simple dilution based on the building dimensions and wind speed and then allowed the concentrations to linearly drop off to the concentrations predicted to occur at the downwind edge of the cavity wake region.

Ausplume now assumes that the cavity wake region is bounded above by the separation streamline originating at the upwind edge of the roof, and bounded downwind of the building by the reattachment streamline. The region is bounded laterally by streamlines from the corners of the building.

The PRIME algorithm first estimates the fraction of material which is entrained in the cavity wake region. This fraction is then used to estimate concentrations within the cavity.

Building downwash effects

Buildings generate additional turbulence in their downwind wake. Elevated plumes emitted into this turbulent region may experience increased plume growth and dispersion as they move downwind. Both the Schulman-Scire and PRIME algorithms attempt to estimate this additional dispersion.

However, as well as influencing the rate of plume growth, a building may also result in streamlines which rise upwind of the building and fall downwind. The PRIME algorithm estimates the reduction in plume centreline height for those plumes which may be emitted into a descending streamline behind the building.

If the plume centreline is low enough for some material to be trapped within the building cavity region, Ausplume will model this proportion of the stack emissions as two distinct sources. Beyond the cavity region, PRIME treats the fraction of material which is entrained in the cavity wake as though it were released from a volume source at the building location. The remainder of the material is modelled as if emitted from a normal point source.

3. AREA SOURCES

Ausplume uses area sources to model irregularly shaped diffuse ennissions such as odours from anaerobic lagoons, emissions from contaminated sites, wind blown dust from mining sites etc. Previous versions of Ausplume modelled area sources as a rotating line source. While numerically fast, this method was inaccurate close to the source. Irregular shapes were modelled only by using an appropriate selection of square sources.

In Ausplume version 5, you may now choose to use either the old methodology or the algorithms found in the US ISC3 model. This choice involves a trade off between computational speed and an accurate representation of the impact close to the source. While the previous method only represented area sources as squares, the newer option allows you to model sources as rectangles, circles or polygons. Both algorithms converge to similar estimates of concentration as receptor distances increase. The new option also allows an initial vertical spread for an area source.

Emission rates for area sources are now entered as an emission flux, i.e. as an emission rate per unit area. Ausplume then uses the surface area of the source to calculate the total

emission. This is different to point and volume sources where the emission rate is entered as the total emission rate for that source.

4. PARTICLE DEPOSITION

In Ausplume version 4, particle deposition was estimated by allowing the plume to tilt towards the ground. A crude estimate was then made of the mass fraction which was either deposited or re-entrained in the plume. No estimate was made of the plume depletion due to loss of material to the ground and the estimates became progressively more inaccurate after the plume centre line height had reached ground level.

Version 5 employs the deposition algorithm used in the US EPA model ISC3. This algorithm also tilts the plume downwards at an angle which depends on the particle settling velocities but now uses a better method for estimating deposition at the ground (dry deposition). If precipitation data is available in the meteorological data file, rain out of particles from the plume may also be estimated (wet deposition). Plume depletion due to loss of material due to either deposition process can also be estimated. However, selecting this option, requires the mass balance to be estimated by integrating the material along the path of the plume. This computational overhead will slow the simulation considerably. If the deposition rate is low, then ignoring plume depletion will reduce run times but both the concentrations and the deposition rates will be overestimated slightly.

5. UTILITY PROGRAMS

Building Profile Input Program (BPIP)

This utility program is based on the US Building Profile Input Program (BPIP) and, for each stack location, estimates the projected building height and width for 36 wind directions calculated at 10 degree intervals. This version of BPIP also estimates the additional parameters required by the PRIME building downwash algorithm.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 37

15TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE-MODELLING WORKSHOP

Building coordinate data is entered directly into Ausplume's graphical user interface. Running the BPIP utility will automatically enter this information into Ausplume's stack building wake fields. Building information (corner locations and tier heights) once entered using the BPIP interface may be permanently stored in Ausplume's configuration files. Buildings and stack locations are displayed graphically providing a convenient visual check that coordinates have been entered correctly.

File conversion utilities

Ausplume has a number of file conversion utilities. These utilities allow you to convert: • Auspiume binary files to ASCII text files.

By firs: converting Ausplume's binary file to a text file, pest processing of the data car. be carried cut by other spreadsheet programs such as Excel or Lotus.

• Auspiume terrain files to XYZ files. Converting Auspiume terrain information files into an XYZ format allows these files to be viewed with graphics software such as Surfer or Excel. Surfer can also be used to generate another XYZ file with a new starting location and grid

spacing over this region. This file then forms the basis of a new terrain file.

• Surfer ASCII grid files to Auspiume terrain files. The Surfer software can be used to grid raw spot height data obtained from a survey department such as Auslig. This utility may then be used to convert the gridded XYZ data into the Auspiume terrain file format.

Statistics utility

This utility program uses the hourly information stored in an Auspiume binary file to estimate concentrations at each receptor location for percentile values ranging from the maximum to the 95th percentile value. The statistics file can then be used to plot contours of the 99.5 percentile concentration, for example. Statistical information can be generated for running average periods between one and 24 hours.

6. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

The EPA is committed to supporting the continued development of regulatory models. While most of the enhancements suggested

by the EPA and ModSIG surveys are available in version 5, there were a number which were unfortunately unable to be included in this version due to either time or funding constraints.

For example, one suggested modification was the addition of an algorithm to better estimate plume rise under the strongly convective situations which frequently occur in the northern parts of Australia.

The EPA is also looking at the possibility of integrating a near road model, similar to the US Caline4 model, within the Auspiume framework. Hopefully, these and other improvements will appear in the next release of Auspiume.

REFERENCES

EPA publication, November 2000 Auspiume Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model. Technical User manual. EPA Victoria.

US EPA 1995, Users guide for the Industrial Source Complex (ISC3) Dispersion Models Volume 2 Description of model algorithms EPA-454/B-95-003b.

2ND NATIONAL RECYCLED ORGANICS CONFERENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EXPOSE

25-27th September2001.

The University of Queensland Gatton. Hosted by the Recycled Organics Consortium.

• Open Space format • Opportunity for all stakeholders

(producers, processors, users, researchers, consultants and regulators) to identify issues and determine future directions in the industry

• Opportunities to network with ail stakeholders

Major trade expose frcrn equipment suppliers, processing contractors, industry organisations, regulatory bodies, product developers and researchers.

For further details contact: Recycled Organics Consortium Tel: +61 7 54601 164 Fax: +61 7 54601 517 Email: roc@recycledorganics.com.au and watch www.recycledorganics.com.au for new conference details.

THIRD INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON NON-C02 GREENHOUSE GASES (NCGG-3) SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, CONTROL OPTIONS AND POLICY ASPECTS

21-23 January 2002

Maastricht, The Netherlands

First Announcement and Call for Papers

For details contact: Symposium Bureau P.O. Box 2195 NL-5202 CD DEN BOSCH The Netherlands Tel: +31 73 621 5985 Fax: +31 73 621 6985 Emaii: wm@wxs.nl

ENVIRO 2002 CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION

A unique approach to a unique environment

7-12April2002

Melbourne Australia

One international and four Australian environmental associations will combine to stage conferences on water, waste, odour and the business of the environment.

Enquiries: Secretariat Quitz Event Management PC Box 532,Wi!loughby NSW 2068 Australia Email: quitz@bigpond.net.au Tel: +612 94101302 Fax: +61 2 9410 0036

16TH INTERNATIONAL CLEAN AIR AND ENVIRONMENT CONFERENCE

18-22 August 2002

Christchurch, New Zealand The New Zealand Branch of the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand is very pleased to announce that the 16th Clean Air and Environment Conference will be hosted in Christchurch, New Zealand on 18-22 August, 2002.

Christchurch labels itself as 'fresh each day'. However during winter, Christchurch has a serious particulate pollution problem and the question arises: Does Christchurch really deserve its label? The local Environmental Agency is actively addressing Christchurch's poor air quality. So what better location to ponder the many issues associated with air quality management.

An interesting and challenging conference program will be balanced with fine wining and dining, spectacular scenic and nature tours, outdoor adventure opportunities and cultural experiences.

Forthcoming brochures will call for abstracts, offer special airfare and accommodation deals, invite registration and detail the conference program.

Enquiries: CASANZ Conference, PO Box 1370, Christchurch, New Zealand Tel: +64 3 379 0390 Fax: +64 3 379 0460 Email: kim@conference.co.nz

38 Clean Ah Vslume 35 Na.3. August 21101

AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

Air Pollution and Allergens in Two South East Queensland Schools C. Wardrope, S. Rutherford, R.W. Simpson

ABSTRACT

The school environment is important for determining a child's exposure to air pollutants and allergens as a large proportion of their time is spent there. This study provides descriptive data on children's exposure to air pollutants (particles and ozone) and allergens (fungi, dust mite and cockroach allergen) based on a small pilot study of two primary schools in South East Queensland.

Monitoring revealed that the levels of both dust mite and cockroach allergen were low for both schools. There was no seasonal difference between the fungi levels, though temporal variations were found. The particle concentrations varied both temporally and spatially within and between the schools. Spatial variations for ozone were assessed and no significant difference was found between the two schools. Differences in the indoor levels of particles and ozone were found when compared to the ambient fixed site air pollution levels.

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution has increasingly become an important health issue in developed countries, with recent studies from around the world indicating relationships between air pollutants, particularly ozone and particles, and health for a wide range of health endpoints, such as respiratory symptoms to mortality. However, one of the major criticisms of these types of studies is that the method of exposure assessment is inadequate due to fixed site ambient monitoring data being used to estimate exposure (Wilson and Spengler, 1996; Patrick, 1999). As a result of this criticism, coupled with technological advances in monitoring devices, exposure assessment has emerged as an important field in the area of environmental health and epidemiology.

The field of exposure assessment recognises that an improved measure of air poiiutants will help us to understand better the relationship between air pollution and health including the sources, locations and activities which might increase exposure. Of particular importance is the indoor environment as up to 90% of time is spent here (Weschler ef a/. 1991). While conventional poiiutants are important, it is also necessary to consider the health effects of allergens such as cockroach and dust mite allergens, especially on children as exposure has been attributed to the development of asthma and allergies.

The school environment is an important place to study the impacts of air pollution exposure on children. Many studies have examined indoor air quality in the domestic and work environment but few studies have concentrated on the school environment. It is well documented that children are among those most at risk of experiencing adverse health effects from poor indoor air quality (Lipfert, 1994; Maroni eta/. 1995; Elsom, 1996). Poor indoor air quality has been associated with the cause or development of chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, multiple chemical sensitivity, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis as well as headache, nausea, dry eyes, nasal congestion and fatigue (Oliver and Shackleton, 1998). Platts-Mills (1996) identified asthma as the most common disease causing absenteeism from school and the leading cause of hospital admissions for children. In Australia, one in four schoolchildren have asthma, with Queensland having the highest rate for primary school children (ABS, 1995). In addition to exposure to conventional air poiiutants, evidence suggests a relationship between the sensltisation to indoor allergens and the development of asthma in children (Maroni eta/. 1995; Platts-Mills, 1996; Peat and Lee,1999).

METHOD

Sampling Design

Two schools were recruited in the Logan-Beaudesert school district of South East Queensland to participate in the pilot study. The two schools were selected on the basis of their proximity to major roadways, building materials, age and accessibility.

Two sampling visits (October/November 1999 and May/June 2000) were made at each school over a one year period. Each sampling period ran for two weeks at each school, with two classrooms being sampled for one week each. Samples were collected over an eight hour period between 8:1 Sam and 4:15pm at each schooi. These times correspond to the hours that children are likely to be at school, not only in the classroom but also in the playground before and after school.

Sampling Method

Dust samples were collected from the carpet inside each classroom using a modified hand held vacuum cleaner for approximately two minutes, covering an area of 1m2 The samples were stored in the freezer prevent mite proliferation bexore being transposed for analyses. The samples were analysed for

Der p 1 (dust mite allergen) and Bla g 1 (cockroach allergen) by standard ELISA assay (Platts-Mills etal. 1992). The dust mite and cockroach allergen data are expressed as Der p 1 in pg/g of fine dust and Bla g 1 in Units (U)/g of fine dust.

Viable fungal spores were collected using a Burkard portable air sampler for agar plates. Air was drawn through the sampler at 20L/min for five minutes onto a Sabaroud Dextros Agar (SAB) media. The agar plates were incubated for eight days at 25°C between 50-70% relative humidity with colonies being identified on the 4th and 8th day. The types of fungi that were identified were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Alternaria, Curvularia and Epicoccum based on colony and spore morphology. All other colonies were classified as 'Other'. The viable fungi data is expressed as colony forming units per cubic metre of air (CFU/m3).

A Burkard personal volumetric air sampler for slides was used for the collection of total fungal spores. The sampler was operated for nine minutes at a flow rate of l0L /min onto microscope slides coated with a silicone adhesive. After the sample was collected the slide was stained using Carberla's stain and mounted with a coverslip. The fungal spores were Identified using light microscopy with important fungal spore allergen taxa (Cladosporium, Alternaria, and Epicoccum) being identified and counted. The fungal spore counts are expressed as total spores per cubic metre of air (spores/m3).

Particles less than 10 microns in diameter (PM10) were measured using a low flow volumetric particle sampler (MiniVol) at three different locations (inside the classroom, on the balcony immediately outside the classroom and outside in the playground). Particle samples were collected over an eight hour period. The particle samplers were calibrated to 5L/min and the flow was checked before and after each sample using a Gllibrator soap-bubble flowmeter.

Both before and after each sampling period, the Pal Gelman 45mm Teflon filters were pre-conditioned at 25°C and between 65-75% relative humidity for 24 hours. After conditioning the filters were weighed using a Mettler Toledo MT5 analytical balance until three weights within 10mg were obtained. Electrostatic charging was reduced by placing each filter between two thin metal discs which acted as a screen against the electrostatic forces. The weights were then averaged. The mass concentrations determined and are expressed in micrograms per cubic metre of air μg/m3

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 39

AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

The Osiris environmental dust monitor, an optical device that uses a laser counter system, was used to collect real time particle samples from within each classroom to determine how particle levels changed throughout the day. The Osiris measured particles less than 1, 2.5 and 10 microns in diameter (PM,, PM25 and PM10 respectively) as well as total suspended particle matter (TSP) reporting to mass concentration assuming the particle conversion density is 1.5g/cc.

Ozone samples were collected simultaneously indoors and outdoors using an active ozone sampling system (Geyh etal. 1999) over an eight hour period. An SKC pump and pocket pump were used to obtain a flow rate of 200mL/minute for the outdoor and indoor sample respectively. Pre-coated nitrite filters were used to collect the ozone sample. The sampling heads were transported to and from the school in a cooler bag. After the samples were collected from the school they were stored in the refrigerator. The filters were analysed using ion chromatography as outlined in Geyh etal. (1999). The results are presented in parts per biiiion (ppb).

To approximate a child's breathing zone when sitting, ali indoor samplers were placed on a desk and the particle sampler was placed on the floor with the inlet at approximately 0.65m. The outdoor particle and ozone samplers were placed inside a wire cage (to reduce tampering) on the ground with the inlets at approximately 0.65m. Where possible, indoor particle monitors were placed away from the door and the blackboard to avoid disturbances resulting from air currents and dust sources. However due to space restrictions within the classrooms, the particle monitors were placed next to the blackboard in two of the classrooms.

Statistical Analysis

The air pollution and allergen data were positively skewed. For this reason, median concentrations are presented and non-parametric tests such as the Mann-Whitney U and Wiicoxcn signed ranks test were used. All statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for Windows, Version 10.0. Reported comparisons were considered significant when p<0.05.

RESULTS

The October/November 1999 sampling period is reported as spring 1999 and the May/June 2000 sampling period as autumn 2000. The two classrooms sampled for one week each at School 1 are reported as classroom 1 and classroom 2. The two classrooms sampled at School 2 are reported as classroom 3 and classroom 4.

Dust Mite

In spring 1999, the median value and range was 0.73 (0.23-3.50) ug/g and 0.23 (0.003-7.94) ug/g in autumn 20db. The spring 1999 allergen levels (across schools and classrooms) were significantly higher than those measured in autumn 2000 (n=25, p<0.05). There was, however, no significant difference between the dust mite allergen levels at the two schools in=26, p>0.05).

In general, the dust mite allergen levels were below the proposed threshold of 2ug/g for increased risk of sensitisation and no samples were high enough to induce symptoms in sensitised individuals (10μg/g) (Platts-Mills etal, 1992). Three classrooms had levels high enough to increase the risk of sensitisation.

Cockroach Allergen

The median value and range for cockroach allergen in spring 1999 was 0.91 (0.58-2.25) U/g and 1.13 (0.25-3.93) U/g in autumn 2000. There was no significant difference between the levels of cockroach allergen at School 1 and School 2 or between the spring 1999 and autumn 2000 allergen levels (n=26, p>0.05 for both).

The cockroach allergen levels for both schools were below the 2U/g threshold level for increased risk of sensitisation (Custovic etal. 1996). No classrooms recorded levels considered high enough to induce symptoms (8U/g) in sensitised individuals (Eggleston etal. 1998).

Fungi (Viable and Total)

The median and range for the indoor and outdoor viable fungi levels at each school are presented in table 7. All values are presented as CFU/m3.

From Table 7 it can be seen that the fungi levels at School 1 are higher than those at School 2 for both 1999 and 2000 and the indoor levels of fungi are lower than the outdoor levels.

Table 2 shows the results for total fungi. The values in Table 2 are higher than those in Table 1 as the total spores are counted, not just those that are viable and subsequently grow into a colony.

The most commonly identified fungi were Cladosporium and Penicillium in both the indoor and outdoor air. Cladosporium was isolated in more than 90% of indoor and outdoor samples and Penicillium was isolated in more than 80% of samples. Aspergillus and Curvularia were more commonly found indoors than outdoors, while Epicoccum was

found in more of the outdoor air samples. A large proportion of the samples contained colonies that were either unidentified or were identified but not regularly isolated and were grouped under 'other fungi'.

Particles

The indoor particle levels were consistently higher than the balcony and outdoor levels. The balcony levels were also consistently higher than the outdoor levels for both schools. This trend can be seen in Figure 1 (see following page) for spring 1999. The trend is similar for autumn 2000, though the balcony levels were found to be higher than those measured indoors and outdoors.

The indoor particle concentrations for both schools combined were significantly higher than those outdoors (n=72, p<0.05), though they were not significantly different from those measured on the balcony (n=75 p>0.05). The balcony levels were significanlly higher (n=74, p<0.05) th<in those measured outdoors in the playground.

Overall, total (indoor, balcony, outdoor) particle levels were significantly higher rit School 1 (n=111, p<0,05). The total particle-levels measured in spring 1999 were significantly higher than the autumn 2000 levels (n=111, p<0.05) and the indoor levels were significantly higher than the outdoor levels (n=72, p<0.05).

Comparisons were made within each school to determine whether there was a difference between classrooms. Within School 1, classroom 1 levels were significantly higher than those in classroom 2 (n=18, p<0.05). There was no significant difference between the two classrooms at School 2 (n=19, p>0.05).

Over the course of the day indoor particle concentrations were found to vary, as measured by the real time particle monitor. Figure 2 (see following page) is an example of an eight hour recording in one of the classrooms. The levels of particles vary depending on t h e level of activity in the room. The peaks on the graph correspond to when the students enter, move around or leave the room.

7 40 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

The particle concentrations were found to vary from day to day. This may be attributed to the differences in activity in the classrooms.

Ozone

The indoor and outdoor median and range for spring 1999 at School 1 were 17.8(4.8-21.9) and 27.8 (11.6-35.1) ppb respectively. For School 2, the indoor and outdoor median and range were 17.6 (12.4-26.4) and 31.3 (20.9-41.2) ppb respectively. Figure 3 shows the indoor and outdoor ozone concentrations for both schools for spring 1999.

From Figure 3 it can be seen that the outdoor ozone concentrations were significantly higher than the indoor concentrations in all of the classrooms (n=35, p<0.05). The I/O ratio for ozone was 0.63 for spring 1999 and 0.60 for autumn 2000. As there are no indoor sources of ozone, this result indicates that outdoor sources of ozone are the main contributor to indoor concentrations. There was no significant difference between the levels of ozone measured at School 1 and School 2 (n=35, p>0.05).

The trend for autumn 2000 was similar to the spring 1999 results. The indoor and outdoor median and range for autumn 2000 for School 1 were 7.6 (2.4-12.2) and 16.3 (11.1-21.4) ppb respectively, and 8.4 (2.3-14.7) and 12.4 (10.3-19.5) ppb respectively for School 2. The I/O ratio for autumn 2000 was 0.6.

Comparison with EPA Data

The indoor and outdoor ozone concentrations at each school were compared to the levels measured at the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) Springwood air monitoring site for the appropriate time periods. The Springwood site was chosen as it was the closest monitoring site to the schools (School 1 was approximately 9.5km away from the monitoring site and School 2 was approximately 4km away). The median ozone level and range measured at the EPA site is 23.6 (2.1-31.2) ppm.

The EPA concentrations were significantly higher than those measured indoors (n=36, p<0.05), though the outdoor levels measured at the schools were significantly higher than those measured at the EPA site (n=35, p<0.05).

DISCUSSION

Dust Mite Allergen

The results presented in this study indicate that the levels of the dust mite allergen Der p 1 in the classrooms are low. A seasonal variation in dust mite allergen levels was found, with the spring 1999 levels being significantly higher than the autumn 2000 levels. This result is expected as the spring months are warmer and the conditions are more conducive to dust mite survival.

An investigation of the spatial characteristics of dust mite allergen revealed no significant difference in allergen levels between the two schoois. This result suggests that there is little difference in the conditions required for dust mite growth and proliferation in the different types of classrooms.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 41

AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

The spatial variations within the schools between the classrooms revealed no apparent difference in dust mite allergen levels in the different types of classrooms sampled, though only a small sample size was used in the current study. This result is contrary to other studies that have found that the floor level the classroom is located on (Einarsson etal. 1995) and the age of the structure (Li et al. 1997) affects the concentrations of dust mite allergen. In addition, Zock and Brunekreef (1995) found that the variability within a school was so large that several samples need to collected and analysed per school. A much larger sample size (774) was used in this particular study compared to the current study.

The lower levels of dust mite allergen in schools has previously been attributed to the intermittent use of classrooms, and to the absence of mattresses and upholstered furniture which serve as a reservoir for the dust mite. Furthermore, regular vacuuming has been found to reduce dust mite allergen levels in carpets (Adilah etal. 1997). The classrooms at both School 1 and School 2 were vacuumed daily.

Cockroach Allergen

The levels of cockroach allergen were low in the classrooms at both schools. The temporal and spatial differences in cockroach allergen were investigated. It was found that there was no significant difference in cockroach allergen concentrations between seasons or between schools. No relationship was found between classroom characteristics and cockroach allergen levels. These differences may not have been detected because of the small sample size used. Sarpong etal. (1997) found that cockroach allergen levels were different both within schools and between schools. This study used a larger sample size (147 individual samples from four schools), though seasonal variations were not investigated. The Sarpong etal. (1997) study did not find any relationship between floor level and allergen concentrations.

Fungi (Viable and Total)

It is important to interpret the fungi results keeping in mind the limitations of this study which include the short duration time of the samples (five and nine minutes) and the difficulty associated with fungi identification. The method used for identification of fungal spores and colonies influences the results and caution must be exercised when comparing results with previous literature This has been discussed by Pope etal. 1993; Flannigan, 1997; Garrett etal. 1997; Hamilton and Eggleston, 1997.

The relationship between the indoor and outdoor fungi concentrations was examined. The outdoor fungi (viable and total) concentrations were significantly higher than those indoors. This result is consistent with Garrett ef al. (1997) who found that indoor levels were significantly lower than outdoor levels in homes. They also concluded that outdoor levels of fungi are not a major influence on indoor levels throughout the year and environmental factors such as temperature and humidity are more likely to influence indoor

42 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

levels. The I/O ratio was less than unity, which indicates that there is not an indoor source of fungi (Dungy ef al. 1986; Levetin, 1995; Garrett ef al. 1997).

The spatial characteristics of fungi (viable and total) were investigated both within and between the schools. The total concentrations of fungi (both viable and non-viable) were significantly higher at School 1 than School 2. This may be due to School 1 being located near a river which is an environment conducive to fungal growth.

The temporal variations in fungi levels were examined both between and within the seasons. There was no difference between the spring 1999 and autumn 2000 levels for viable and total fungi. This result is typical of warm climates where outdoor levels may not diminish during the winter months. In contrast, in the cooler regions of Australia, summer fungi levels have been found to be significantly higher than winter levels (Garrett et al. 1997).

Within each season, morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) fungi samples wore collected to determine whether taking a single sample is an accurate reflection of the air inside the classroom or whether the air spora changes after the sample has been taken. McGrath etal. (1999) found that the indoor fungal profile stayed the same even when the outdoor fungal profile varied in mechanically ventilated buildings. In the current study, the indoor levels were found to vary between the morning and afternoon, with the AM levels being significantly higher than the PM levels in spring 1999. For autumn 2000, there was little difference between the indoor AM and PM levels. The outdoor AM levels were significantly higher than the PM levels for both seasons. It is interesting to note that there is no significant difference between the AM and PM autumn 2000 indoor levels. During this time period, the windows in the classrooms were kept closed during the day, reducing the air exchange rate. In the warmer months the windows were kept open during the day. This result indicates that in naturally ventilated buildings, the indoor air reflects the changes in the outdoor air spora and that ventilation influences the indoor air concentrations.

In the current study Cladosporium, Penicillium and Curvularia were frequently identified indoors. These results are consistent with other studies of the school environment that have found Cladosporium and Penicillium to dominate the indoor air spora (Dungy etal. 1986; Smedje ef al. 1997; Cooley et al. 1998).

Particles

The I/O ratio was greater than unity for both seasons (1.96 in spring 1999 and 1.5 in autumn 2000) indicating that indoor levels were significantly higher than outdoor levels. This indicates an indoor source such as the resuspension of particles or chalk dust. The amount of indoor activity influences the amount of particles in the air. In addition, Thatcher and Layton (1995) found thai 5-30 minutes of normal activity by four people can increase particles in the 5-10 μm size range by two to four times. Therefore, activity over a six hour period by 30 students would greatly increase the levels of suspended

particle matter. Further to this, Janssen etal. (1999a) found that the classroom/outdoor ratios were highest for the soil elements, suggesting that the suspension of soil material contribute greatly to the indoor particle levels.

The particle concentrations were found to vary spatially both within and between the schools. At School 1, the particle concentrations in classroom 1 were much higher than those in classroom 2. This indicates a spatial variation within the school. However, during the second sampling period, there was construction work in classroom 1, which contributed to the particle levels. Classroom 1 was also located approximately 10 metres from a road that is a major pick-up and drop-off point for students, hence particle emissions from this traffic may have also contributed to the higher levels of particles in classroom 1. Many studies however have found that classroom particle levels are not correlated with distance from a major road or traffic density (Van Vliet ef al. 1997; Roorda-Knape etal. 1998; Janssen ef al. 1999b). No significant difference was found between classrooms at School 2. In a similar study, simultaneous measurements taken in different classrooms in the same building found no close agreement between PM,„ levels (Van Vliet ef al. 1997).

The particle levels were found to vary throughout the day and throughout the week. The results from the real time particle data confirm earlier studies of school-time measurements of particles in schools and the variation in particle levels is likely due to the resuspension of particles due to the high indoor activity of the students (Van Vliet etal. 1997). This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 2 where the levels of particles increase when the children enter and leave the room. The particles inside the classroom were mainly composed of particles greater than 10pm suggesting soil resuspension, with less than 40% of the particles smaller than 10pm. The variation in indoor particle levels throughout the week was poorly correlated with the time spent in the classroom, so it was not possible to predict the particle levels based on the time spent in the classroom.

Ozone

The results of this study reveal that indoor ozone concentrations are a substantial proportion of outdoor concentrations. It has been found that ozone levels are higher in buildings with high ventilation rates compared with buildings with low ventilation rates (Weschler ef al. 1989). Thompson etal. (in Gold etal. 1996) reported that indoor ozone concentrations can reach up to two thirds of those outdoors. In Mexico City, the predicted I/O ratio for classrooms with the windows and doors open was found to be 0.71, and 0.18 when the windows and doors were closed (Gold etal. 1996). They found that outdoor ozone levels increase, indoor ozone increased more rapidly with windows and doors open. This illustrates the influence that ventilation has on the indoor concentrations and explains the I/O ratio of 0.63 and 0.6 in the current study.

There was no significant difference between the ozone levels measured at each school or between the classrooms within each school.

AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

Comparison with EPA Data

The use of fixed site ambient air quality data for assessing exposure to various air pollutants has been criticised as being inadequate as this type of data may over or underestimate an individual's exposure (Wilson and Spengler, 1996; Patrick, 1999). In this study the results for ozone and particles were compared with the ambient data collected from the EPA air monitoring site at Springwood. The differences between the EPA site and the schools may be due to the differences in instrumentation used (this was not tested for in this study) and the proximity of the monitoring site to the schools. School 1 was approximately 9.5km away from the monitoring site and School 2 was closer at approximately 4km away.

The PM10 levels measured at the schools were significantly higher indoors and on the balcony outside of the classrooms compared with the levels measured at the EPA site. The outdoor levels for particles measured at the school were not significantly different to those measured at the EPA site as seen in Figure 4.

The ozone concentrations measured at the EPA site were significantly higher than those measured indoors and significantly lower than the outdoor concentrations at the schools. Because ozone is a highly reactive gas and there are very few indoor sources, indoor concentrations are typically lower than outdoor concentrations. Given the time spent indoors and the lower indoor concentration, the ozone levels measured at the EPA site would be likely to overestimate personal exposure. This is likely to be most pronounced in the winter months when ventilation in the classrooms is reduced, therefore reducing the penetration of outdoor ozone indoors.

The differences between the ambient air pollution measured at the EPA site and that measured at the schools may have arisen because of the different instruments used or scavenging of ozone by oxides of nitrogen

may be occurring at the EPA site where there is a higher volume of traffic. This may account for the lower levels of ozone at the EPA site compared to the outdoor levels measured at the schools. The implications of using ambient ozone data are that personal exposures are likely to be overestimated for schoolchildren.

CONCLUSIONS

The main conclusions drawn from this project are: • The levels of dust mite and cockroach

allergen within the classrooms is low • A seasonal variation was found for dust

mite allergen levels • No seasonal difference was found for

viable and total fungi levels • Fungi levels varied diurnally • Outdoor fungi levels were significantly

higher than those indoors • The most frequently isolated fungi

types were Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Curvularia

• Particle levels varied between the two schools

• Indoor particle concentrations were significantly higher than outdoor levels

• The outdoor ozone levels were significantly higher than the indoor levels

• The I/O ratio for ozone was high at 0.6-0.63, • The EPA fixed site measurements for

particles were lower than the particles measured in the classrooms and the ozone levels were higher than those measured in the classrooms.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The following are recommendations for future research based on the findings of this pilot study. 1. A larger study with a much larger sample

size would help clarify the relationships identified in this study.

2. For classrooms with dampness problems and musty odours, fungi samples should

be taken to determine the levels of fungi and the composition of the indoor air spora.

3. For naturally ventilated buildings with open windows and doors, more than one sample should be collected when assessing indoor fungi levels.

4. To clarify the influence motor vehicle emissions have on indoor particle concentrations, a larger study is needed with a larger sample size (for example, a range of schools with differing proximity to roads).

5. To determine whether building characteristics influence the levels of indoor allergens (dust mite, cockroach, fungi) a larger study is needed with a larger sample size (for example, a wider range of schools with differing classroom characteristics, ages).

6. For determining personal exposures to air pollutants and allergens, indoor samples need to be collected or personal monitoring undertaken.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge David Bromwich for his work in the initial stages of the project, and the Queensland Environment Protection Agency and the Bureau of Meteorology for the provision of data.

REFERENCES

Adilah, N., Fitzharris, P., Crane, J., Siebers, R.W. 1997, The effect of frequent vacuum cleaning on the house dust mite allergen, Derp 1 in carpets: a pilot study, New Zealand Medical Journal, 110, 438-439.

Anderson, E.L., Albert, R.E. (Eds) 1999, Risk Assessment and Indoor Air Quality, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) National Health Survey. 1995-Asthma and other respiratory conditions (unpublished data).

Burge, H. (Ed) 1995, Bioaerosols, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Cooiey, J.D., Wong, W.C., Jumper, C.A., Straus, D.C 1998, Correlation between the prevalence of certain fungi and sick building syndrome, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 55, 579-584.

Dungy, C.I., Kozak, P.P., Gallup, J., Gaiant, S.P. 1986, Aeroallergen exposure in the elementary school setting, Annals of Allergy, 56,218-220.

Einarsson, R., Munir, A.K.M., Dreborg, S.K.G. 1995, Allergens in school dust: II. Major mite (Der p 1, Der f 1) allergens in dust from Swedish schools, Journal of allergy and Clinical immunology, 95/5, 1049-1053.

Elsom, D. 1996. Smog Alert. Managing Urban Air Quality, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.

Flannigan, B. 1997, Air sampling for fungi in Indoor environments, Journal of Aerosol Science, 28/3, 381-392.

Gammage, R.B., Bervan, B.A. (Eds) 1996, Indoor Air and Human Health, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 43

i AIR POLLUTION AND ALLERGENS IN SCHOOLS

Garrett, M.H.. Hooper, B.M., Cole, F.M., Hooper, M.A. 1997, Airborne fungal spores in 80 homes in the Latrobe Valley, Australia: levels, seasonability and indoor-outdoor relationship, Aerobiologia, 13,121-126.

Geyh, A.S., Roberts, P.T., Lurmann, F.W., Schoell. B.M., Avol, E.L. 1999, Initial field evaluation of the Harvard active ozone sampler for personal ozone monitoring. Journal of Exposure analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 143-149.

Gold, D.R., Allen, G., Damokosh, A., Serrano, P., Hayes, C, Castillejos, M. 1996, Comparison of outdoor and classroom ozone exposures for schoolchildren in Mexico City; journal of Air and Waste Management Association, 46, 335-342.

Hamilton, R.G., Eggleston, P.A. 1997, Environmental allergen analysis, Methods A Comparison to Methods in Enzymology, 13, 53-60.

Janssen, N.A.H., Hoek, G., Harssema, H., Brunekreef, B.1999a, Mass concentrations and elemental composition of PM10 in classrooms, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 56, 482-487. Janssen, N.A.H., Hoek, G., Harssema, H.,

Brunekreef, B.1999b, Personal exposure to fine particles in children correlates closely with ambient fine particles, Archives of Environmental Health, 54/2, 95-100.

Kay, J.G., Keller, George E., Miller, J.F. (Eds). 1991, Indoor Air Pollution, Radon, Bioaerosols and VOCS, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Levetin, E, 1995, Chapter 5. Fungi in Bioaerosols, Burge, H. (Ed), Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Li, C.S., Hsu, C.W., Tai, M.L. 1997, Indoor Pollution and SIck Building Syndrome Symptoms among workers in Day-Care Centres, Archives of Environmenal Health, 52/3, 200-207.

Lipfert, F.W. (1994) Air Pollution and Community Health. A Critical Review and Data Sourcebook, Van Nostrant Reinhold, New York.

Maroni, M., Seifert, B., Lindvall, T. 1995, Indoor Air Quality. A Comprehensive Reference Book, Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam.

McGrath, JJ., Wong, W.J., Cooley D., Straus, D.C 1999, Continually measured fungal profiles in sick building syndrome Clinical Microbiology, 38, 33-36.

Oiiver, C., Shackleton, B.W. 1998, The indoor air we breath: a public health problem of the 90s, Public Health Reports. September-October, 113/5, 398-410.

Patrick, D.R. 1999, Chapter 5. Exposure Characterisation, in Risk Assessment and Indoor Air Quality, Anderson, E.L., Albert, R.E. (Eds), Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Peat, J., Li, J. 1999, Reversing and trend: reducing the prevalence of asthma, The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 103/1, 1-10.

PIatts-Mills,T.A.E.,Tovey, E.R., Mitchell, E.B., Moszoro, H., Nock, P., Wilkins, S.R. 1992, Dust mite allergens and asthma: Report of a second international workshop, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 89,1046-1060.

Platts-Mills, T.A.E. 1996, Chapter 12. Estimation of Allergen Concentrations in Indoor Environments: Prediction of Human-Related Effects in Gammage, R.B., Bervan, B.A, (Eds) indoor Air and Human Health, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Pope, A.M., Patterson, R., Burge, H. (Eds) 1993, Indoor allergens: Assessing and controlling adverse health effects, National Academy Press, Washington DC.

Roorda-Knape, M.C., Janssen, N.A., De Hartog, J.J., Van Vliet, P.H.N., Harssema, H., Brunekreef, B. 1998, Air pollution from traffic in city district near major motorways, Atmospheric Environment, 32/11, 1921-1930.

Sarpong, S.B., Wood, R.A., Karrison, T, Eggleson, P.A. 1997, Cockroach allergen (3la g 1) in school dust, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 99/4, 486-492).

Smedje, G., Norback, D., Edling, C. 1997, Asthma among secondary school children in relation to the school environment, Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 27, 1270-1278.

Thatcher, T.L, Layton, D.W. 1995, Deposition, resuspension, and penetration of particles within a residence, Atmospheric Environment, 29/13,1487-1497.

Weschler, C.J., Sheilds, H.C., Naik, D.V. 1989, Indoor ozone exposures, Journal of Air Pollution and Control Association, 39, 1562-1568.

Weschler, C.J., Nalk, D.V., Sheild, H.C. 1991, Chapter 8. Indoor Ozone Exposure Resulting from the Infiltration of Outdoor Ozone, in Indoor Air Pollution, Radon, Bioaerosols and VOCs, Kay, J.G., Keller, George E., Miller, J.F. (Eds), Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.

Wilson, R., Spengier, J. (Eds) 1996, Particles in Our Air. Concentrations and Health Effects, Harvard University Press, Boston.

Van Vliet, P., Knape, M., De Hartog, J., Janssen, N., Harssema, H., Brunekreef, B. 1997, Motor Vehicle Exhaust and Chronic Respiratory Symptoms in Children Living near Freeways, Environmental Research, 74, 122-132.

Zock, J.P., Brunekreef, B. 1995, House dust mite allergen levels in dust from schools with smooth and carpeted classroom floors, Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 25, 549-553.

AUTHORS

Cheryl Wardrope Research Assistant School of Public Health Griffith University University Drive Meadowbrook 4131

Shannon Rutherford Associate Lecturer School of Public Health Griffith University University Drive Meadowbrook 4131

Rodney W. Simpson Head of School School of Public Health Griffith University University Drive Meadowbrook 4131

44 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS ...continued from page 25

TESTING NASA SATELLITE AT LAKE FROME

Earlier this year a team of CSIRO scientists spent a week on a barren salt lake in Australia's interior helping to test a new NASA satellite.

The team, from CSIRO's Earth Observation Centre, went to Lake Frame, about 500 kilometres north of Adelaide in South Australia.

'A salt lake is a difficult place to work. It's incredibly hot, the surface is boggy and it is very easy to get lost because there are no landmarks - just a blindingly white, flat surface for as far as the eye can see,' says Susan Campbell, one of the team members.

NASA's 'EO-1' satellite, launched in November, contains the 'Hyperion' imaging equipment. Hyperion is the first of its kind in space and it measures much more detailed information about the earth's surface than previous satellite instruments. These two factors mean that it needs to be carefully tested.

'Hyperion is unique because it records the brightness of the earth in 220 different spectral bands, or 'colours'. Other earth observation satellites typically detect a maximum of only seven spectral bands,' says Dr David Jupp from the CSIRO Office of Space Science & Applications (COSSA), who is coordinating the Australian effort on the satellite.

'Previously, instruments like this have only been used on the ground or in aircraft. To have one working more than 700km out in space is both exciting and a challenge,' he says.

'Hyperion needs to be carefully calibrated or tested, to make sure that it is seeing from space what we would see from the ground.'

With temperatures regularly over 46°C, a critical part of working on the lake was getting to the right location and not getting lost. Ms Campbell tackled that task using Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment.

'The area of salt crust being measured was big - 30 by 20 kilometres. I had to get my workmates to the exact measurement sites and, most importantly, I had to get them back to our shore camp by nightfall. I could not have done that without the GPS, which is an amazing piece of technology.'

When Hyperion flashed over Lake Frame on December 20, the team was pleased that all had gone well.

Over the next year, the instrument will be tested at other extreme landscapes - like the darkness of the deep waters of Lake Argyle in Western Australia.

The Australian effort is headed by Dr Jupp and involves scientists from the CSIRO and the Australian Centre for Remote Sensing (ACRES). It is one of 10 teams chosen to work on Hyperion data with NASA and US instrument makers, TRW Inc.

Australian scientists are developing applications of the Hyperion data to geology, the environment and surveying. They will analyse the data to learn more about our

'One of the best ways to test the satellite is to have it look at a very white surface, such as Lake Frame, because it is one of the brightest spots on the Australian continent and it is very uniform,' he says.

'Each day, with a backpack full of instruments, we rode across the salt on balloon-tyred motorbikes to the centre of the lake,' says Ms Campbell.

'The bikes were the only things that wouldn't break through the salty crust and get stuck in the black mud below.

'We measured the exact brightness of the salt in the same 220 bands used by Hyperion. As well, instruments on the shore measured the amounts of water vapour and dust in the atmosphere and balloon soundings measured the atmosphere above the iake.

'With the results, we can check that the Hyperion readings are correct and we will be able to subtract the effect of the atmosphere,' she says.

rainforests, crops, forests and water bodies. 'Once we've analysed the Lake Frame

results, we'll be able to better interpret the data from Hyperion - over Australia or anywhere on the globe,' says Dr Jupp.

'By interpreting the Hyperion data, we will gain a better understanding of our resources and environment and how to manage them both.'

The Australian team will communicate the Lake Frame results to NASA and TRW and the cooperative effort will continue throughout the mission. Australia will play a lead role in the southern hemisphere acquisitions.

For more information contact: Dr David Jupp. CSIRO Earth Observation Centre Tel: 0418 656 486

Ms Susan Campbell, CSIRO Earth Observation Centre Tel: 0409 982 641

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 45

COMPANY AND INDUSTRY NEWS

Elemental Power Windy Hill

SLOWING IN AUSTRALIA'S GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS GROWTH

Australia's greenhouse emissions grew by 1.1 per cent in 1999, according to the latest greenhouse gas figures released by Federal Environment Minister Robert Hill.

This figure is much lower than the previous year's growth of 4.5 per cent and significantly less than the annual average growth between 1990 and 1999 of 1.9 percent. Furthermore, the lower growth of 1.1 per cent was to a background of Gross Domestic Product growth over the same period of 5.4 per cent which shows that Australia is now decoupling carbon growth from economic growth.

The 1999 Inventory shows emissions (excluding land use changes) in 1999 were 17.4% above 1990 levels. However, adding the emission consequences of land use change reduces this figure to approximately 7.3 percent.

In the 1999 inventory, Australia has maintained its previous practice for reporting land use change separately.

Robust estimates of land clearing emissions are expected to be available in late 2001 from the National Carbon Accounting System which will enable integrated reporting within a few years.

The inventory emissions estimates - even with land use change - do not equate to Australia's Kyoto target as the accounting requirements for the Kyoto Protocol had yet to be finalised.

The energy sector continues to be the major source of Australia's emissions, accounting for almost 80% in 1999. This includes electricity generation (37% of national emissions) and transport, (16% of national emissions). Emissions from stationary energy sources have risen 24.6 per cent between 1990 and 1999. Emissions from transport have risen 20.3 per cent over the same period.

The Government has been successful in passing legislation that will require energy producers to source an additional two per cent of their power from renewable energy sources. This will create an estimated $2 billion worth of new investment in the renewable energy industry.

Another $400 million has been committed to the Greenhouse Gas Abatement Program (GGAP), which targets large-scale and sustained abatement and sinks activities. The Government recently announced the first projects to receive GGAP funding with $26 million going towards producing cleaner power for Australia and almost $9 million being provided for the distribution of cleaner ethanol-based fuel.

The National Greenhouse Gas Inventory records emissions from human activity from sectors including energy, transport, agriculture, forestry and land clearing, waste and industrial processes.

Copies of the 1999 National Greenhouse Gas inventory, fact sheets and FAQs are available from the Australian Greenhouse Office website at www.greenhouse.gov.au or from the AGO infoiine on 1300 130 606.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO) DRINKING WATER GUIDELINES

International water quality experts from around the world met in Adelaide from May 14 to 18 to develop World Health Organisation (WHO) international guidelines for the microbiological quality of drinking water, and assess strategies for drinking water quality management and public health.

The meeting supported implementation of the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ) Framework

for Drinking Water Quality Management in Australia. It will provide an appropriate stage to release the Australian Framework for international consideration prior to finalisation as Australia's national guidelines.

'There is increasing international recognition that monitoring drinking water for compliance with numerical health limits is not enough to guarantee the quality and public safety of drinking water supplies,' said Professor Don Bursill, Chair of the NHMRC Drinking Water Review Coordinating Group and Director of the Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Water Quality and Treatment.

'In future, supply of safe drinking water will rely on a preventative risk management approach operating from catchment to consumer, rather than on guideline values, to protect community health. This new approach is something we have pioneered in Australia.'

Following Cryptosporidium and Giardia contamination of Sydney's water supply in 1998, the NHMRC, in collaboration with the CRC, developed the national Framework for Drinking Water Quality Management.

Australia's water industry, public health authorities and resource management agencies worked together to produce the framework, which provides guidance for more effective drinking water quality practices and delivers ongoing assurance of reliable and safe drinking water supplies.

'WHO supports a similar approach to the management of water quality and is looking to the NHMRC for information and guidance to strengthen this aspect of the WHO Drinking Water Guidelines,' said Dr Jamie Bartram, Coordinator of WHO'S Water, Sanitation and Health Programme.

Photo courtesy Yarra Valley Water

46 Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001

INDOOR AIR AND ENVIRONMENTAL NEWS

Biological Contaminants in Indoor Air: What do we know about them? L Morawska

Those who are involved with investigations related to indoor air quality in general, but specifically biological contamination, are faced on almost a daily basis with questions asked by worried community members, similar to the following:

'/ am a registered nurse working in a specialty area at X Hospital. My colleagues and their clients are working in a building that has had a continuing problem with rising damp and a visible growth of fungi and mould and overpowering odour. Investigations conducted concluded that respiratory health problems by staff are a result of the dusty environment. I would be very appreciative if you could refer me where I may obtain additional information on the possible health risks of working or living in such environments.'

'My family and I had to evacuate our home a few months ago, and are in the process of battling our insurance company over remaining contamination in the home following a lengthy remediation. We realised after we discovered we had toxic mould Y growing that most of our major health problems fit a consistent pattern originating after water exposure events that occurred/began in our home several years ago. I was hoping you could answer a couple of questions I have...'

'Could you advise me if your studies on mould in houses have uncovered a symptom such as dizziness. We have had a small amount of mould growing on our bathroom ceiling which is getting worse...'

While answers to some of these questions are straightforward, in the majority of cases a straightforward answer does not exist. Why? Because while some general trends and associations are known, when it comes to quantitative knowledge, very little is available in this complex area.

To start with, reliability of exposure assessment is always questionable, as there are large differences in measurement outcomes when different experimental methods are used. Understanding of the behaviour of biological agents in the air and the nature and significance of interactions with non-biological components of the air are largely unknown. Synergistic effects of the presence of biological agents in the air together with other contaminants or under the influence of certain factors (e.g. temperature, humidity, etc.) are usually only speculations. Understanding of deposition of biological agents in the human respiratory tract and the effect that deposition in different parts of the respiratory tract has is far from complete.

There are many more unknowns in relation to this area, as a result of which, conclusive answers as to where the boundary between

acceptable and unacceptable risk is, are not always available. Consequently, provision of health guidelines that could be used as a basis for national standards is a very difficult task. A task that would require a flexible approach, which means leaving room for improvement and modifications that may be necessary once more scientific knowledge would become available, but on the other hand being specific enough to become a useful and very needed tool for practitioners involved in this area.

Recently the World Health Organisation (WHO) embarked on a task of developing Health Guidelines on Biological Agents in the Indoor Air Environment. The objective of this task is to produce guidelines for the protection of public health from biological agents in indoor air in analogy to the WHO Guidelines for Air Quality. The process is well under way and it is aimed that the document will be finalised in the middle of 2002.

Since this topic is of a widespread interest, below is a short summary of the direction the document is heading, as well as on some specific areas that are being targeted by the working party. This is preceded by some general information about bioiogicai agents, and followed by a few comments in relation to the situation in Australia.

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IN THE AIR

Where do they come from?

Outdoor sources: • Surfaces of living and dead plants

(fungal spores, bacteria) • Natural and anthropogenic waters such

as sewage lagoons or cooling towers (bacteria)

• Aerosolation of water • Building exhaust and sanitary vents indoor sources: • Occupational environment where

organic materials are handled • Agriculture (processing of products) • Microbial growth in buildings (heating,

ventilation and air conditioning systems, building structure)

• Humans • Pets • Hospital procedures • Indoor plants

Which are of interest from the health point of view?

Table 1 below summarises the most important agents, medium where they are present, sources ana health effects.

Reference: Background Paper for Health Guidelines on Biological Agents in the Indoor Environmental, Wolfgang Bischof, University of Jena, Department Indoor Climatology, Erfurt, Germany.

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 47

INDOOR AIR AND ENVIRONMENTAL NEWS

What are the sizes of different biological agents?

How do they behave in the air?

Despite the critical role biological agents (or more precisely in relation to atmospheric systems: biological aerosol particles) play in atmospheric systems, there are only hypotheses and speculations as to the mechanisms governing their behaviour in the air, and at the interface between air and the living or non-living environment. The type of physico-chemical processes that could be of importance include: dispersion, interaction with non-viable aerosols, transport, removal from the air, penetration to, and deposition in the respiratory tract or penetration through ventilation and filtration systems. Reference: Biological Agents and Air Pollution interactions Background Paper for Health Guidelines on Biological Agents in the Indoor Environment, Lidia Morawska, Zoran Ristovski and Sandhya Parappukkaran, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Do we known how to measure them?

Methods of exposure assessment as well as characterising the timely and space variation of pollutants need further development before an adequate risk assessment approach can be used. Many biological pollutants are, on the other hand, part of our normal living environment. The conditions under which these agents create an unusual health risk, is still obscure. Since the causal relationships between pollutants of biological origin and their health effects are still poorly known, validation of exposure assessment methodology with health effect documentation is needed for many biological pollutants. Reference: Background Pacer for Health Guidelines on Biological Agents in the Indoor Environment, Aino Nevalainen, National Public Health Institute, Division of Environmental Health, Kuopio, Finland.

WHO HEALTH GUIDELINES ON BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IN THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT

The following text is an extract from the Report from the meeting of the WHO Steering Committee on the Health Guidelines for Biological Agents in the indoor Environment 4 August 2000, Espoo, Finland. Background

There Is Increasing scientific and medical eviaerxe that exposure to biological agents has significant health Implications similar to these of other airborne pollutants. For chemical agents WHO has developed the Air Quality Guldelines for Europe and the globally

applicable Guidelines for Air Quality. No such guidelines exist for biological agents such as house mite dust, cockroach populations, fungi, bacteria, microbes, moulds and bioaerosols.

At present, however, there may not be enough information available on the quantitative exposure-response relationships for biological agents, which would allow the derivation of appropriate guideline values to protect the whole population or at least the most susceptible groups.

The reasons for the current difficulties relate to the scientific complexity of exposure assessment to biological agents at all levels of approaches, including: instrumentation, measurement and modelling, model validation and data interpretation. Some of the questions and problems related to exposure assessment to airborne biological agents include: • Can the exposure-response relationships

be established? • Is there a threshold of effect, below which

no adverse effects occur? • What are the best strategies for sampling

of biological agents? Connected to these difficulties are the

difficulties in exposure assessment. Some specific problems include: • Lack of understanding of the interactions

and relationships between different biological agents and non-biological aerosols and factors affecting particle dynamics.

• Experimental difficulties in validation of mechanisms for the development of disease and resulting problems with dose assessment. This project serves to Improve the state of

knowledge and the quality of the forthcoming exposure and epidemiological studies.

Objective

A primary objective of the anticipated 'guidelines' is to provide information to decision makers and building operators on biological agents present in non-industrial indoor environments. The focus of the guidelines document should be: • on the protection of building occupants

from potential adverse health effects from biological agents; and

• on the provision of advice to decision makers and building operators on management of biological agents in indoor environments.

Highlights of the discussion on background papers are as follows:

A. Each kind of biological agent should be considered with regard to exposure measurements, source of agent and potential health effects. 'Normal' background exposures indoors and outdoors along with predictions of exposure are important considerations for each kind of biological agent.

B. Health effects, microbiological considerations, and practical recommendations are important aspects of the proposed guidelines. Scientific topics to be considered include better methods of health effect diagnosis, emphasis on identification of 'wet building fungi'.

identification of microbial metabolites, and the involvement of hidden mould in indoor air exposure problems. Practical recommendations on all these topics are important in the proposed document. Practical problems that can be considered include the identification of a problem 'mouldy' building and the identification of the 'amount' of mould that constitutes a 'risk' in the indoor environment.

C. The physical properties of biological airborne particulate matter in the indoor air may affect exposure and potential health outcomes. The interaction of airborne microbial particulate matter with non-microbial particulate matter and other physical factors may have unexpected health outcomes. For example, the aerodynamic behaviour of airborne particulate matter may alter transport mechanisms that affect exposure.

D. Emphasis should be given to the identification of fungi to species levels so as to anticipate the presence of specific toxins and microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) in or on building construction materials. The potential health effects of fungi that are hidden in building constructions are of considerable concern.

E. Potential health effects caused by biological agents range from development of sensitisation to frank clinical disease (e.g. asthma, alveolitis). It is certainly difficult to produce quantitative guideline values when the same agent may cause different health effects (sensitisation versus clinical disease). Guideline development for biological agents may take the form of provision of qualitative advice for each kind or group of biological agents.

F. Guidelines development may also take the form of advice on a range of topics from general management of moisture problems in buildings to management of adverse health effects (medical surveillance) among building occupants,

G. Permanently wet or damp building materials may contain toxic metabolites produced by specific fungi. Identifying the kind of fungus (to species level) growing on the construction material is thus an important aspect of the building investigation.

H. Understanding and controlling moisture problems in buildings is important in the management of biological agents in indoor environments. Permanent moisture damage in buildings is a public health issue. In addition to moisture issues, the building inspection should attempt to estimate the extent of mould colonisation on construction materials. It is a matter of current debate, however, if the amount of mould growth including that growth hidden from view can be related to health risk.

Additional comments

• The guideline document should recognise the limits of current science. Thus, for many biological agents, the 'guidelines' may provide only very genera! qualitative advice.

* Some bioiogical agents such as mites or mycotoxins are potentially subject to development of exposure-response relationships. However, exposure-response

48 Clean Ah Volume 35 No 3. August 2001

INDOOR AIR AND ENVIRONMENTAL NEWS

relationships are less likely for allergens, for which a very small amount of an agent can cause an effect once allergy sensitisation is established.

• It is unlikely that health-based numerical guideline values can be recommended based on current scientific knowledge. However, normal indoor and outdoor exposures to various biological agents can be described.

• Practical management of biological agents in indoor air is an important issue worldwide. The 'guidelines' may provide general advice on management of biological agents based on experience mainly in developed countries, but the general principles should hopefully be applicable to buildings worldwide including those in developing countries. Impact factors of biological agents should be known from studies of different areas.

• An objective of the guidelines is to provide information on the kinds of fungi that are indicative of water damage.

Biological agents to be included in the document

While infectious agents such as viruses, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Legionella spp. are important in indoor environments it was agreed that these agents will only be considered in passing (by reference) in the guidelines document. It was the consensus of the steering committee that the following biological agents should be emphasised in the guideline document: • Fungi • Bacteria • Mites • Animal allergens • Cockroach allergens • Pollen • Microbial toxins including endotoxins,

MVOCs, etc., metabolites and fragments. Each of these agents will be considered in the guideline document in terms of: • Evaluation of exposure; • Health risk evaluation; • Recommended guideline value; • Relation to building moisture; and • Practical aspects of management

and control. Emphasis in the discussion of each of

the seven biological agent categories will be given to review publications rather than on exhaustive coverage of all possible technical articles. However, new information published after the publication of the review articles will be included in the guideline document.

Any comments or queries on this section may be addressed to: Dr Dietrich Schwela Department of Protection of the Human Environment Occupational and Environmental Health Programme World Health Organization 20 Avenue Appia CH 1211 Geneva 27 Tel: +41 22 791 4261 Fax: +41 22 791 4123 Email: SchwelaD@who.int

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IN AUSTRALIA

Forthcoming conference

Biological agents will be discussed during the forthcoming conference of the Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists to be held at the Novotel Northbeach Hotel, Wollongong from 1-5 December 2001 (http://www.aioh.org.au). The theme of the conference is 'The evolving face of occupational hygiene' and the conference will be using the 'National OHS Improvement Framework' produced by the Australian National Occupational Health & Safety Commission (NOHSC) as the model for the scientific program. The national framework is intended to be a blueprint for the systemic improvement of all aspects of occupational health and safety in Australia.

At the conference key areas, such as data collection, research, national standards, compliance, incentives, awareness and OHS skills development will be addressed by a range of national and international experts at plenary, workshop and continuing education sessions. In relation to biological agents, there will be a presentation about the sampling, analysis and assessment of airborne biohazards in the workplace in the conference section on Awareness & Skills Development. Additionally, there will be a Continuing Education Session devoted to this topic.

For more information please direct enquiries to: Kurt Ozinga AIOH 2001 Conference Secretary PO Box 325 Corrimal, NSW 2518 Australia Ph: +61 2 4285 7929 Fax: +61 2 4285 0500

Research conducted in Australia

There is an Intention to compile a list of researchers and their areas of interest and investigation in relation to biological agents in the air. The summary will then be presented in one of the forthcoming issues of Clean Air. This task will be conducted by Dr Zoran Ristovski and Dr Megan Hargreaves from QUT who will be contacting Australian researchers involved in this area.

Any comments and suggestions should be directed to: Dr Zoran Ristovski Ph: +61 7 38641129 Email: z.ristovski@qut.edu.au Dr Megan Hargreaves Ph: +61 7 3864 1281 Email: m.hargreaves@qut.edu.au

BUILDING WITH LOW INDOOR AIR POLLUTING MATERIALS AND APPUANCES

Numerous research studies in Australia and other countries have shown concentrations of many air toxic pollutants are much higher inside buildings. This occurs because modern materials continue to emit air pollutants for long periods after manufacturing and installation as large surface areas of building interiors (e.g. paints, adhesives, carpets, wood panels, furniture). New and renovated buildings are affected by these materials for several months or more after building finishes.

ABS statistics show that Australians spend an average of 90% of their lifetimes indoors, and it is clear that the major influence on exposure to many air toxic pollutants is the indoor air environment.

The best way to control exposure to indoor air pollution is to prevent the pollutants from reaching the occupants in the first place - that is, by using low polluting products. But first we need to be able to measure and compare how products emit air pollutants and then set the appropriate criteria for low polluting'.

CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineering has established a state of the art pollutant analysis and environmental chamber facility for assessing and understanding air toxic emissions from manufactured products.

It has applied this to paints, carpets, wood based panels, furniture, office equipment and unfilled gas heaters. It is now in the process of cooperating with industry and government to develop the standard product test methods and air toxic emission criteria for future buildings

in the interim, this note is a response to requests from consumers and building specifiers/designers for selection of low polluting materials now. There are two approaches that they can use:

'Inert Products

These include non-emitting substances such as: bricks, glass, solid woods, stainless steei etc. wherever posslbie.

Products with Low-emission Labels

Product labelling schemes have been. developed in many countries. These vary somewhat in their stringency. For example, in Denmark and Norway the Indoor Climate Label' has a focus on the potential of products to cause odours or eye/nose/throat irritation. The European Commission label for floor coverings is based on odour, irritation, lifetime cancer risk and the known toxicology of the pollutants

known to be emitted by such products.

For more information contact

Steve Brown Tel: +61 3 9252 6000 or Dilip Manuel Tel: +61 3 9252 6073

Clean Air Volume 35 No.3. August 2001 49