CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES USED IN HISTORICAL BUILDINGS

NIRANJAN2ND Year- Civil, SRM University

Chennainiranjan52@rocketmail.com

Mobile: 7418499712

ABSTRACT-Various techniques and methods in the past have been used in the construction processes. They vary from time to time i.e. from primitive methods used in ancient buildings to the advanced ones used in the present. In this paper we are about to see the various construction techniques used in some of the most important historical buildings. The advancements of techniques in the field of construction differ over various periods of history. Here, we will be seeing about the building materials used, the modes of transport, labor, design, structure, etc. Also there were various reasons for the building of such as pride, beauty, to show their talents, expertise, mainly needs, etc.

I. Introduction

This section gives a description and pointers on different construction techniques at different point of time. Different techniques were used by man at different eras. Not only at different eras, but also at contemporary times the techniques varied from one region to the other based on culture, science, technology availability, raw materials, economy, needs, etc. People built different types of buildings by different methods like placing stones one above the other in the ancient and pre historic times, then by using bricks, mortar, supports, and so on. The needs of man varied from time to time. So, depending on his needs man began to build structures that suited his purposes. Here let us see the techniques used in the pyramids of Egypt, the Stonehenge of England, the techniques used in building castles, cathedrals, and finally about taj mahal.

II. ANCIENT STUCTURES

It is the period when the Roman, Mesopotamian and the Egyptians ruled the art of building monuments. Some of the most famous structures of the ancient world are the Egyptian pyramids, The Lighthouseof Alexandria, The Great Serpent Mound, The Ziggurat of Urof ancient Mesopotamia, the Indus valley civilization, The Roman Forum,Trajan's bridge, Parthenon in Athens, etc. Now let us see about some of these in detail.

A. The Giza Plateau

One of the world’s plateau and the home to the three great pyramids (Those of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure), and at least six others as well as several other prominent structures including the great Sphinx and the Valley temple. Recent Carbon-14 dating results indicate a period of construction from between 3,800 and 2,800 BC, a time-frame which is considerably earlier than is currently claimed by Egyptologists (Official estimates still vary from year to year around the region of 2,650 to 2,450 BC).

Setting the orientation lines of the pyramid base or the datum level, would be by setting right angles totrue directions. The north south direction is by observing the North Star and or by observing the rising

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and setting of a certain star on an artificial horizon. The east-west direction was by observing the equinoxand/or by shadows of the sun light.

Quarrying is a skill which has existed during all phases of human civilizations. In Egypt the quarries are numerous and their output had to be transported - we are talking about solid blocks weighing from less than one ton to hundreds of tons. In Ancient Egypt the preferred quarries of limestone were in Middle Egypt, sand stone in Upper Egypt and granite from Aswan.

THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

The superstructure of a pyramid is a free standing construction built of stone or of bricks. It has a volume equal to the area of the Base, times one third of its Height; i.e., (B2 X H/3) The superstructureis composed of a core, nucleus and an outer facing:

THE CORE

The core contains a tumulus imbedded in a retaining mastaba (see above). These are the innermost parts of the pyramid in the Old Kingdom. Alternatively they could contain a solid construction or anatural feature as seen at natural rock knoll within the brickpyramid of Abu Rawash.

THE NUCLEUS

In the Old Kingdom the nucleus is composed of an accretion layered step pyramid and packing masonry over its steps. This is the principal construction in the building project, but it could be built in a few different ways in the Middle Kingdom: embankments with a fill, solid masonry, cross walls etc.This is the penultimate project in the construction of a pyramid.

THE OUTER FACING

In the Old and Middle Kingdoms the outer facing completely covers the nucleus of the pyramid and is composed of the first course which determines the orientation, the casing, and a pyramidion. These items are constructed of the finest stone material available. They are dressed and polished to a highdegree. They cover the nucleus to complete the ultimate pyramid shape after thepyramidion is fixed.

The Substructure

The layout of the substructure was developing because of improvements in construction capabilities. Its vulnerability to the tomb robbers, however, played a more demanding role for security. The substructure as depicted here at thepyramid of Zawyet El Aryan, is an early example during the  3rd dynasty which was entirely tunneled in the rock foundation. It begins with a stairwayE, near the NE corner of the step pyramid, followed by a horizontal westerly corridor which meets an upright shaft at P, on the NS axis. These are connected to a horizontally perpendicular one coming from the fishbone-like galleries in the north to the burial chamber C, under the center of the steppyramid.

To make it difficult for the robbers to access to the burial chamber in the Middle Kingdom the layout of the substructure becomes complicated, as shown below at the pyramid of king Ameny Qemau, 13th dynasty BC 1800. This complex arrangement was built of huge blocks of masonry in a pit open to thesky. The superstructure was constructed above the roofing which no longer exists.

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THE FIRST COURSE OF THE OUTER FACING

The first course of the outer facing was very carefully monitored because it is the actual orientation of the monument. There are several examples showing how this course was considered.

At Khufu, Unas, Pepi I and many other sites, large limestone blocks display the admirable methods of building the first course on a variety of foundations and platforms.

Djedefra, Khafra and Menkurabuilt this course in granite.

THE CORE AND THE NUCLEUS

Many studies and TV documentaries have proposed methods for moving big blocks of stone up ramps and by mechanical means. Some of the suggestions are remarkable. Important as these methods are, they become useless if they do not satisfy the intensity needed to complete the building within the kings’ reign.

· The great pyramid of Khufuwas built of 2.6 million blocks of limestone each of an average volume of One Cubic Meter, weighing 2.5 metric tons. This figure comes from the volume of the pyramid being 2,600,000 cubic meters. By the equation (230 x 230 x 148/3) The Area Of The Base Times One Third Of The Height.

· The Turin king list tells us thatKhufu reigned for 23 years.

· Assuming that the pyramidwas built every day of the 23 years of his reign, and then we have 8395 days of building.

· Working hours should be 10 hours a day, and then we have 83,950 hours or 5,037,000 minutes.

· To install 2,600,000 blocks in 5,037,000 minutes at a regular rate means: that every block has to be set in less than two minutes. (1.94 min)

The building never followed that rate: it had to be much, much faster at the beginning and slower towards the end.

THE PYRAMIDION

At the very end of the building project comes the difficult task of placing the pyramidion at the apex of a

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pyramid. This is like putting the crown on the king’s head. An amazing task, the example I present is that of the pyramid of King Khafra which I considered a few years ago. This pyramidion was prefabricated in 2 parts of diorite weighing 4 and 7.15 = total 11.15 tons. They were placed on the uppermost course of the outer facing, which created a platform. The pyramidion had to fit precisely on the platform. This is at the top of a pyramid, at a height of 144 meters, with very limited space to maneuver.

(Above left) A diorite fragment of the pyramidion of Khafra found by Selim Hassan. Drawn for Nabil Swelim by Jaroslaw Dobrowolski 1996 after Selim Hassan. (Above right) The platform on which

thepyramidion was placed, slabs rearranged and drawn by Nabil Swelim 1996 after Lepsius.

4 The substructure of the middle

kingdom pyramid of King Ameny Qemau of the mid 13th dynasty 1700

BC at south Saqqara. Drawn by Jaroslaw Dobrowolski 1997 for Nabil

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The layout of the substructure was developing because of improvements in construction capabilities. Its vulnerability to the tomb

robbers, however, played a more demanding role for security. The substructure as depicted here at thepyramid of Zawyet El Aryan, is an early example during the 3rd dynasty which was entirely tunneled in the rock foundation.

It begins with a stairwayE, near the NE corner of the step pyramid, followed by a horizontal

westerly corridor which meets an upright shaft at P, on the NS axis. These are connected to a horizontally perpendicular one coming from the fishbone-like galleries in the north to the

burial chamber C, under the center of thesteppyramid.

The substructure of the middle kingdom pyramid of King Ameny

Qemau of the mid 13th dynasty 1700 BC at south Saqqara. Drawn by

Jaroslaw Dobrowolski 1997 for Nabil

 

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It is a fact (whether through accident or design), that the dimensions of the Great pyramid form an

accurate representation of the northern hemisphere of earth.

The exterior angle of the great pyramid can be formed with the vesica-pisces.

(Apothem - 1/2 base = 1.6181 (Ф), and       Height x 2∏ = Perimeter) Herodotus (440 BC), recorded that priests told him then that the Great pyramid was designed so that the area of each

This means that the designers incorporated Pi (∏), and Phi (Ф) in the following fashion.

The Giza pyramids also share simple geometric relationships between themselves.

The layout of the pyramids reveals the application of the 'sacred mean' - a 5:8 ratio.

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Geometry connects the 'satellite' pyramids.

The Giza pyramids were all built with simple horizontal rows of blocks - In the case of the great pyramid an estimated 2,500,000 with an average weight of 2.5 tons each. The pyramidion or Ben-ben is missing

from the top and has never been reported.While it is true that most of the construction features at Giza can be seen in the preceding pyramids of the third dynasty, there are several features which are completely unique.El Castillo, Chichen Itza

In 'The Great Pyramid Decoded, Peter Lemesurier writes, "It would be a rash man who undertook to find, even today, a building more accurately aligned to the True cardinal points of the compass, masonry more finely jointed, or facing-stones more immaculately dressed.... the sceptic may doubt that many of the pyramid's stones -- some of them weighing up to seventy tons -- were so finely cut and positioned as to give joints of less than a fiftieth of an inch in thickness'; '...he may scoff at the claim that a fine cement was run into these joints so expertly as to give an even coverage of single areas as big as five feet by seven in the vertical; he may express profound disbelief when it is pointed out to him that the building's now almost totally despoiled original outer casing of polished limestone (all twenty-one acres of it) was levelled and honed to the standard of accuracy normal in modern optical work. But these, as it happens, are facts which anybody may check who cares to'.

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This is one of the most ancient pyramid other than that of Egypt’s. It is designed in such a way that it can withstand any kind of hazardous earthquakes.

B. STONEHENGE, ENGLAND

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in the English county of Wiltshire, about 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Amesburyand 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is the remains of a ring of standing stones set within earthworks. It is in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds.[1]

Archaeologists believe it was built anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC, as described in the chronology below .Radiocarbon dating in 2008 suggested that the first stones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC,[2] whilst another theory suggests that bluestones may have been raised at the site as early as 3000 BC.

Archaeological evidence found by the Stonehenge Riverside Project in 2008 indicates that Stonehenge could have been a burial ground from its earliest beginnings.[5] The dating of cremated remains found on the site indicate that deposits contain human bone from as early as 3000 BC, when the ditch and bank were first dug. Such deposits continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years.[6] The site is a place

of religious significance and pilgrimage in Neo-Druidry.

The stones we see today represent Stonehenge in ruin. Many of the original stones have fallen or been removed by previous generations for home construction or road repair. There has been serious damage to some of the smaller bluestones resulting from close visitor contact (prohibited since 1978) and the prehistoric carvings on the larger sarsen stones show signs of significant wear. 

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The monument we see today is the result of several different construction phases with the

same area having been used long before Stonehenge itself existed

as testified by the adjacent Cursus and large post-

holes, both dated from well before any of the acknowledged

construction phases.

i. Construction of the Henge

In its day, the construction of Stonehenge was an impressive engineering feat, requiring commitment, time and vast amounts of manual labor. In its first phase, Stonehenge was a large earthwork; a bank and ditch arrangement called a henge, constructed approximately 5,000 years ago. It is believed that the ditch was dug with tools made from the antlers of red deer and, possibly, wood. The underlying chalk was loosened with picks and shoveled with the shoulderblades of cattle. It was then loaded into baskets and carried away. Modern experiments have shown that these tools were more than equal to the great task of earth digging and moving.

ii. The Bluestones

About 2,000 BC, the first stone   circle  (which is now the inner circle), comprised of small bluestones, was set up, but abandoned before completion. The stones used in that first circle are believed to be from the Prescelly Mountains, located roughly 240 miles away, at the southwestern tip of Wales. The bluestones weigh up to 4 tons each and about 80 stones were used, in all. Given the distance they had to travel, this presented quite a transportation problem. 

Modern theories speculate that the stones were dragged by roller and sledge from the inland mountains to the headwaters of Milford   Haven . There they were loaded onto rafts, barges or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales, then up the Rivers Avon and Frome to a point near present-day Frome in Somerset. From this point, so the theory goes, the stones were hauled overland, again, to a place near Warminster in Wiltshire, approximately 6 miles away. From there, it's back into the pool for a slow float down the River Wylye to Salisbury, then up the Salisbury Avon to West Amesbury, leaving only a short 2 mile drag from West Amesbury to the Stonehenge site.

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The Heel-Stone - (See Photo, right) - At 20ft long (4ft underground), around 8ft wide by 7ft thick (3), this stone is a classic example of an outlier, standing at the entrance to the earthworks, and in line with 'The Avenue'.  The 'Heel-stone' is a large upright, un-worked sarsen (hard sandstone) which lies immediately adjacent to the A344 road. The nearest source of stones of the size represented by the large sarsens at Stonehenge is on the Marlborough Downs, near Avebury, about 30km to the NE.

iii. Construction of the Outer Ring

The giant sarsen stones (which form the outer circle), weigh as much as 50 tons each. To transport them from the Marlborough Downs, roughly 20 miles to the north, is a problem of even greater magnitude than that of moving the bluestones. Most of the way, the going is relatively easy, but at the steepest part of the route, at Redhorn Hill, modern work studies estimate that at least 600 men would have been needed just to get each stone past this obstacle.

Once on site, a sarsen stone was prepared to accommodate stone lintels along its top surface. It was then dragged until the end was over the opening of the hole. Great levers were inserted under the stone and it was raised until gravity made it slide into the hole. At this point, the stone stood on about a 30° angle from the ground. Ropes were attached to the top and teams of men pulled from the other side to raise it into the full upright position. It was secured by filling the hole at its base with small, round packing stones. At this point, the lintels were lowered into place and secured vertically by mortice and tenon joints and horizontally by tongue and groove joints. Stonehenge was probably finally completed around 1500 BC.

The Ditch and Bank or The 'Henge' - (Stonehenge I): Moving inwards from the Heel Stone is a large earthwork enclosure that consists of a ditch and an interior bank, the original height of which was

calculated by Professor Atkinson as being about 1.8m (6ft).

iv. The Aubrey Holes - (Recently assigned a C14 date of 3,000 BC- 2,300 BC) (15).

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Extract from Burl - 'The heel-stone is popularly thought to stand in line with the midsummer sunrise but it does not and never did... Astronomical analysis has shown instead that the stone is in-line with rising of the moon halfway between its northern minor and major positions' .

The 'Heel-stone is thought by some to be one of an original four stones that once stood at the entrance to the henge. In 1620, Inigo Jones sketched the proposed sarsens in-situ. (see diagram, left).

The Station Stones - Also a part of  the first design, and originally four upright-stones, the 'Station-stones form a quadrangle in the inner edge of the earthwork bank. Apart from sharing the same orientation as the 'Avenue', the specific significance of these stones has defied any traditional explanation by archaeologists in the past as they are unique in British prehistoric architecture.

Immediately adjacent to the bank is a ring of 56 pits, known as the Aubrey Holes, marked by circular concrete spots. The Aubrey holes were suggested by Prof. G. Hawkins, to have been used for calculating

the phases of the moon and also for predicting the month of the year in which eclipses would take place. The area between the inner edge of the bank and the outermost stone settings includes at least two further settings of pits: the Y and Z holes. These are currently believed to have originally held the stones for the newly discovered 'bluestonehenge'.

v. The Y and Z holes - Almost every one of the 59, Y and Z holes had fragments of bluestone in them.

vi. The Altar Stone

 Lying in the geometric centre of the monument is a worked recumbent megalith. It was most recently excavated in the 1950s, but no written records of the excavation survive. The Alter Stone measures 16 feet long, 1 foot 9 inches deep and 3 feet 4 inches wide.Hawkins (3) makes note that while all the other stones were either bluestone or sarsen, the so called altar-stone is 'of fine-grained pale green sandstone, containing so many flakes of mica that its surface, wherever freshly exposed, shows the typical mica glitter'. The stone when standing would have reflected the sunlight enhancing the effect of the summer solstice sunrise.

vii. The Sarsen Stones

 In its hypothetical complete form the outermost stone setting would have consisted of a circle of 30 upright sarsens, of which 17 still stand today, each weighing around 25 tons. The tops of these uprights were linked by a continuous ring of another 30 horizontal sarsen lintels, only a small part of which is now still in position. The stones in the sarsen circle were carefully shaped and the horizontal lintels were joined not only by means of mortise-and-tenon joints, but were also locked using what is effectively a dovetail joint. The edges were smoothed into a gentle curve which follows the line of the entire circle.

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It is now well known that the simplest means of modelling the movements of the Sun and Moon (Tides) is with a circle of 28 markers around a central earth. Moving a 'Moon-marker' one position per day and a 'Sun-marker' once every 13 days, provides a calendar accurate to 98%. By doubling the sun-moon calendar to 56 markers, one can obtain an accuracy of 99.8%, with the additional  benefit of being able to predict eclipses to high accuracy. 

The combination of astronomically relevant orientations and means of accurate calculating both solar and lunar cycles with the same 'monument/device' offers the clear possibility that the (original) builders were already aware of 'Metonic' cycle, whereby both the cycles of the sun and moon synchronise over a period of 18.6 solar years or 235 lunations with an error of only 2 hours.

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The last phase of  development (Phase III), at Stonehenge shows a clear geometric foundation, with the 30 equally spaced upright sarsen-stones set in a perfect circle.

III. MEDIEVAL STRUCTURES

In the medieval periods man began using various new techniques. Some of the instruments that man invented for the purpose of construction are Artesian well (1126),Wheelbarrow (1170s),Rib vault (12th), Chimney (12th century), Segmental arch bridge (1345), Treadwheel crane (1220s), Stationary harbor crane(1244),Mast crane, and oil paints for arts. This is the period in which the constructin of castles, churches, cathedrals forts, domes and monasteries. Some of the examples are Taj Mahal, Group of Monuments at Hampi, Qutb-Minar of India, the Saint Panteleimos Monastery, Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle of England, Eiffel Tower of Paris, and so on.

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The Sarsen Horseshoe - Inside these two circles lies the sarsen horseshoe, consisted originally of five sarsen trilithons (a Greek word that means three stones), each comprising two uprights with a horizontal lintel. Although now fragmentary, the arrangement shows the careful grading of the five trilithons, the tallest of which is 6.7m (22ft) high above ground level. Enfolded within this massive horseshoe lies a smaller horseshoe arrangement of upright bluestones.

A. Cathedrals and castles

1. Cathedrals

Ecclesiastical and royal buildings.

Fine stone masonry: used only for public works, royal buildings and ecclesiastical buildings of royal importance: always using either arched cut stone spans or vaulted timber spans at roof level. Many such superb constructions still exist and are still in use today. Built to last.

The chief obstacles to construction of these buildings were the costs of material supplies and journeyman tradesmen, and the expertise of engineering required. Many royal landowners bank rupted themselves trying to pay for the cost of colossal stone buildings, and the pride of cities depended upon their ability to finish a cathedral once begun.

Every part of the building was designed for a long lasting and maintenance free usage. The gutters required lead. A very expensive metal. The domes required heavy copper sheathing. Shed roofs were finished in high grade slate, which was very heavy, and required very heavy roof frame to support it. A heavy roof demanded a massive structural framework down to foundations.

A cathedral spire two hundred feet high, or a large span across an eight foot high cathedral alter vault, would mean additional supporting structural loads which mounted greater and greater stresses as the loads work down to reach the ground. Eventually such dead loads at ground level meant absolutely huge foundation work under the point loads and shear walls. This took a lot work, which money, a lot of money.

Once up, these buildings had to be finished inside out, stained glass with huge structural metal framework, finely worked hardwood detailing reaching up the vast walls and across ceilings and mezzanines, furnishing sound enough to take the usage of public throng over hundreds of years had to be of very heavy construction, while the usage of the buildings required this heavy furniture to br finely detailed and recorded.

Interior finishes by master carpenters and sculptors needed to be executed as well as possible, without any regards to cost. These public works were intended to instill pride of ownership, not only on royal authorities but also in the hearts of the people who use them. To this effect, these buildings were unbelievably successful, in that they actually instill pride of ownership in the public six and seven hundred years after they were built.

Slate and also clay tiles were used for roofing so that the roof may be water and damp proof and maintenance free at least a generation.Stucco plaster on woven stick lathe backing: “wattle and daub” infill, usually used for the construction of the early medieval saxon manor houses and very few of them remail.

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Bruges Cathedral Kenilworth castle

The roofing of cathedrals

2. Castles

Castle construction was an expensive undertaking. Castle building employed about 3,000 workers (like carpenters, masons, diggers, quarrymen and blacksmiths) under the direction of a master builder. Castles generally took two to 10 years to build. The building materials are stone, clay soil and oak trees that are found near the site. The workers use traditional techniques from the 13th century. To split stones for the walls, quarrymen "read" the rock face to see the lines where it will fracture. They then drive a line of holes into the stone and then pound corners into the holes, which makes shock waves go through the stone and break it.

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Workers use horse-drawn wagons to haul the stones from the quarry to the building site. Stone masons then chisel the raw stone into blocks. Workers use man-powered cranes to lift the finished stones to the scaffolding on the castle wall.

Other workers make mortar on the site from lime, soil and water. The masons on the wall fit the stones together and use the mortar to hold the blocks together.

Workers use traditional tools to measure and lay out castle pieces. For example, craftsmen use a long rope with knots placed every meter to measure wood beams and layout pieces. They also use wooden right angles and calipers for measurements. They use a wooden triangle with a line and plumb bob suspended from one angle as a level when placing stones.

As the castle wall gets higher, new scaffolding must be placed in the wall and the old ones removed, leaving square holes in the walls. As of 2007, Castle Guedelon is about a third complete.

Once a castle was completed, it was ready for defense. Let's look at medieval siege techniques and the strategies used by both sides.

These early castles laid the foundations for developments of castles in the High Middle Ages.

1. Stone and brick walls replaced wooden ones. Stone walls were sturdier and could be built much higher.

2. In some castles, an inner wall was added, forming a concentric ring. This extra wall provided more defenses.

3. The bailey became larger and divided into separate courtyards.

4. The donjon became larger and made of stone -- and its name changed to the keep.

5. Other buildings were added in the baileys -- like great halls, palaces, chapels, residences for knights and servants, stables and workplaces for craftsmen.

6. Several large, tall towers were built into the castle. Some towers were incorporated into the outer walls, while others were freestanding structures within the courtyard.

7. Some castles had a substantially higher outer wall called a shield wall. The shield wall was often placed on the side of a castle that might be especially vulnerable to siege weapons like catapults, trebuchets and siege towers (more on this later). The shield wall could also prevent objects from going over the walls into the bailey.

Most outer walls had battlements on top, like:

Crenellations: Rectangular blocks alternated with openings across the top of a wall or tower. Soldiers could hide behind the blocks and shoot through the openings.

Walkways: Some walls had walkways built into the stone, while others had wooden walkways on the inside of the wall where soldiers could stand guard and defend the walls during battle.

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Hoardings: Covered wooden overhangs that ran along the top of a wall. The French later used stone hoardings called machicoulis. Hoardings had holes in the flooring from which soldiers could shoot arrows or dump various objects (rocks, hot tar, boiling water, hot oil) on attackers.

Breteches: Small, overhanging rooms on French castles, similar to hoardings, that jutted out from the wall. Breteches were made of stone, had windows or arrow loops, and also had a floor opening. A breteche extending above the top of a wall was called a bartizan.

Arrow loops: Narrow slits or openings in walls and hoardings through which archers and crossbowmencould fire arrows. Many arrow loops were wider on the inside and tapered toward the outside of the wall; this design gave the archer a wide field of view.

Embrasures: Rotating cylinders with an arrow loop that were built into the wall or tower and could give an archer a very wide field of view. Gatehouses, Drawbridges and Barbicans

Gatehouses were inside the wall and connected with the bridge over the moat, but they were more than just doorways. The gates were usually long tunnels with arrow-looped towers at either side of the entrance. The outer opening of the gatehouse tunnel was covered by a grated wooden or iron gate called a portcullis. Soldiers could raise the portcullis with a winch and lower it while under attack so defenders could shoot arrows through the openings.

Inner Walls and Towers The inner walls and towers were constructed much like the outer version. They had many of the

same features (arrow loops, hoardings, crenellation) and served the same purpose. The inner walls also divided the bailey or ward into different sections. In some castles, the inner towers were freestanding structures.

Residential apartmentscontained beds and furnishings. They were usually heated by fireplaces, and light came through glass windows.

The great hall could be located in the keep or in separate buildings Storage of food, beverages and gold was usually in the lower levels of the keep. Defense (arrow loops, armory, battlements) usually occupied the top levels. Prisoners were kept in the dungeon (derived from "donjon"). 

3. Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while thesapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble. A labor force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit.

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Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time.

Structural details of Taj Mahal

1. On a platform 22' high and 313' square. Each tower is 133 feet tall2. Building is 186 feet high and 70 wide.3. Corner minarets are 137' tall. Main structure 186' on a side, dome to 187'.4. The mausoleum is 57 m (190 ft) square in plan.5. z"The central inner dome is 24.5 m (81 ft) high and 17.7 m (58 ft) in diameter, but is surmounted

by an outer shell nearly 61 m (200).6. The Taj stands on a raised, square platform (186 x 186 feet) with its four corners truncated,

forming an unequal octagon.7. The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque concept, in which each element stands on

its own and perfectly integrates with the main structure. It uses the principles of self-replicating geometry and symmetry of architectural elements.

8. Its central dome is fifty-eight feet in diameter and rises to a height of 213 feet.9. It is flanked by four subsidiary domed chambers.10. The four graceful, slender minarets are 162.5 feet each.11. The entire mausoleum (inside as well as outside) is decorated with inlaid design of flowers

and calligraphy using precious gems such as agate and jasper.12. The main archways, chiseled with passages from the Holy Qur’an and the bold scroll work of

flowery pattern, give a captivating charm to its beauty.13. The central domed chamber and four adjoining chambers include many walls and panels of

Islamic decoration.

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Plans, elevation section and picture of taj mahal

IV. Conclusion

Thus, various techniques and different civil engineering concepts have been used at different times in different buildings. Each historical structure has its own specialization and specialty in all aspects.

References

1) http://www.aboutcivil.org/

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2) http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/3) On Proving Ancient Megalith Constructionby Jim Solley, Elizabeth City, NC4) http://en.wikipedia.org5) ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION OF A PYRAMID By Nabil Swelim

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