Constructing Grounded Theory 2nd Edition

Kathy Charmaz

'SAGE los Angeles ! London 1 New Delhi Singspore 1 Washington DC

Extended Contents

About the Author Xiii Preface to the First Edition xiv Preface to the Second Edition xvii Acknowledgments XX

l An Invitation to Grounded Theory l Emergence of Grounded Theory 5

The Historical Context 5 Glaser and Strauss's Challenge 7 Merging Divergent Disciplinarv Traditions 8

Developments in Grounded Theory 11 The Constructivist Turn 12 Why Constructivist Grounded Theory? 13 Grounded Theory as a Constellation of Methods 14

Constructing Grounded Theory 16 Constructing Grounded Theory at a Glance 17

Figure 1.1 A visual representation of a grounded theory 18

2 Gathering Rich Data 22 Thinking about Methods 24

Seeing Through Methods 24 Figure 2.1 Wasserman and Clair's study 25 Reaching for Quality 32 Gathering Grounded Theory Data 34

Grounded Theory in Ethnography 35 Defining Ethnography 35 Box 2.1 Christopher Schmitt's Reflection-An Ethnography

of "Territorial Fair" 37 Gaining Access and Getting lnvolved 39

Documents as Data 45 Elicited Documents 47 Extant Documents 48 Box 2.2 Jason Eastman's Reflection an Embracing Contradictions in Ethnographie Data 50 Studying Documents 52

Concluding Thoughts 54

CONSTRUCTING GROUNDED THEORY

3 Crafting and Conducting Intensive Interviews Thinking about Intensive lnterviewing

Preparing for the Interview

Getting Ready

55 56 59 59

Constructing Your Interview Guide 62 Box 3.1 A Sample of Grounded Theory Interview Questions about a Life Change 66

Conducting the Interview 68

Etiquette and Expectations in lnterviewing 68 Box 3.2 Do's and Don'ts of Intensive lnterviewing 70 Negotiations during the Interview 71 Box 3.3 James Joseph Dean's Reflection about

lnterviewing Heterosexual Men and Warnen Problems, Prospects, and Strengths of lnterviewing Concluding Thoughts

4 Interviewing in Grounded Theory Studies Why Intensive lnterviewing Fits Grounded Theory

Pursuing Theory

Figure 4.1 lnterviewing in Grounded Theory Studies constructivist lnterviewing

Considering Constructivist lnterviewing Practices The Significance of Language and Meaning in Constructivist Grounded Theory Interviews Box 4.1 Catherine Conlon's Interview Excerpt Box 4.2 Catherine Conlon's Reflection on Explicating a

Research Participant's Key Term lnterviewing in Theoretical Sampling How Many Interviews?

concluding Thoughts

75 78 82

83 85 87 88 91 91

94 100

101 103 105 108

5 The Logic of Grounded Theory Coding Practices and Initial Coding 109 Box 5.1 Initial Grounded Theory Coding 110

The Logic of Grounded Theory Coding 113

About Coding 113 Constructing Codes Entering an lnteractive Analytic Space

Initial Coding

The Logic of Initial Coding Box 5.2 Grounded Theory Initial Coding Example Coding for Topics and Themes vs. Coding with Gerunds Box 5.3 - Initial Coding for Topics and Themes Box 5.4 Grounded Theory Coding in Comparison with

Thematic Coding Initial Coding Practices

Word-by-Word Coding Line-by-Line Coding Box 5.5 Kris Macomber's Initial Line-by-Line Coding

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114 115 116 116 119 120 122

123 124 124 124 126

CONTENTS

Coding lncident with lncident Box 5.6 Comparing lncident with lncident Box 5. 7 Comparing Properties in lncident with lncident Coding:

Comprehending the Ominous Moment Using Comparative Methods Advantages of Initial Coding In Vivo Codes

Transforming Data into Codes Concluding Thoughts

6 Focused Coding and Beyond Box 6.1 Focused Grounded Theory Coding

Focused Coding in Practice Box 6.2 Kris Macomber's Focused COding Box 6.3 Focused Coding: Robert Thomberg's Study of Bullying Box 6.4 Focused Coding

Axial Coding Figure 6.1 Forms of Telling

Theoretical Coding: Application or Emergence? Box 6.5 Thomberg on Bullying

Wrestling with Preconceptions Strategies for Revealing Preconceptions Concluding Thoughts

7 Memo-writing Box 7.1 Example: Early Memo on Connections between Losing Voice and Self

Methods of Memo-writing Keeping a Methodological Journal Box 7.2 Richard McGrath's Reflection and Methadological Journal Entry Box 7.3 Richard McGrath's Memo on Documents Routes for Writing Memos Box 7.4 How to Write Memos Box 7.5 Codes: Interview with Staff Member P-D in a Facility

for Survivors of Brain lnjury Standpoints and Starting Points in Memo-writing Box 7.6 Early Memo: Explaining All-Encompassing Lass Box 7.7 Example of a Memo - Suffering as a Moral Status Figure 7.1 Hierarchy of Moral Status in Suffering Box 7.8 Treating an In Vivo Code as a Category

Adopting Writers' Strategies: Prewriting Exercises Clustering Freewriting Figure 7.2 'Example of Clustering' Box 7.9 Example of a Focused Freewrite an Codes from Bonnie

Presley's Interview

ix

128 129

131 132 133 134 136 136

138 139

140 142 143 145 147 149 150 152 155 158 160

162

163 164 165 166 167 168 169

172 173

174

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179

180 183 184 186 187

188

CONSTRUCTING GROUNOED THEORY

Using Memos to Raise Focused Codes to Conceptual tategories 188 Box 7.10 Example of a Memo Prompted by Studying an

Eartier Memo - The Category of 'Existing from Day to Day' 190 Concluding Thoughts 191

8 Theoretical Sampling, Saturation, and Sorting 192 Box 8.1 Excerpt from Jennifer Lois's Reflection on

Constructing an Emergent category 195 Considering Theoretical Sampling 197

Distinguishing Theoretical Sampling from Other Types of Sampling 197 The Logic of Theoretical Sampling 199 Theoretical Sampling and Abductive Reasoning 200 Box 8.2 Sequencing: Eliciting Nostalgia and Anticipating Regret 203 Using Theoretical Sampling 204 Discovering Variation 207 Box 8.3 Example of a Memo on Variation 208 Problematics of Theoretical Sampling 208 Benefits of Theoretical Sampling 212

Saturating Theoretical Categories 213 Theoretical Sorting, Diagramming, and lntegrating 216

Theoretical Sorting 216 Diagramming 218 Figure 8.1 Losing and Regaining a Valued Seif 219 Figure 8.2 Friese's Messy Map of the Gaur and Banteng

Cloning Situations 221 lntegrating Memos 221 Figure 8.3 Friese's Neat Map of the Gaur and Banteng

Cloning Situations 222 Figure 8.4 Friese's Relational Map of Banteng 223

Concluding Thoughts 224

9 Reconstructing Theorizing in Grounded Theory Studies 225 What ls Theory? 227

Positivist Definitions of Theory 229 lnterpretive Definitions of Theory 230 Table 9.1 Epistemological Underpinnings of

Grounded Theory 232 The Rhetoric, Reach, and Practice of Theorizing 232

Objectivist and Constructivist Grounded Theory 234 Objectivist Grounded Theory 235 Figure 9.1 Ojectivist and Constructivist Grounded Theory:

Comparisons and Constrasts 236 Constructivist Grounded Theory 239

Theorizing in Grounded Theory 241 Critique and Renewal 241 Developing Theoretical Sensitivity through Theorizing 244

X

CONTENTS

Scrutinizing Grounded Theories Developing a Category for Substantive Theorizing:

Elaine Keane Box 9.1 Elaine Keane's Reflection an Distancing/Distancing

to Self-Protect Figure 9.2 The Logic of Distancing to Self-Protect -

Haine Keane Extending Extant Theory with a New Concept:

Michelle Wolkomir Challenging Extant Theory: Susan Leigh Star

Concluding Thoughts

10 Symbolic lnteractionism and Grounded Theory The Symbolic lnteractionist Tradition Pragmatism and the Chicago Heritage of Symbolic lnteractionism Symbolic lnteractionism as a Theoretical Perspective

lnteraction, Interpretation, and Action Premises of Symbolic lnteractionism Defining the Situation, Naming, and Knowing

The Dramaturgical Approach Symbolic lnteractionism and Grounded Theory as a

Theory-Methods Package Box 10.1 Anne R. Roschelle's Reflection an Using

Symbolic lnteractionism Symbolic lnteractionism in Grounded Theory Studies Concluding Thoughts

11 W riting the Draft Figure 11.1 Writing the Report

Regarding Writing Making Your Mark Drafting Discoveries

Revising Early Drafts Pulling the Pieces Together Constructing Arguments Box 11.1 Draft: Stories and Silences: Disclosures and

Seif in Chronic lllness Box 11.2 Final Manuscript: Stories and Silences: Disclosures

and Self in Chronic lllness Scrutinizing Categories Box 11.3 Excerpt from an Early Memo an Disclosure Box 11.4 Published Version of the Memo an Disclosure

Preparing Your Manuscript for Publication Planning for Publication Titles Talk lnstructive Abstracts and Keywords

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24B

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261 262 263 265 265 270 272 273

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279 281 284

285 286 288 288 289 290 290 292

294

295 296 297 298 299 300

301 303

CONSTRUCTING GROUNDEO THEORY

Returning to the Library: Literature Reviews and Theoretical Frameworks The Disputed Literature Review Box 11.5 Writing the Literature Review

Writing the Theoretical Framework Box 11.6 Example of a Theoretical Framework

Rendering Through Writing

Concluding Thoughts

12 Reflecting on the Research Process The Core ot Grounded Theory: Contested Versions and Revisions

Emerging Constructions of Grounded Theory Methods and Grounded Theories as Emergent Constructions

The Union of Comparative Methods and lnteraction in Grounded Theory

What Defines a Grounded Theory? Grounded Theory and Recent Methodological Developments

Considering Mixed Methods Research Turning toward Social Justice lnquiry

Grounded Theory in Global Perspective The Effects of Post-colonialism Collecting Data and Cultural Contexts The Centrality of Language Points of Cultural Convergence lssues in Using Grounded Theory

Evaluating Grounded Theory

Criteria for Grounded Theory Studies Credibility Originality Resonance Usefulness

Grounded Theory or the Past, Present, and Future

A Constructive Return to Grounded Theory Origins Transforming Knowledge

Glossary Bibliography Index

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319 320

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321 322 323 323 325 328 329 330 331 333 334 336 337 337 337 337 338 338 338 339

341 346 379