Conservation and Management Recommendation for Anoa in Sulawesi

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This article explain about conservation and management recommendation for Lowland Anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) in sulawesi

Transcript of Conservation and Management Recommendation for Anoa in Sulawesi

Page 1: Conservation and Management Recommendation for Anoa in Sulawesi

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LOWLAND ANOA (Bubalus depressicornis) IN SULAWESI

Abdul Haris Mustari1, Peter Jarman2

1 Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, PO Box 168, Bogor 16001, E-mail: [email protected] Division of Ecosystem Management, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT

Conservation issues related to anoas include illegal hunting, illegal logging and cutting of trees, rattan collecting and forest encroachment. Management recommendations should aim to conserve anoas in their natural habitats. This in-situ conservation will benefit not only the target species or genus but also all species of wildlife inhabiting the same rain forest. Gazetting areas of remaining suitable habitats of anoas is needed, particularly areas of lowland rain forests that have the highest pressure from people’s activities, such as converting the forests into settlements and plantations or others anthropogenic environments. Stricter law enforcement should be imposed and the Indonesian Environmental Act (Republik Indonesia 1990) should be applied in order to stop illegal hunting and illegal logging; the authorities should apply the law and punish people or groups convicted of breaking the law. Increasing awareness of the people is one of the keys for conserving the endemic species and their habitats. Anoa in Tanjung Amolengo were only seen more than 1 km from the settlement and roads indicating that the animals avoid forests near this settlement and any anthropogenic environment. Settlement on the boundary of a conserved area will reduce the capacity of that reserve to support anoas. Thus, settlements on the boundary of reserves should be avoided.

INTRODUCTION

Despite anoa having been listed as an endangered species and hence being formally

protected by Indonesian law, the animals are still under the threats of hunting and habitat

loss that occur throughout Sulawesi and pressures on the habitat and population of anoas

are intensifying as the number of people inhabiting the island increases. People’s

activities have resulted in anthropogenic environments in areas that were formerly

inhabited by the animals. Habitats of lowland anoa include lowland rainforest, beach and

mangrove forests, although the animals also inhabit forests at higher altitude up to 900 m

above sea level. Having population ranges in lowland areas, the animals are facing

bigger threats since settlements and plantations are concentrated at low altitudes along the

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coastal areas, which are also the main distribution ranges of lowland anoa. Therefore,

efforts are needed to stop and/or to minimize the negative impacts of people’s activity.

Anoas need to be protected for many reasons. First, the two anoa species, lowland

and mountain anoa (Bubalus depressicornis and B. quarlesi), have been protected in

Indonesia since 1931 and are listed as endangered species by IUCN (2006). The animals

are also listed on Appendix I of CITES, meaning that it is illegal to catch, kill or trade the

animals. Second, anoa are endemic to Sulawesi; wild populations of anoa can only be

found on the island, where they are at risk of extinction if the remaining populations are

exterminated either by human activities in altering and/or destroying the animals’

preferred habitats or by natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, both

of which could lead to local extinction of anoas. Third, although anoas inhabit a wide

range of habitats, ranging from lowland to mountain forests, they prefer primary rain

forests, which are diminishing throughout the island, rather than secondary forest of

modified habitats. Fourth, anoas occur at very low densities, indicating that vast suitable

forested areas are needed to conserve viable populations. Despite anoas being the

smallest of the living buffalo species, they are the largest of Sulawesi’s endemic

ungulates; they need a relatively wide forested area to preserve a viable population.

Finally, the two anoa species have become fauna mascots and are flagships for

conservation in Sulawesi.

This study aims to address conservation issues associated with lowland anoa such

as hunting, logging and rattan collecting, settlement encroaching into the forests, and lack

of people’s awareness for conserving the habitat and populations of the animals. These

conservation problems stem from the lack of law enforcement in implementing the

existing Environmental Acts. By recognizing the conservation issues affecting the

lowland anoa, strategies for better management of lowland anoas are proposed. aa

The data used in formulating these management recommendations are based on

previously reported information on anoa, ecological information on anoa generated from

this study, and information gathered from the local people during AHM’s study in the

region in the last nine years (since 1994). Conservation issues and management

recommendations that will be addressed in this chapter are primarily aimed at conserving

lowland anoas. However, many other wildlife species sharing the rain forest with

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lowland anoa, such as mountain anoa, babirusa, Sulawesi warty pig, seven of Sulawesi’s

endemic macaques and other endemic species, will also be protected by their

implementation.

CONSERVATION ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH LOWLAND ANOA

Illegal hunting

Anoa are hunted mainly for their meat, which is said to taste similar to the meat of

water buffaloes. Although anoa horns are apparently not the main reason for their being

hunted, the horns are appreciated as trophies, as can be seen in houses of the locals.

The animals are hunted using traditional methods, such as hunting with the

assistance of dogs, using spears and setting leg-snares. Another method is to set up sharp-

tipped bamboo stakes, 0.7-1.0 m high, along the natural paths of the animals in the forests

and surrounding the plantations. However, leg snares are preferred by the locals since

they require minimum effort to catch the target animals and are difficult for the forest

guards to detect.

The snares were set up along the natural paths of the animals, around wallowing

sites and springs, and on forest borders targeting animals coming out from the forests at

night looking for food such as crops, young leaves and the new sprouts of undergrowth

that has been recently cut by the farmers. As the leg snares are non-selective, any of the

forest ungulates passing the snares, such anoa, Babirusa, Rusa deer and Sulawesi warty

pig, may be captured. As an example of the intensity of snare-setting, during this study

fifteen snares were found around the small feeding ground of Tanjung Amolengo in 1

visit

Nevertheless, it was quite difficult to assess numbers of anoas hunted by the locals

since they know that the animals are protected by Indonesian law. Thus, it was also

difficult to track anoa meat entering the traditional markets because of people’s fear of

punishment for engaging in this illegal hunting. The meat is usually sold door to door in

the villages or the meat is simply shared in the community.

The only possible mean of recording the hunting of anoas was by checking the

animals’ skulls owned by villagers, which were usually hung on the walls of their houses

as trophies. However, numbers of anoa skulls recorded in the villages very often do not

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reflect the real rate of hunting the animals since most of the anoa captured were not

reported to the authorities and many of the skulls were hidden by the locals since they

knew that anoa are protected (Mustari, personal observation). That most of the anoas

killed were not reported to the authorities has also been admitted by La Ondu (personal

communication), a veteran Forest Ranger in Tanjung Amolengo.

The limited previous studies on anoa hunting in Central Sulawesi showed a catch

rate of 1.5 anoa per village per year (Kasim 2000). Kasim also reported that in his study

area a total of 161 skulls were observed and 443 anoas (based on the skulls) had been

killed over a 40-year period.

In Morowali Nature Reserve (225,000 ha), which is in the eastern coast of Central

Sulawesi, Alvard (2000) reported that from January 1, 1995 to March 31, 1996 (455

days), the Wana People, the hunter-gatherers of the uplands in this region, captured 9

anoas, 57 Sulawesi warty pigs, 3 Sulawesi black macaques and 1 Rusa deer. For Wana,

Sulawesi warty pig and anoa play an important role in their diet; wild pigs and anoa

provided 58% and 40% by weight respectively, of the bush meat they hunted (Alvard

2000). Despite anoas being taken in smaller numbers than wild pigs by the Wana, they

contributed disproportionately to the harvest because of their larger size (Alvard 2000).

Burton, Hedges and Mustari (2005) reported that, of 14 hunters that were

questioned by them, the majority hunted occasionally, killing between one and ten anoas

each over the last five years. They also reported that five of the hunters sold the meat,

while the others consumed it in the forest or within the local community.

A total of 23 anoa skulls have been collected and inspected by me in Amolengo

village and its surrounding area. The oldest skull was that of an anoa captured by the

people in 1972 and the newest individual was an anoa captured in 2002. This number of

anoa killed by the villagers, however, is the minimum since many of the animals captured

were not reported to the authorities.

AHM’s personal observation in Tanjung Amolengo and its surrounding areas

revealed that hunting with firearms was being conducted (especially during the dry

season) by some of the police and military personnel whose base was 40 km away from

the reserve. They usually hunted in groups of 3-5 people, using cars at night along the

village roads between 12:00h midnight and 05:00 h am. Their targets included anoa, Rusa

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deer and wild pig, since they were from several different religions and included Moslems,

Christians and Hindus. Among the three ungulates, Sulawesi warty pigs were the easiest

to capture or kill by this method since the animals were less secretive than the ruminants.

In each hunting trip, on average 3-5 wild pigs and 1 Rusa deer might be captured, and

anoas were occasionally killed by these opportunistic hunters.

Hunting with a group of 15-20 people using nets was just recently introduced by

Balinese transmigrants whose settlement is about 60 km from Tanjung Amolengo. They

used a truck traveling along the village’s roads in search of wild pigs, which usually came

out from the forest immediately after dusk visiting sago stands, swampy areas,

plantations and secondary forests alongside the roads. The wild pigs were easily found

by the hunters, feeding on fibre and/or remnants of sago starch, tubers or bulbs of the

crops. The tools used by the hunters were very simple, and included nets, torches,

machetes and wooden poles/sticks for setting the nets. Nets about 40 m long and 1 m

high were set up in the sago swamps and, after detecting the presence of the animals

within the area, the hunters drove the pigs into the net where the animals were cornered;

then the wild pigs were captured alive. At least 30 wild pigs could be captured per night.

The live wild pigs then were transported to Kendari, the nearest city, to be sold to the pig

dealers. The dealers then transported the live animals either to Surabaya in East Java or

to Central and North Sulawesi where people are predominantly Christian.

Unlike in the northern part of the island, hunters in Southeast Sulawesi are mainly

not professional hunters, since they are mostly farmers and mostly captured the forest

ungulates while working in their plantations. By contrast, in northern Sulawesi hunting

the larger forest mammals, including babirusa, anoa, Sulawesi warty pig and Sulawesi

black macaque, has become more commercialized (Clayton 1996).

Forest encroachment

There are no data available on the deforestation rate on Sulawesi, although the

deforestation rate for the whole country is 1.7 million hectares per year from a total

forested area of 120 million hectares (World Bank 2001). As any other part on the

country, Sulawesi Island is facing a high rate of deforestation. The key conservation areas

on Sulawesi, such as Rawa Aopa Watumohai, Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani Warta Bone

National Parks which are in the south-east, central and north of the island, are no longer

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safe ‘homes’ for anoa and others of Sulawesi’s endemic species because of illegal

hunting and habitat loss caused by the forest encroachments. Gold mining has been the

major threat to habitat of anoa in Bogani Nani Warta Bone National Park (287,100 ha),

while forest encroachments and illegal cutting have been threatening Lore Lindu National

Park (231,000 ha). An area of about 4,000 ha in the wilderness zone of Lore Lindu

National Park in Dongi-Dongi forest block has been clear-cut recently (2000) and is now

occupied by about 1500 families from nearby areas. Although the cleared area was only

about 2% of the park, the illegal settlers are still encroaching further into the park and

doing other illegal activities such as logging and hunting.

Significant habitat loss is happening in Rawa Aopa-Watumohai National Park

(105,000 ha) where about one-third of the park in Ladongi area has been cleared by

people mainly coming from South Sulawesi province planting cocoa and cashewnut in

the last ten years (Mustari, personal observation).

Another example of encroachment of settlement upon a wildlife reserve was in

Tanjung Peropa where, of 194.7 km length of its border, less than 20 km could be

controlled by the Forest Rangers. An area of about 100 ha was encroached upon in

Tambeanga in 2000 by a group of 20 people coming from Kolaka Regency, which is in

the northern part of the province, intending to grow crops of clove, coffee and maize.

Fortunately, their activities were detected by the rangers; thus their illegal activity could

be stopped and the people were chased out of the forest. However, as they were still

around the forest borders, establishing their simple houses there, these people are still

potentially cutting trees and encroaching upon the reserve since the Forest Rangers (only

two Rangers were in Tambeanga) rarely patrol the forest to check illegal activities. In the

same year (2000), forest around Molinese spring, which is the most important water

source in Kalobo forest, was cut by the locals, threatening the permanent spring that has

been used by the people as drinking water.

Illegal cutting of trees and rattan collecting

Illegal cutting of tree

Both legal and illegal logging have long been destroying habitats of anoa and

other endemic species living in the rain forests. Legal logging is defined as logging done

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by forest concession holders (who have permits from the authorities), while illegal

logging is logging done by individuals or groups of people without permits from the

authorities, both in protected and unprotected forests. A total of 49 forest concession

holders have been exploiting 3,047,037 ha (Ditjen PHPA 1996) of rain forest on

Sulawesi, while conservation areas including wildlife reserves, nature reserves and

national parks combined only cover 1,488,696 ha (Ditjen PHPA 1996). Forest concession

holders have been exploiting the rain forest during the last thirty years; and most of the

exploited forests are below 700 m above sea level, and these are the main suitable

habitats for lowland anoa.

Rattan collecting

The most common undergrowth community in Sulawesi’s rain forest is the thorny

palm, rattan Calamus spp. For example, 22 rattan species have been recorded in Tanjung

Peropa Wildlife Reserve (Mustari, personal observation). No data are available on rattan

harvesting throughout the island, although local examples of rattan collecting were

briefly observed in Tanjung Peropa. Rattan harvesting occurs throughout Sulawesi’s rain

forest and to some extent has affected habitats of the wildlife; yet this forest commodity

has played an important role in the local econo. Thus, a brief local example of this

activity is given in this section. Rattan collecting is illegal in protected forests including

wildlife reserves, nature reserves, recreational forests and national parks.

Rattan species that were usually harvested were rattans yielding good prices in the

market such as Calamus zollingeri, Calamus inops, and an undescribed Calamus species.

In Tanjung Peropa, people collecting rattans usually left their homes early in the morning

at 05:00 h and arrived in the forest at 08:00 h and then started cutting the rattans,

continuing till 13:00 h and then returning homes at 14:00h. When entering the forest,

they formed groups of 5-7 people, although each of them collected and sold rattans

individually. However, in areas where forests for collecting rattans were far from the

villages, the rattan collectors usually spent four weeks in the forest staying in simple

shelters at nights; this was done by the rattan collectors in the upper Paguyaman River

and Boliyohuto Mountain in North Sulawesi (Mustari, personal observation).

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The rattans were cut into 6 m lengths, then 8-10 cut rattans were bundled and tied

together. The rattans then were drag down the rivers (0.5-1 m depth) to the rivers’ mouths

near the beaches where rattan traders were waiting. During the study, 50 and 30 rattan

collectors were operating in Amolengo and Batu Mati catchment areas respectively. If

each of them could collect 80-120 kg per day (as I estimate), at least 4.0 and 2.4 ton of

rattans were extracted every day in the catchment areas. The rattans were sold for Rp

100,000 (Aus$ 20) per 100 kg in the villages. The rattan collecting occurred not only in

these two catchment areas, but also in Roda, Ulu Sena and Tambeanga catchment areas.

The stem of the rattan will die after the cutting. However as most of the rattan

species form clumps, which are similar to bamboos, new individual stems will grow

replacing the old ones. Normally, there are only one or two old stems (length varies from

10-50 m depending on the species) that are old and long enough to be harvested in each

clump. A clump can be harvested every six months as new stems get old enough to be

suitable for the next rattan harvest. Therefore, the rattan collectors repeatedly use certain

forest blocks (mainly riverine and lowland forests) for the rattan harvesting; yet as the

intensity of the harvesting increases as well as the increasing number of people involved

in this activity, new rattans in the clumps are no longer old enough to be harvested in a

sustainable way and this has forced the rattan collectors to move to other forest blocks,

widening their harvesting areas. This is likely to increase pressure on the habitat of the

anoa.

The rattan collecting causes negative impacts on habitats and populations of

wildlife species. First, people entering the forest for collecting rattans will disturb elusive

animals such as anoas; the animals will move from the rattan sites. Second, the people

make paths and gain familiarity with the forest, both of which may increase the

probability that they or other people may enter those parts of the forest that affect the

wildlife. Third, not only rattans are cut off, but so are the trees that support them. Such

tree-cutting further affects the quality and quantity of the habitats of the anoa.

Additionally, extraction of the rattans reduces coverage of the undergrowth community,

increasing the risk of surface erosion in the forests; in the long term that would reduce

quality of the habitats.

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To some extent, rattan harvesting would promote growth of the undergrowth

community, especially herbs and other lianas such as Merremia peltata; yet the negative

impacts of rattan harvesting upon the habitat and population of the secretive animals are

much worse. As mentioned above, the removal of rattans would decrease cover for the

animals; trees up which rattans climb are also removed; and the increasing number of

people entering the forest building temporary shelters (especially those who spend weeks

in the forest) affect the wildlife. During their stay in the forests, these rattan collectors

very often do other illegal activities such as illegal cutting of trees and poaching.

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LOWLAND ANOA

These management recommendations for lowland anoas are aimed to conserve this

endangered species in its natural range in rain forest on Sulawesi; i.e. they promote in-

situ conservation. This kind of conservation should be given priority since many

institutions in the country including the zoos (Ragunan Zoo, Surabaya Zoo and Taman

Safari Indonesia) (Manansang et al. 1996), local universities and individual animal

scientists in Sulawesi (Mustari, personal observation) favour and have proposed ex-situ

conservation for anoa; i.e. conserving the animals outside of their natural habitats. One of

the main advantages of in-situ conservation is that, not only will it protect one species

with very low numbers of individuals, but it will also protect the whole of that species’

wild population and, more importantly, the whole wildlife community of species and

their habitats in the rain forest.

This study showed that lowland anoas in the study sites are still capable of

producing healthy young in the wild, indicating that the major threats to conservation of

anoas are not ones of reproductive and breeding failure, but are ones that arise from loss

of suitable habitats, habitat fragmentation and illegal hunting. Thus habitat and

population management for lowland anoa should be put into a context of conserving the

rain forest and providing suitable reserves for anoa covering many habitat types ranging

from mangrove forest to forests at high altitudes.

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The following management recommendations include stricter law enforcement,

gazettal of remaining suitable habitats of anoas, conducting an island-wide survey of

distribution and population abundance of anoas, and increasing people’s awareness of the

need to conserve the rain forest upon which anoas and other wildlife species rely.

Relevance of the study’s findings

This study has added to our understanding of the ecology of lowland anoas,

including their population density, distribution among habitat types, habitat occupancy,

sociality and behaviour, their food plants in their natural habitats, the proportions of

different food plants eaten by the animals, seasonal changes in their diet,

similarity/dissimilarity of diets among the forest ungulates, and food intake of anoas in

captivity. All of these study’s findings will contribute significantly to a management plan

for anoas in their natural habitats. These study’s findings are as follow:

Lowland anoas occur at low density- Previous studies (Syam 1977; Lee 2000;

Riley 2001a, 2001b) and this study revealed that anoas live at low densities (0.9-1.1

anoas/km2 in the studied sites), indicating that a large area is needed to conserve a viable

population. Although it is not known yet how many anoa individuals are needed for a

viable population in a conservation area, the fact that the animals occur at very low

density suggests that large forested areas are needed in order to conserve them and

prevent inbreeding. For example, a population of 500 anoas would require an area of

about 500 km2 or 50,000 ha. This is larger than Tanjung Peropa Reserve.

Lowland anoas occupy many habitat types-The animals inhabit a wide range of

forested habitat types, ranging from mangrove forest, through beach forest, and lowland

forest, and rocky-lowland forest, to mountain forest, in altitude from the seashore to the

top of the mountains. These diverse habitat types provide food sources, water, wallowing

sites and cover for the animals. These habitat types complement each other in providing

these resources. Food plants and water sources such as rivers, water holes, springs, and

wallowing sites are found mainly in the lowland and riverine forests. Bamboo forest is

also important in providing food since anoas consume young leaves and shoots of the

bamboos, which also provide cover for anoas. Mineral sources and food plants can be

found in the mangrove and beach forests. The animals take refuge in the rocky-lowland

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forests in caves and in rocky-cliffs forests, which are rarely entered by local people

because of their rugged terrain. Therefore an uninterrupted set of habitats ranging from

mangrove and beach forests to forests at high altitude and in mountainous areas needs to

be considered in any management plan for anoa.

Lowland anoas do not show strong seasonal movements between forest types-

This indicates that anoa can be found all year round in any of the habitat types in the

reserves. This implies that anoas utilize all of these habitat types for their population

ranges in getting their daily needs such as food plants, drinking water, wallowing sites

and for traveling and interacting socially. Thus ideally the full set of forested habitats

should be conserved in reserves. This finding also means that surveys can be conducted

at any time of year with similar chances of detecting anoas.

Lowland anoas show local mobility-The animals are mobile within their

population ranges, foraging, traveling and engaging in social relationship. At night, anoas

may come out of the reserve searching for food plants in the forest edges and sometimes

in the plantations. This makes anoas vulnerable to capture even by passive hunters who

set up snares along the forest borders and in plantations close to the forests. Therefore,

frequent patrolling by Forest Rangers is needed not only in the forest itself, but also along

forest edges and even in plantations.

Lowland anoas are water-dependent animals - Anoas need water every day for

drinking and wallowing. Distribution of the animals is associated with closeness to water

sources such as rivers, springs, water holes, and wallowing sites particularly during the

dry season. The animals frequently visited these water sources, both by day and by night,

as indicated by direct sightings and indirect signs such foot-prints and dung of anoas

found around water sources. As in their wild habitats, the captive anoas studied needed

drinking water during the day and at night. Also in the zoo, the animals wallowed in

pools during the hot hours. That the animals are water-dependent indicates that water

sources in wildlife reserves and other protected areas need to be conserved and salt licks

that are frequented by forest ungulates should be protected from forest encroaching and

logging.

Lowland anoas display solitary behaviour-The solitary nature of anoas means

that the animals maintain a relatively constant social distance, avoiding big congregations

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at certain sites such as water holes, wallowing sites, and feeding ground. This is different

from the sociality of water buffalo, for example, which may form herds of 30-500

animals that gather at the same nightly resting area (Tulloch 1978). The solitary

behaviour of anoas prevents them from over-using the resources, which might be an

adaptation to the fragile ecosystem of the rain forest.

Lowland anoas use regular paths-This study revealed that anoa regularly used

paths connecting habitat components such as feeding sites, wallowing sites and water

holes, and cover; and this makes them vulnerable to be captured by hunters using snares.

The hunters usually take advantage of this behaviour by following the paths. Therefore,

Forest Rangers and park/wildlife reserve managers should concentrate on patrolling the

key habitat components for anoa such as water holes, springs, wallowing sites and the

paths that are frequented by the animals.

Lowland anoas are browsers- The Anoa’s diet covers a wide variety of food

plants including dicots, monocots, ferns and fruits, which are available from the

mangrove forest to the forest at high altitude, indicating that all of the habitat types are

important as food sources for anoa. The chief foods of the animals were dicotyledonous

plants, which constituted more than 70% of their diets. This suggests that anoa do not

need feeding grounds that are dominated by grasses and other monocot species. The

animals’ diets included monocots, yet the monocots were mainly bamboos and sedges

that grow in forest gaps and forest edges, not on the feeding grounds.

Artificially creating tree-cleared, grassy, feeding grounds within the protected

areas, as is sometimes proposed by the authorities to conserve anoas, will benefit only the

deer, not anoas; I do not recommend that this should be done. The two small feeding

grounds in Tanjung Amolengo that are frequented by forest ungulates are natural feeding

grounds. Lowland anoas visit these sites because they provide wallowing sites and water

holes, since the feeding grounds, situated at the lowest parts of the reserves, are

frequently inundated, particularly during the rainy season. For the anoas, the water

sources are more interesting than the grasses on the feeding grounds, while for the deer

the grasses and sedges are important since the deer are mainly grazers instead of being

browsers like the anoas. For the omnivorous Sulawesi warty pigs, the feeding grounds are

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used both as food sources (where they eat grasses and sedges including their stems and

roots) and as wallowing sites, as well as water sources.

Lowland anoas’ diets include many species of fruits- This study also revealed

that the anoas’ diets included many species of fruits, which formed 22% of the diet of

anoa in Kalobo forest in Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve. This implies that fruit-

bearing trees such as figs Ficus spp., Diospyros malabarica, Pangium edule, Artocarpus

sp., Dracontomelon mangiferum, Parkia roxburghii, Kjellbergiodendron celebicum, and

Dillenia ochreata are important as food sources for anoas. However, the animals

repeatedly visited the fruiting trees, making them vulnerable to capture by hunters who

know the habits of the animals. Thus, frequent patrols should be made around the trees,

removing and destroying the snares set up by hunters under the trees.

Lowland anoas are ecologically separated from sympatric ungulates. Although

Rusa deer can be found coexisting with the endemic ungulates in many parts of Sulawesi,

the deer are mainly found where they have access to open grassland and in relatively flat

areas. The three forest ungulates have different diets: anoa and Rusa deer are ruminant

herbivores, while Sulawesi warty pigs are monogastric omnivores. Although anoa and

Rusa deer are ruminants, they have different food plants and habitat preferences; anoas’

food plants are predominantly dicots while the deer prefer monocots; anoas occur mainly

in the primary forests while the deer occupy grasslands, secondary forests and forest

borders. Moreover, anoa could be found in the rocky-cliff lowland forests, which are not

suitable for the deer. Anoas are ecologically separated from Sulawesi warty pigs by their

distinct diets. Therefore there is no reason to cull either deer or pigs in order to conserve

anoas.

Lowland anoas avoid forest near settlement- Anoas showed a trend towards

being seen far from settlements and modified habitats (more than 1 km in Tanjung

Amolengo) indicating that settlement on the boundary of a conserved area will reduce the

capacity of that reserve to support anoas. Thus, settlements and other modified habitats

such as roads and plantations, on the boundary of reserves should be avoided.

Protect anoa from hunting

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Lack of law enforcement is the biggest conservation problem on the island.

Clayton (1996) and Lee (2000) claimed that conservation problems in North Sulawesi

stem mainly from hunting, so management should resolve to deter such activities through

effective law enforcement. For law enforcement, patrols by Forest Rangers of BKSDA

(Natural Resources Conservation Bureau of the Ministry of Forestry) in collaboration

with local police should be given the first priority. Regular patrols should be performed

along existing trails to catch hunters and their hunting tools such as traps and snares.

Focal points for anoas, such as springs, wallowing sites and riverine forests and forest-

plantation borders, should regularly be patrolled, since these points are used by poachers

to capture anoas and other wildlife using snares. All snares found in the forests should be

destroyed or removed from the forests and poachers encountered must be arrested and

charged in court, and realistic fines should be imposed. The fines should be set to deter

hunters from committing future illegal activities. Collaboration with the military police

should be developed in cases in which military personnel are involved in these illegal

activities.

Protecting suitable habitats for anoa

Any remaining rain forests that are still inhabited by viable populations of

lowland anoas should be gazetted as wildlife reserves or national parks. Forest areas that

have been poorly managed by forest concession holders, such as in Asera, Abuki and

Kolaka regions in the northern part of Southeast Sulawesi province, but that are still

inhabited by anoas and other endemic species of the island, should be protected as soon

as possible before being further destroyed by the logging companies or being encroached

upon by the local transmigrants aiming to grow crops such as cocoa and cashewnut.

Primary rain forests that could be proposed as protected areas for the animals might still

be found in Gorontalo and Central Sulawesi provinces. Surveys to identify primary rain

forests containing anoas should be undertaken as a matter of urgency.

Conducting an island-wide population survey

Very little is known about the population densities and distributions of anoa both

in protected and unprotected areas. A general map of recent distribution of anoa on the

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island has been prepared by Burton, Hedges and Mustari (2005) but it is only based on

presence/absence records of anoa within protected areas. An island-wide survey of

population distribution and population density of anoa is urgently needed as basic

ecological data for management planning for the animals, and to target future

management most effectively.

This project has shown that repeated patrolling of transects traversing several

habitats, undertaken by observers trained to identify anoa faeces, forms a cheap yet

reliable technique for gathering data on local distribution and relative density of anoa

(and similar forest ungulates). Such a technique could be developed as the basis for the

island-wide survey. The survey could be conducted by BKSDA staff in collaboration

with wildlife ecologists and/or biologists of the local universities.

Environmental education and training

People on Sulawesi are unaware that the rain forests and their ecosystem are

invaluable natural heritage that should be protected. Increasing the awareness of people

regarding the importance of the rain forest and its biodiversity, particularly of the

endangered species, is needed. The local universities and conservation-oriented NGOs in

collaboration with BKSDA offices should facilitate environmental education targeting

community groups, religious leaders, local teachers, youth and groups of those people

who frequently enter the forests, extracting forest products such as rattans and doing

illegal activities such as cutting trees and establishing cultivation that encroaches upon

the forests. In many parts of the island, informal leaders such as the religious leaders are

more respected than are the formal leaders of the government. Thus, involving the

religious leaders and their traditional institutions, such mosques and churches, in the

environmental education and conservation efforts would be a pivotal tactic.

The education should emphasize and convey messages to the locals that tangible

forest products such as timber are not the only values, but that forests also have intangible

values such as their role in protecting watersheds that prevent villages, towns or cities

downriver from the disasters of flooding during the rainy season and drought during the

dry season. Clean rivers are maintained by intact rain forest and the rivers are important

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as water sources for village households and for irrigation of agriculture alongside the

rivers.

For example, people in Amolengo and Langgapulu use a spring in the forest as a

source for drinking water and water for household use. People in Tambeanga use springs

in the forest for their daily life. Other springs that supply water for people include

waterfalls in Moramo and Woru Woru both of which are located in Tanjung Peropa. The

latter spring has supplied fresh water for ships and boats of fishermen in Kendari Bay for

many decades. Clean air surrounding the forests is another product of healthy forests. So

far people have taken for granted this invaluable commodity and it should be explained to

people that destroying forests will affect their own health and that the social cost of a

polluted environment will be very high.

Other non-timber forest products include bee-honey and medicinal plants, which

are important in generating income for the local people. A middle-size comb of the

honey-bee (Apis spp.) can produce as many as 40 jars (each 600 ml) of honey. A 600-ml

jar of bee-honey sells for at least Rp 25,000 (Aus$ 5) in the villages. Thus a medium-size

comb is worth at least Rp 1,000,000 (Aus$200), which is a good price for people living in

the villages. In this region honey-bees produce combs twice a year. At least four families

in Amolengo have been making a living from harvesting bee-honey from the reserves. In

Indonesia, the harvesting of bee-honey is illegal in the wildlife reserves and nature

reserves, but is legal in protection forests and in the buffer zones of national parks.

Additionally, the rain forests that are inhabited by many endemic species of flora

and fauna, such as anoa, babirusa, Sulawesi black macaque and hundreds of species of

birds, could be developed as ecotourism ventures in which the locals could actively

participate. Such ecotourism ventures could benefit local people who could provide

home-stays, and act as local guides and porters for the tourists. Since local people will

benefit from the protected forests, they will actively participate in protecting the forests.

Thus, the responsibility for conserving wildlife species and their habitats will be shared

by the authorities and the locals. The more benefit (in sustainable ways) the locals can get

from the forest, the more responsibility they can share with the authorities particularly

with the Forest Rangers who are directly guarding the protected forests.

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Educational materials, such audio-visual equipment, pamphlets, leaflets, booklets,

and posters, could be used for environmental education. These education materials could

be provided by the government or by local NGOs in collaboration with the government.

Short training sessions and interactive discussions addressing the importance of forests

and wildlife should involve the local teachers, religious leaders and community groups.

This training could be facilitated by the government or by the local NGOs in

collaboration with the local governments.

Lack of skill and experience of the Forest Rangers and BKSDA staffs has become

a limiting factor for conservation of protected areas. Forest Rangers should be given

basic training in identifying, surveying, monitoring and reporting of wildlife and more

specifically of the endemic species such as anoas. This training could be provided by the

local universities in collaboration with the Ministry of Forestry.

Domestic and feral animals

Introduction of domestic animals such as cattle into reserves will reduce the quality

of the habitats and might also transmit diseases to populations of wild ungulates.

Domestic animals compete with the forest ungulates for food, space, cover and other

resources such as water.

Domestic water buffalo and other livestock should not be released into

conservation areas. Strict regulation and realistic fines should be imposed on people

encountered deliberately releasing their domestic animals into the forests. Regular patrols

should be performed by the Forest Rangers to ensure that domestic animals do not enter

the protected areas containing anoas and other forest ungulates that would be susceptible

to parasites and diseases transmitted by the domestic and feral animals.

Planting multipurpose trees

Illegal cutting of trees in protected forests can be stopped or be steadily reduced by

promoting multipurpose tree planting outside the forests, using species such as teak

Tectona grandis and Vitex cofasus (Verbenaceae), Michelia campaka (Bignoniaceae) and

Antocephalus macrophyllus (Rubiaceae) which are known to grow successfully on the

island. However, as the villagers’ gardens/plantations are intended for growing crops

such as maize, cassava, sweet potato, cashewnut, coconut, coffee and cacao, the multi-

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purpose trees should be planted at the periphery of the plantations or be planted on

marginal lands that are not suitable for crops; these are usually occupied by sword grass.

Seeds of Vitex, Michelia and Antocephalus are abundant in the reserves and can be easily

collected by the villagers while teak seeds can be collected from teak provenance sites,

such as on Muna Island, which is very close to Sulawesi mainland.

By planting such trees, pressures on protected areas from illegal cutting should

slowly be reduced or even stopped and the locals would have an alternative, legal source

of timber. Furthermore, branches, twigs and waste of these trees can be used as

firewood. Although the trees need a long time to be harvested, they are actually green

savings for the villagers; trees that are planted today will become the timber source for

the villagers’ next generation.

CONCLUSION

Anoa are still hunted throughout Sulawesi by people using traditional methods

such as leg snares, hunting with spears with the assistance of dogs or setting sharp-tipped

bamboo stakes along the natural paths of the animals. Some anoas are also at risk of

being shot. Loss of suitable habitat for anoas through illegal and/or legal logging by

forest concession holders, and encroachment of settlements into forest, is continuing to

reduce both quality and quantity of habitat for this endangered species. Habitat and

population management for anoas should be undertaken with the aim of conserving the

animals in their natural habitats; such in-situ conservation would benefit anoas and all

wildlife species that share habitat and resources with the anoa. Our management

recommendations include stricter law enforcement, gazettal of remaining suitable habitats

of anoas, conducting an island-wide survey of distribution and population abundance of

anoas, and increasing people’s awareness of the need to conserve the rain forest upon

which anoas and other wildlife species rely.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial supports for this study were provided by the Australian Development

Scholarship (ADS) and Edinburgh Zoo. I would like to thank the appreciation and

interest of the staff of the Bureau of Natural Resources Conservation (KSDA) of Kendari.

This study would never have been completed without the assistance of many people in

the forests, especially La Tie, Ahmad S.Si., Pak La Uno, Pak Kadir, Pak Sungkono, Antu,

Engu, Idar and Tia for their help and for spending unforgettable days and nights in camps

deep in the rain forests during the field work.

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