Lecture 3

Conflict Theories

Conflict Theories

Conflict theories generated by researchers in the area of psychology have focused on what individuals bring to the conflict situation, and how that impacts the conflict process.

Psychodynamic theory

People experience conflict because of their intrapersonal states.

Nonsubstantive conflictA need to release tension unrelated to the other person in the situation and misplaced or displaced conflict in which the conflict is acted out with the wrong person or over the wrong issue are largely psychodynamic in origin.

Personality structure1. Id – pleasure principle Primitive, irrational and fantasy oriented. The source of instinctual energy is concerned with immediate gratification.

2. Ego – Reality principleThe rational part of the psyche that deals with reality by controllingthe id, while also satisfying the superego.

3. Superego - Idealistic principleThe moral component of personality that incorporates social standardsfor morality.The superego has 2 parts;i) Conscience – arises from experience of being punished for unacceptable behavior. (prohibitions, based on punishment) ii) Ego ideal – ideal behaviors, based on rewards

According to Freud, the id, ego and superego are distributed across 3 levels of awareness

To reduce anxiety of the ego in dealing with id desires and superego demands, the ego engages in several defense mechanism.

Defense mechanism – unconscious reactions that protect a person frompainful emotions such as anxiety and guilt.

Intrapsychic conflict anxiety reliance on defense(id, ego, superego) mechanism

Displacement - Redirect an impulse away from the person who prompts it toward a safe substitute. E.g., Yelling at your friendafter being criticized by your lecturer.

Concerned with how people interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.

This theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do.

People were like amateur scientist, trying to understand other people’s behavior by piecing together info until they arrived at a reasonable explanation or cause.

Attribution theory

This theory states that people act as they do in conflict situations because of the conclusions they draw about the other.

Attribution theory accounts for unreal conflicts, when we are assuming we are in conflict due to insufficient information or because of faulty conclusions we have drawn about the other person’s behavior.

Attributions affect the way people define conflicts, interpret the other’s behavior, and choose strategies to achieve their goals effectively within conflict situations.

Two types of attributions1. Internal attributionThe influence that a person is behaving in a certain waybecause of something about the person (e.g., attitude, character, personality).

2. External attributionThe influence that a person is behaving in a certain waybecause of something about the situation he or she is in (e.g., environment).

Our thoughts about othersAttribution is subject to several forms of error and bias.

Judging the behavior of others1. The fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Reflects our tendency to overestimate internal (traits & abilities), personality influences and underestimate external influences when judging the behavior of others.

2. Actor observer effect (Flip side of FAE)

Attribute others’ actions to stable characteristic, but we attribute our own actions to the momentary characteristic of the situation.

Judging our own behavior3. Self-serving biasOccurs when we attempt to find reasons for our own behavior, as wetend to take undue credit for positive outcomes and attribute negativeoutcomes to external causes.

4. Self-objectificationThe tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in others’ eyes.

Attribution theoryPeople are most likely to perceive the other as aggressive and respond with anger and revenge when three conditions are met.

1. The action the other person Person A cannot act in the way A wishes because of B’s actions.

2. The action taken by the other appears to have been done intentionally to do harm.

3. The action taken by the other is seen as abnormal or illegitimate. Anger and revenge are more likely if A sees B’s action as unusual or strange.

Relationship theoriesThese theories consider of how the relationship between the people involved in a conflict affects the way the conflict is enacted and resolved.

1. Social Exchange Theory (Kelly & Thibault)2. Game Theory3. System Theory4. Structural Theory

Social Exchange Theory (Kelly & Thibault) This theory suggests that social behavior is the result of

an exchange process.

Conflict arises when one person in the relationship feels that the outcomes are too low and perceives that the other will resist any attempt to raise the outcomes.

People evaluate their interpersonal relationships in terms of their value, which is created by the costs and rewards associated with the relationship.

People enter into conflict when they believe that the rewards they are receiving are too little in comparison with the costs they must pay in the relationship.

Social Exchange Theory (Kelly & Thibault) Worth = rewards – costs

If worth is positive, it is a positive relationship. In contrast, if it is negative indicates a negative relationship.

Reward – the elements of a relationship that have positive value (a sense of acceptance, social support and companionship).

Costs- the elements of a relationship that have negative value (time, money, effort etc.)

People assess the costs and rewards associated with their relationships through what is termed the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level of alternatives (CL alt).

Social Exchange Theory (Kelly & Thibault)Two comparison standards to differentiate between relationshipsatisfaction and relationship stability.

1. Comparison Level - a standard representing what people feel they should receive in the way of rewards and costs from a particular relationship. An individual's comparison level can be considered the standard by which an outcome seems to satisfy the individual

E.g., If your CL for clerical employment is an hourly wage of $8,you would be satisfied working for $9 an hour but feel exploited if you received only $7 for your labor.

Social Exchange Theory (Kelly & Thibault)

2. Comparison Level for AlternativeSecond standard use to evaluate the outcomes we receive.When using this evaluation tool, an individual will consider otheralternative payoffs or rewards outside of the current relationship or exchange. 

CLalt provides a measure of stability rather than satisfaction. Ifpeople see no alternative and fear being alone more than being in the relationship, Social Exchange Theory predicts they will stay.

Game TheoryA study of strategic decision making – mainly used in economics, political science and psychology

Games a conflict situation in which people must make choices while the other person is also making choices and in which both parties know that the combination of choices will determine the outcomes.

Game theory has four primary assumptions1. Interdependence The outcomes achieved by one person depend on one’s own choices as well

as the choices of other person.

2. Quantification It is possible actually to calculate the value of the positive or negative

outcomes that result from choices within the situation.

3. Exhaustiveness Every possible outcome that could result from any choice in the situation is

known to those within the situation.4. Maximization Each party seeks to act in such a way to gain the best possible rewards for

its own interest.

Considerable conflict research has used a game theory approach most of it using the Prisoner’s Dilemma (PD) paradigm.

E.g., two people are caught burglarizing in building and are brought separately to police station.

Person A Person B

Prisoner’s Dilemma paradigm

Two people are caught burglarizing a building and are brought separately to the police station. If both of them remain silent, they will both go free, but there is an incentive to speak.

If only one confesses, the one confessing will receive a reward and go free and the other will go to jail.

If both confess, they both will go to jail. In order to benefit, they must trust each other to cooperate and act in each other’s best interest. However, to cooperate first (by remaining silent), if the other chooses not to cooperate will result in the worst outcome for the person acting first.

This is called a mixed motive situation because those involved have incentives to both cooperate and compete.

Game TheoryPerson A Silent Confess

Silent

Person B confess

Prisoner’s dilemma matrix offers a good wayto study conflict between people.

Short jail term

Short jail term

goes free

Goes to jail

goes to jail

Goes free

life sentence

Life sentence

System Theory The basic rule of the System theory is that if we intend tounderstand a phenomenon, expression or conflict, wemust look at it within the context of the whole circuits being relevant to that phenomenon (e.g., a family system).

Conflict occurs within relationships system because a person in that relationship needs to adapt to demands of the other person or to demands in the environment surrounding the relationship. Conflict participants always identify the other as the cause while portraying the self as innocent.

System Theory

All conflicts occur in a system of interpersonalrelationships, in a specific scene, and with certain actors, some of which may be main actors and others supporting ones.

Theory that attempts to explain conflict as product of the tension that arises when groups must compete for scarce resources. This theory built based on observations of societies.

Structural functional theory holds that society is best understood as a complex system with various interdependent parts that work together to increase stability.

It takes the view that society consists of parts (e.g., police, hospitals, schools, and farms), each of which have their own functions and work together to promote social stability.

Important elements to enhance relationshipsTrustThe expectation that one’s partner can be relied on to behave in a benevolent manner and be responsive to one’s needs‖ (Holmes, 1989)

Three Components of Trust: Predictability (belief that O’s behaviour is consistent) Dependability (belief that O is honest/reliable/nice) Faith (belief that O is intrinsically motivated to be caring and responsive)Uncertainty Conflict situation occurs when we have insufficient information to understand another

motives, goal or behaviors or what we do not understand how another is responding to us.

A Relational theory of power

Power is the potential or ability to influence decisions and control resources. Power is the ability to get someone to do something she or he would not otherwise do. This does not necessarily mean that leaders can force their subordinates to do things.

Power is not owned by an individual. The particular relationship creates power distribution.

PAB = DBAThe power of A over B is equal to the dependence that B has on A.

PBA = DABThe power of B over A is equal to the dependence that A has on B.

Five dimensions of powerFrench and Raven (1959)Legitimate power - My position allows me to ask you.• make polite, clear requests, explain the reasons for a request

Reward Power - You will benefit• offer desirable rewards, offer fair and ethical rewards (avoiding

favoritism), explain criteria for giving rewards and provide rewards as promised.

Coercive Power – comply or you will be punished• Inform target of rules and penalties, give ample prior warnings and

try to understand the situation before punishing. Remain calm, helpful.

Referent power. – Because I am a good role model This power is often regarded as admiration, or charm. Theresponsibility involved is heavy and the power easily lost, but when combined with other forms of power it can be very useful.

Expert power – because I know more than youThe ability to administer to another information, knowledge or expertise (e.g., doctors, lawyers).

We learn three major areas of theoretical development in thestudy of conflict:

1.Theories emphasizing the role of the individual participants in the conflict

2. Theories emphasizing the role of the relationship between thosein conflict.

3.Theories emphasizing the system and structure of conflict.

Understanding the assumptions of these theories can help us to better understand our behavior.

Tutorial TaskWhat conflicts can you identify that were motivated by a desire to increase your rewards or to decrease your costs in a relationship? Were you successful? Why or why not?

Are there situations in your life in which you are more likely to displace your anger or conflict with the other person than to deal with it directly?

What characterizes those situations?

Attribution theoryWhen have false attribution you made about another exacerbated aconflict situation? Have there been times making accurate attributionsabout the other has helped you?

Select either internal attributions or external attributions

1. If you say that ‘he did this to me because he wants to get even’, are you making an internal or an external attribution about his retaliatory behavior?a. internal b. external

2. If you say ‘he made the test too hard, so I flunked it’, are you making an internal or an external attributions about your test grade?a. internal b. external

3. If you say ‘I’ve been in a slump, which is why I am not doing well these days? Are you making an internal or an external attribution about your behavior? a. internal b. external