Conflict in Europe The collapse of collective security: Abyssinia, the Spanish Civil War ● The brainchild of Woodrow Wilson, the League of Nations was written into the Treaty of

Versailles and was an organisation designed to resolve international disputes and avoid future conflict. To this end, the League relied on the concept of ‘collective security’: if a member country was attacked, the rest of the League would treat the matter as an attack on themselves and would go to the aid of their fellow members. Both military force and trade sanctions could be imposed. In addition, great emphasis was also placed on universal disarmament and the pressure of public opinion.

● The League had various successes, but its inherent flaws undermined its authority; America was never a member; Britain refused to commit troops to conflicts and was focused on internal problems; members did not always agree; nationalism overshadowed the notion of internationalism; and the League lacked a military force. Furthermore, in the absence of the United States, the League was dominated by Britain and France. France wanted a strong military alliance while Britain refused to commit troops to conflicts and was more focused on internal problems. Moreover, decisions were made by the League Council, which was dominated by permanent members France, Britain, Italy and Japan. The rule that Council decisions had to be unanimous made it extremely difficult for the League to make decisions in response to indiscretions.

● The 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria was the first major crisis to face the League, but no action was taken, highlighting the League’s ineffectiveness and the collapse of collective security.

● Having formed an anti-German Stresa Front with Britain and France, Mussolini’s ambitions for a colonial empire and dominance of the Mediterranean region led to an invasion of Abyssinia in 1935–36. The League attempted to condemn Italy and apply economic sanctions, but oil was exempted because the Allies feared Italy would just purchase oil from America, who was following its isolationist policy at this time. Britain and France wished to avoid upsetting Mussolini and prevent him from joining Germany. As such, the League failed to protect Abyssinia, which was defeated and occupied.

● Italy joined with Germany and Japan to form an Anti-Comintern Pact and withdrew from the League in 1937. The League’s credibility was destroyed and all confidence in its ability to settle disputes and avoid war was shattered.

● When civil war broke out in Spain in 1936, between elements of the Spanish army led by General Franco and Spain’s Republican Socialist Government, Italy and Germany intervened on the side of Franco while the Soviet Union intervened on the side of the government. Britain and France refused to intervene, which meant the League took no action; Franco’s Nationalist forces succeeded in 1939. For many, the Spanish Civil War is seen as a ‘dress rehearsal’ for the war that was then considered to be inevitable.

● Quite clearly, both the League of Nations and the concept of ‘collective security’ had failed dismally in their aims to solve major international disputes and avoid the conflict which was now just around the corner. When war was declared in September 1939, no one bothered to even inform the League.

Britain, France and the policy of appeasement: An assessment ● Most commonly associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in the

1930s, ‘appeasement’ meant conceding to the demands of dictators in the hope of avoiding war. Britain was in no mood to engage in another war; the effects of the Great Depression and the vivid memories of the Great War influenced public opinion, which was overwhelmingly pacifist. Chamberlain was reluctant to spend money on defence, and believed that Hitler’s demands were reasonable. The French, on the other hand, wanted to actively oppose Hitler’s moves – by force if necessary – but were helpless without Britain.

● No action was taken in response to German rearmament, the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, the remilitarisation of the Rhineland or the Spanish Civil War. Britain even signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935 which allowed Hitler to increase his navy to 35 per cent of the capacity of the British Royal Navy.

● Despite being forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles, the March 1938 annexation (Anschluss) of Austria into the German Reich was readily accepted by Italy, Britain and France.

● Hitler then demanded the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia, a demand that was refused by the Czechs. The Sudetenland contained more than three million allegedly oppressed ethnic Germans, as well as the highly prized Skoda Works, the largest munitions complex in Europe. Chamberlain, Hitler, Mussolini and Daladier (French PM) met in Munich in September 1938, excluding Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, who were not invited. Completely unprepared for war and intent on maintaining peace in Europe, they gave Hitler the Sudetenland as he promised that it would be his last territorial demand.

● On March 15, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia and the policy of appeasement was abandoned.

● Soon after, Hitler began to make demands on Poland regarding the disputed city of Danzig. While Danzig once belonged to Germany, the Treaty of Versailles had stipulated that it remain independent of either nation. When the Danzig crisis made it clear that Poland was Hitler’s next target, the Allies stood firm. Britain issued a written guarantee of Poland’s security on 31 March 1939, a guarantee backed by France. There is much evidence to indicate that Hitler thought the Allies would once again back down given their willingness to divide Czechoslovakia almost six months earlier.

● It has been suggested that the policy of appeasement allowed Hitler to revise the Treaty of Versailles and strengthen the German Army, and encouraged him to seek more demands and concessions.

● Conversely, it has been suggested that appeasement was the only practical choice because Britain’s public was overwhelmingly pacifist in the aftermath of the Great War and its army rundown; the Soviet Union was militarily weak and untrustworthy; America was withdrawn into isolationism; and the French were focused on internal divisions and were helpless on their own. It is also important to remember that the British Empire also faced possible threats from Italy and Japan, so it is hardly surprising that Chamberlain crafted a foreign policy designed to avoid and deter a potentially devastating war for as long as possible.

Significance of the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact ● Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union shocked the world with the announcement of a

Non-Aggression Pact on 23 August 1939. Since the early 1930s, Stalin had been attempting to build an anti-German alliance with Britain, France and other European nations, but they refused due to their fear of communism and Britain’s guarantee to Poland. Feeling increasingly isolated and exposed to German invasion, Stalin wanted to buy time to prepare Soviet defences. In addition, given the purges and the policies of collectivisation and industrialisation, Stalin knew that the Soviet Union was in no state to fight a war.

● The Germans, on the other hand, wanted a free hand to deal with Poland without the fear of Soviet intervention, primarily to avoid a two-front war. Hitler’s quest for Lebensraum in the East would be achieved once Britain and France were defeated.

● The two deadly enemies agreed not to go to war with each other for 10 years, and to remain neutral in the event of a conflict. A secret clause in the agreement confirmed German recognition of Russian interests in eastern Poland, Finland and the Baltic states, while Germany could take western Poland and Lithuania.

● Once his army was well and truly ready, Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland to begin on 1 September 1939; with no ultimatum or declaration of war, fifty German divisions invaded Poland and ignored Allied demands to withdraw. Two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany, purely as a diplomatic gesture in order to maintain their prestige as Great Powers; the Poles were unaware that little could be done to aid their sovereignty. Hitler had hoped the Allies would not react as they did; he was prepared for a short war, not a general European war.

Aims and strategy of German foreign policy to September 1939 ● Under the guidance and vision of Hitler, the main aims of German foreign policy during

this period were concerned with restoring the honour of Germany in the international world and included the following: ● To strengthen Germany by revising the despised Treaty of Versailles, rebuilding

Germany’s military capacity, and reclaiming land lost at the end of World War I. ● Unite all German-speaking people in a Greater Reich (Grossdeutschland). ● To achieve self-sufficiency in order to prevent another collapse of the home

front in the event of future conflict. ● The domination of all enemies, especially France and then the Soviet Union.

● A wide range of strategies were employed by Hitler in his quest to achieve his foreign

policy goals, including: ● Promoting himself as a man of peace who was only seeking to redress the harsh

treatment inflicted on Germany by the Allies at Paris. Hitler also promoted Germany as a buffer against the spread of communism from the east.

● Presenting his demands to revise the Treaty of Versailles as reasonable and fair, including his demand for military equality.

● A willingness to forge agreements in the short-term that he intended to eventually break – he signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Poland in 1934, the Rome-Berlin Treaty in 1936, and the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact in September 1939.

● Taking advantage of the policy of appeasement by threatening war if the Allies did not agree to his demands, often calling their bluff. For example, sending troops into the Rhineland in 1936, and the Anschluss with Austria in 1938.

● Deliberately lying about his intentions, claiming that each territorial acquisition would be his last. For example, his demand for the Sudetenland.

● A willingness to resort to war to achieve his aims.

Impact of Nazi ideology on German foreign policy to September 1939 ● As expressed in Hitler’s Mein Kampf, Nazi ideology consisted of a belief in Aryan racial

supremacy, anti-Semitism, anti-communism and an acceptance of militarism. Nazi foreign policy was directly influenced by Hitler’s racial aims and desire for Lebensraum (living space). Hitler believed that the ‘superior’ Aryan race would establish a ‘Thousand-year Reich’ and that this ‘master race’ needed to be protected from contamination by ‘inferior’ races, especially Jews. Additionally, this ‘master race’ would be served by the Slavs of Eastern Europe, primarily the Soviet Union, who were to serve as slaves. Lastly, Hitler’s ‘Thousand-year Reich’ required Lebensraum and raw materials, both of which would be acquired after the invasion and defeat of the Soviet Union.

● The majority of German foreign policy actions during this period were directly influenced by Hitler’s racial aims and desire for Lebensraum, although many historians disagree with the view that Hitler had a step-by-step plan to achieve these aims, arguing instead that Hitler was an opportunist who took advantage of favourable situations, such as Britain and France’s desire to avoid war at all costs. However, another view suggests that Nazi ideology had minimal impact on German foreign policy; proponents of this view argue that Hitler’s foreign policy aims were not at all dissimilar to those held by previous German governments.

German advances: The fall of Poland, the Low Countries and France ● The outnumbered and ill-equipped Polish Army was no match for the German

Wehrmacht and the tactic of Blitzkrieg, which combined attack by aircraft, armoured Panzer divisions and soldiers in a concentrated attack on the enemy’s defences. Britain and France were too far away to stop the invasion. Poland’s capital, Warsaw, fell on 28 September and by November the Germans and the Russians had occupied the whole country. A total of 694 000 Polish soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans while another 217 000 were captured by the Russians.

● After the fall of Poland, there was no actual fighting in what was labelled a ‘Phoney War’ or ‘Sitzkrieg’. However, it was not a period of complete inactivity; military actions during this period included the Soviet Union’s invasion and defeat of Finland, small encounters between French and German troops along the Maginot Line, naval clashes between Britain and Germany, and German U-Boat attacks on Allied shipping.

● By the spring of 1940, Hitler’s forces attacked and rapidly occupied four unprepared neutral countries: Denmark, Norway, Holland and Belgium. Hitler had launched the Norwegian campaign in a bid to secure the importation of Swedish iron-ore, which was crucial for the German war effort, thus impeding the effectiveness of a potential British naval blockade. Norwegian harbours were also useful launching pads for German U-boat raids into the North Sea and the Atlantic.

● Germany then entered and defeated France in just six weeks, avoiding the Maginot Line altogether and instead invading from the unfortified, hilly and forested area of the Ardennes in south-eastern Belgium.

● The British Army in France was forced to retreat across the Channel from Dunkirk. However, due to Hitler’s hesitation, more than 225 000 British and 110 000 French troops were evacuated across the Channel in one of the greatest naval rescue operations in history. The French surrendered on 25 June 1940; German forces occupied northern France while part of the south and southeast of the country was left under a puppet French government, in the town of Vichy. France’s fixed defensive positions were no match for Blitzkrieg and the swift Nazi Panzer divisions. Only Britain remained to fight Germany.

● While little was happening on land during the duration of the ‘Phoney War’, the same cannot be said of the English Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. Much like in the Great War, in order to survive Britain was heavily dependent on the shipment of resources from the United States via the Atlantic. Aware of this, Hitler ordered his Kriegsmarine and its Unterseeboots to target any non-German shipping. Convoys and the development of sonar were utilised in an attempt to nullify the damage caused by teams of U-boats, also referred to as ‘Wolf Packs’.

● The Battle of the Atlantic lasted the entire duration of the war and resulted in the sinking of nearly 15 million tonnes of Allied shipping and the loss of 60 000 Allied and German lives.

The air war and its effects: The Battle of Britain and the Blitz, the bombing of Germany ● After the fall of France, Britain was left alone to stand against Germany. The new prime

minister, Winston Churchill, refused to discuss peace terms with Hitler, leaving him with no choice but to attack Britain. However, before an invasion – codenamed Operation Sea Lion – could take place, the Luftwaffe (Air Force) would need to gain control of the air. German planes initially bombed coastal targets and shipping and then airfields, but an Allied bombing raid on Berlin infuriated Hitler, who decided to switch the attack to the cities in an effort to terrorise Britain into surrender. This bought Britain valuable time to repair the damaged airfields and produce more fighter planes, enabling RAF to defeat the Luftwaffe.

● The RAF fought back and the clash between the two became known as the Battle of Britain. As the battle raged throughout the summer of 1940, both sides suffered heavily; fortunately, the Germans were unaware that British Fighter Command was losing fighter pilots faster than it could replace them. In the end, the Germans were only narrowly defeated, and Operation Sea Lion was abandoned. The RAF was victorious for a number of reasons, including British farsightedness in developing ‘fighter’ planes and perfecting the use of radar, as well as the undisputed heroism of the RAF and the

advantage of operating over their home ground. The RAF also benefitted from the Luftwaffe’s poor planning, failure to adequately target radar installations, as well as the change in strategy after September 7.

● The Battle was a turning point in the war, as German victory in this battle would have resulted in the invasion and defeat of Britain, which might well have resulted in German victory in the war.

● Having turned his attention to the east, Hitler still ordered the Luftwaffe to continue bombing the major cities, centres of industry and ports in an effort to terrorise the civilian population and disrupt Britain’s war effort. London, Plymouth, Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol and Coventry were all targeted. Known as the Blitz, this continued from September 1940 until May 1941, and resulted in the deaths of 60 000 British civilians as well as damage to factories, railways, ports and homes.

● However, British resolve won through and war-torn Britain was rebuilt to continue opposing Germany. Furthermore, American public opinion was sympathetic towards their suffering, making it easier for American politicians to send vital military equipment and supplies to Britain. In the last years of the war Hitler placed great unfounded hope in the introduction of the pilotless V-1 and V-2 rockets, which killed over 9000 Britons and destroyed over 25 000 homes. They proved to be more a weapon of terror than a decisive weapon to end the war.

● Churchill believed that strategic bombing was the only method Britain had of hitting back at Germany, and ordered Britain’s Bomber Command to launch an all-out bombing offensive. Air Marshall Arthur Harris was appointed Commander-in-Chief of Bomber Command in February 1942. He believed that the war could be won with the controversial strategy of intensive bombing of entire cities rather than specific targets. While Allied losses were devastatingly high as a result of German anti-aircraft guns, with no fewer than 57 000 British airmen killed, approximately 750 000 German civilians perished during the bombing raids over Germany’s cities, considerably more than the 60 000 lost in the Blitz.

● These raids succeeded in destroying Germany’s economic base and war potential, forcing the Germans to divert valuable military resources, raw materials and men in defence of their cities. German fighter planes had to be recalled from the front, significantly impacting the Wehrmacht’s strength on the Eastern Front and in the defence of France.

Operation Barbarossa, the Battle of Stalingrad and the significance of the Russian campaign ● In his quest for raw materials and Lebensraum, Hitler launched an invasion of the Soviet

Union on 22 June 1941, with the largest invasion force ever seen. Having defeated the revered French Army, considered to be the strongest in Europe, in just six weeks, German commanders were confident of victory. They believed that their force of some three million Axis troops, with 3500 tanks and 2700 aircraft would achieve a quick victory against the larger, but presumably primitive and weak, Soviet forces.

● Despite repeated warnings, the Russians were taken by surprise. As a result, Operation Barbarossa achieved some early successes; by October 1941, the Soviet Union had lost an estimated 2.5 million soldiers, 18 000 tanks, 14 000 aircraft, and more than 300 000 square miles of land.

● However, the German Army ultimately failed to take Leningrad and Moscow due to supply and communication problems, the worst winter in 140 years, and the remarkable courage and patriotism of the Soviet forces.

● The Russians were able to absorb the initial shock of the invasion and were able to rally their defences and halt the German armies. It also helped that Russia had huge reserves of raw materials, as well as a population three times as large as Germany’s. This meant that Stalin could raise fresh armies and replace his losses with incredible speed.

● Now Commander-in-Chief on the Eastern Front, Hitler refused to accept failure and waited until the spring of 1942 to launch Operation Blau. Beginning on June 28, Army Group South was to capture the Caucasus oil fields and cut the Volga shipping route by attacking Stalingrad, the capture of which would symbolise Stalin’s defeat. Referred to as the Verdun of World War II, the Battle of Stalingrad lasted for five months between August 1942 and January 1943. Both sides fought ferociously for control of the city, fighting amid the rubble. On November 23, the remaining 300 000 German troops left inside the city were encircled as a result of General Zhukov’s Operation Uranus; ignoring Hitler’s demands to continue fighting, on 31 January 1943, the surviving troops surrendered. Of the 90 000 German soldiers who went into captivity, over 6000 survived the prisoner of war camps.

● Soviet victory in the Battle of Stalingrad shattered the myth of German invincibility. The German Army was now on the defensive while the Red Army began the long advance which eventually took them to Berlin.

● The Russian campaign was the biggest German defeat so far, and a major turning point in the war. Although German defeat boosted Soviet and Allied morale, Hitler was deprived of raw materials and lost millions of men he could ill-afford to lose. Furthermore, given that Britain remained undefeated, Germany once again faced a war on two-fronts, straining resources of men and supplies to breaking point. It has been estimated that the Red Army engaged three-quarters of the German land forces throughout the course of the war The German Army was now on the defensive while the Red Army began the long advance that eventually took its troops to Berlin.

Battle of El Alamein and the significance of the conflict in North Africa to the European war ● In late 1940, Mussolini launched an invasion of British-controlled Egypt from the Italian

colony of Libya. After some initial successes, the poorly led and ill-equipped Italian Army was defeated by the British Army early in 1941. Over 130 000 Italian troops were taken prisoners and hundreds of tanks and field guns were captured by the British.

● German commander Erwin Rommel and his ‘Afrika Korps’ were sent to rescue the Italian Army and, by June 1942, he had recovered Tobruk and was threatening Egypt’s Suez Canal.

● However, the tide began to turn against the Germans when Bernard Law Montgomery took command of the British Eighth Army following the inconclusive First Battle of El Alamein in July. Montgomery quickly set about retraining the Eighth Army and building up a numerical advantage in terms of men, tanks and military supplies. Entrenched at El Alamein only 70 miles from the Egyptian city of Alexandria, and surrounded by minefields termed ‘the Devil’s garden’, Rommel’s forces were precariously short of fuel. With their supply base over 1200 kilometres to the west, Rommel’s forces were

vulnerable in the event of a prolonged battle. Conversely, having delayed attacking Rommel’s position, Montgomery and his Eighth Army were extremely well resourced and outnumbered the Germans two to one.

● Beginning in late October 1942, the Second Battle of El Alamein saw Montgomery’s Eighth Army defeat Rommel’s Afrika Korps in a 12-day battle that cost the Germans 15 000 men and 350 tanks. The victory proved costly for the British, whose losses totalled 24 000 men and 500 tanks.

● Soon after, Rommel ignored a direct command from Hitler to remain in place and instead ordered his troops to retreat west. Meanwhile, a US-led invasion of Morocco and Algeria, codenamed Operation Torch, landed on November 8. On November 13, the Allies retook Tobruk and six months later the remnants of the Italian-German Army surrendered in Tunisia.

● Considered in the same league as the Battle of Stalingrad, El Alamein was Britain’s first real victory on land and provided a massive boost to British morale. Yet, in the overall scheme of things, A.J.P Taylor described the conflict in North Africa a small-scale affair, and Stromberg suggested it was just a ‘colourful sideshow’. Both historians would argue that Germany’s fate was determined on the Eastern Front.

● Nonetheless, Allied victory in the conflict in North Africa undoubtedly played a role in bringing about German defeat in the war. Along with Greece, the conflict in North Africa opened up another front which further drained Germany’s military resources just as Hitler was preparing to invade Russia. In addition, Allied victory in North Africa prevented Germany from gaining access to the Suez Canal, thus protecting Britain’s vital link to her vast Empire. Also of critical importance, Hitler was also denied access to the Middle Eastern oil fields, contributing to the resources shortage which was a crucial factor in Germany’s eventual defeat.

● Allied victory in North Africa also prepared the way for an Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. Anglo-American forces soon crossed over to the mainland and the Italians quickly surrendered and signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Italy declared war on Germany the following month; however, German forces were not defeated in Italy until the end of the war in April 1945.

Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union ● The British public’s reaction to the outbreak of war was subdued. In preparation for the

expected German bombing raids, 1.5 million children were evacuated to the countryside, gas masks were issued but were never required, blackouts enforced and air-raid shelters were built across the country. London’s tube stations were also used as public air raid shelters for the duration of the Blitz, which inflicted great damage on Britain’s cities and industrial centres but failed to disrupt Britain’s ability to wage war and only served to strengthen the will of the British public to see the job done.

● The British again adopted total war as a means of surviving the war. The 1940 Emergency Powers Act and the 1941 Essential Works Order increased government control over industry and men and women could be conscripted into essential war industries. Strikes were banned, identity cards were introduced and a Treacheries Act targeted all forms of treason and sedition.

● Propaganda and censorship helped to keep morale high as British cities endured the threat of invasion and the damaging effects of the Blitz. Fortunately, although the German bombing inflicted great damage and loss of life, it never critically threatened the British economy or their potential to make war. Rationing was introduced to maintain critical supplies of food and other goods. In this way, the government was able to maintain critical supplies of food and other goods in spite of German U-boat attacks on merchant shipping. The Home Guard helped maintain order. As in World War I, the war changed the lives of British women. Many women joined Voluntary Services or worked in civil defence. Nursing was once again a popular vocation. Approximately 80 000 women entered the Women’s Land Army and many more entered the armed forces, such as the Women’s Royal Navy Service or the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force. Furthermore, approximately two million women entered the workforce, enabling the economy to continue while the men went to war.

● Like Britain, Germany’s reaction to the outbreak of war was one of apprehension and disbelief; the German people did not want to or expect to go to war over Poland. As in Britain, children were evacuated from the cities, fire drills were practised and air-raid wardens established air-raid shelters and enforced blackouts. Despite such measures, over 750 000 German civilians were killed during the Allied bombing campaign over Germany’s cities. The bombing campaign also proved extremely successful in weakening the German war effort.

● Rationing was also introduced as priority was given to the military, and covered everything from foodstuffs to clothing and alcohol. Women were discouraged from pursuing careers in favour of staying at home, but in the latter stages of the war were brought back into the workforce to compensate for the Wehrmacht’s growing casualties. Censorship and propaganda ensured that German morale survived until the end of the war while the Nazi police state guaranteed cooperation.

● Unlike in Britain, the German economy only switched to total war production in 1943, once the war began to turn against Germany. The invasion of Russia had placed enormous strain on Germany’s economic and military resources. From 1943, Hitler’s Armaments Minister Albert Speer experienced mixed success in his attempt to reorganise the German economy, but was hindered by the bureaucracy and decentralised nature of the government. Up until 1943, Hitler had attempted to maintain a sense of normalcy for the German people, preferring to keep the people happy rather than impose stringent measures. To this end, propaganda helped ensure that German morale survived until the end of the war while the Gestapo guaranteed cooperation. As a result, it was not until late in the war that the German people began to suffer and become disillusioned with the war.

● As the German Army rapidly advanced into Russia in mid-1941, an Evacuation Committee coordinated the relocation of citizens, economic assets and factories to the east. Air raid shelters were constructed in Moscow and other major cities to prepare for bombing campaigns. Food distribution and rationing were introduced while millions were conscripted into factories as Stalin’s government adopted total war.

● Patriotic propaganda focused on the heroism and sacrifice of the Russian people and Stalin even allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to reopen to help lift morale. Gosplan redirected the nation’s industrial, agricultural and manufacturing resources so that

armaments production was prioritised. The Soviet government even benefitted from US supplies of war materials, clothing, medicine and bank loans through the Lend-Lease Scheme.

● However, starvation was to prove a major problem and played a pivotal role in the deaths of over 20 million Soviet citizens as Stalin pursued victory at all cost in the Great Patriotic War.

The nature and effects of the Holocaust in the Nazi-occupied territories ● The Holocaust began with the invasion of Poland 1 September 1939. A curfew was

imposed, radios were confiscated and clothing and food rations were reduced. Up to two million Polish Jews were rounded up and forced into overcrowded ghettos, the largest being the Warsaw Ghetto, which housed 500 000. Thousands of Jews perished as a result of starvation, disease and a lack of medical assistance while living in these ghettoes.

● In 1940, plans were begun to deport Jews from all German-occupied territories to Poland, where they were forced to wear the Yellow Star of David as a form of identification. It was also around this time that the first labour camps were built and the Nazis began experimenting with euthanasia, targeting psychiatric patients in addition to the disabled, the old and the sick. As a result of the deliberate Germanisation of annexed Poland, Polish intellectuals – not Jews – were the first victims of the Nazis’ tactic of mass shootings.

● As the German Wehrmacht advanced into Russia in June 1941, special SS units (Einsatzgruppen) followed, killing thousands of Bolsheviks and Jews. Mass shootings and pogroms were committed in Lithuania, Latvia, Ukraine, Romania and other major centres.

● In 1942, mass shootings were replaced by the more efficient method of gassing vans, and by the end of the year over two million Russians were dead. The Nazis now had to come up with a permanent solution for the vast numbers of Jews in their occupied territories.

● At the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942, plans were made for the systematic extermination of Europe’s Jewry, or as Heinrich Himmler called it, ‘the Final Solution’ to the Nazis Jewish problem. Gӧring might have signed the order, but it seems more likely that the idea came from Himmler, with approval from Hitler.

● Under the supervision of the SS, Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe were deported to industrialised death camps and concentration camps in the east; the major death camps were Treblinka, Sobibór, Majdanek, Bełżek, and Auschwitz, while Belsen, Dachau and Buchenwald served as work camps. The Jewish occupants of Poland’s ghettos were also shipped out to these camps; those deemed unfit were killed immediately while the others were forced to work, often to their death. These camps were liberated as the Allies and Soviets advanced into German-occupied territory.

● It is believed that at least one million of the estimated six million Jews were killed in the gas chambers at Auschwitz. It is difficult to know the exact number of deaths due to the fact that camp records were destroyed towards the dying stages of the war.

● Despite numerous eye-witness testimonies, the Allied governments failed to believe the accuracy of stories which told of the mass murder of Europe’s Jews. Remember, anti-Semitism had a long history in Europe, so it is interesting to note that the French police

fully cooperated in rounding up and transporting Jews to the East, while the Hungarians handed over all foreign Jews to the Nazis. The Pope neither protested nor approved concerning what was happening. However, in Denmark the government refused to cooperate in this manner and the entire population cooperated in concealing Danish Jews.

● Controversially, the German people did not prevent nor protest against the persecution of their fellow citizens. Historians attribute this apparent ‘apathy’ to a number of causes: the widespread and popular belief that Germany had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by Jews at the end of World War I, the effectiveness of Nazi anti-Semitic propaganda, the inability of German citizens to effectively oppose the Nazi regime, and the claim that some German citizens did not know what was going on.

‘D’ Day and the liberation of France ● At the Tehran Conference in September 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt promised Stalin

they would launch an invasion of Western Europe in 1944, mainly to take pressure of the Red Army in the east. Once Allied naval and air supremacy was assured, plans for Operation Overlord, the liberation of France and the advance into Germany commenced. Britain became a staging post for thousands of Allied troops, supplies, equipment and men as plans were finalised and attempts were made to keep details of the operation secret.

● The Allies were faced with the ‘Atlantic Wall’, a series of defences stretching from Spain to Norway. The costly raid on Dieppe in 1942 had highlighted the potential difficulties in launching an invasion against heavy German coastal fortifications. The Germans themselves were expecting an attack but were unsure as to where it would occur. Pas de Calais was nearer to Britain but was too heavily fortified and lacked an adequate port. Normandy, on the other hand, featured vast, open beaches, was far less fortified and was within range of Allied aircraft stationed in England. Both Rommel and Hitler believed the attack would be directed at Normandy, but Hitler was too cautious and instead chose to distribute his forces equally between the two locations.

● Under the supervision of the newly appointed Supreme Commander General Dwight D Eisenhower, the Allies had accumulated 1200 fighting ships, 10 000 aircraft, 4126 landing craft and 864 transport ships, plus two artificial harbours called ‘Mulberries’. Attempts were made to keep details of the operation secret. British intelligence employed false radio transmissions and other deceptions that succeeded in convincing the Germans the attack would come at Pas de Calais.

● After delays due to bad weather, the initial invasion force of 200 000 men, consisting of Poles, Belgians, Canadians, Norwegians, Dutch, French, British and American troops, landed on the beaches of Normandy on 6 June 1944. The Allied divisions were met with fierce resistance and initial casualties amounted to 61 000, with 9000 dead. Once the beachheads were secure, the British and American armies were able to conduct breakout operations; Montgomery’s British Army suffered heavy losses whilst engaging the enemy in the east at Caen, allowing the Americans to quietly build up their forces before capturing the Port of Cherbourg on June 29.

● By August, the now more than two million Allied troops in France began the slow sweep eastward, aided in their quest by the French Resistance. Meanwhile, the shattered German forces streamed back towards their border.

● As the Allies approached Paris, Eisenhower wished to bypass the capital altogether in order to maintain pressure on the withdrawing Germans. However, General Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the Free French, took matters into his own hands. Fearing a communist takeover, he ordered the French Second Armoured Division to liberate the city. Having refused Hitler’s order to destroy Paris, von Choltitz, its governor, surrendered Paris on August 25. The Allied armies continued forwards on their victory march, liberating most of France and Belgium as they went.

Russian counter-offensives, 1944 ● After victory at Stalingrad, the Russians had established a salient in front of Kursk,

which the Germans attempted to cut off. However, the Soviet Army had changed and learned from their previous failures, and now had more guns, more men and better tanks than the Germans. The greatest tank battle in history began on July 5 and quickly descended into a slogging match; 1500 tanks were engaged on both sides.

● From the beginning of August 1943, the well-equipped Russians began to advance against the outnumbered Germans, constantly wearing them down but never breaking their front. Losses on both sides were colossal, but the difference was the Russians could replace men and machines easily while the Germans could not.

● Leningrad was finally relieved on 27 January 1944 after a siege of two years and a third of the population of three million had died of starvation.

● In June of that year, the Russians launched Operation Bagration, an attack on German forces in Belorussia, where 285 000 Germans were killed or taken prisoner.

● In the following month, Russian forces moved across Poland, stopping just short of Warsaw while the Polish Resistance rose up against the Germans. The Warsaw Rising lasted for two months and resulted in 55 000 Polish deaths and 350 000 Poles sent to Germany as slave labour. Assured by radio of Soviet assistance, the Polish Resistance received none; Stalin waited on the doorstep of Warsaw until the Germans destroyed the Polish forces loyal to the non-Communist Polish government in exile.

● At the same time, Soviet forces gained control of Romania and Bulgaria. The Russians gained their first foothold on German soil in October when their forces reached East Prussia. By April 1945, Russia controlled all of Eastern Europe and was poised for the final onslaught.

Final defeat, 1944–45 ● It was now only a matter of time before German forces collapsed completely. However,

the Allies experienced two major setbacks. ● The first occurred in September 1944 when Bernard Law Montgomery attempted to drop

airborne troops to seize vital bridges over the River Rhine, behind the German lines at Arnhem, which proved disastrous and costly in terms of casualties.

● The second setback occurred in December when Hitler caught the Allies by surprise with a counter-attack against Allied forces in the Ardennes. Known as the Battle of the

Bulge, Hitler’s Operation Autumn Mist resulted in heavy losses on both sides but, more importantly, Hitler had lost practically all of his tanks and had used the last of his reserves and fuel.

● Allied control of the air in both the East and West allowed the Allies to bomb Germany into submission. On 7 March 1945, the Americans crossed the Rhine into Germany and a month later the Soviets took Berlin. US and Soviet forces met at the River Elbe on April 25.

● Hitler committed suicide in his bunker beneath the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on April 30, two days after Mussolini had been executed by resistance fighters. Despite offering to surrender in the west and continue fighting in the east, Germany surrendered unconditionally to General Eisenhower on May 7. The Western Allies celebrated VE Day (Victory in Europe) on May 8. The Russians received a similar capitulation that same day.

● There are several reasons for Allied victory in World War II. Firstly, Allied naval supremacy in the Atlantic ensured the continued shipment of vital war materials to Britain and her allies. Germany, in comparison, struggled to maintain supplies of raw materials, a problem that was exacerbated by Allied victory in North Africa and on the Eastern Front.

● Furthermore, British victory in the Battle of Britain ensured Allied control of the air, allowing Britain's Bomber Command to target Germany’s ability to wage war. The decision to invade the Soviet Union without first defeating Britain also resulted in Germany having to wage a prolonged war on multiple fronts against the Allies’ superior economic and military strength, which was bolstered by the entry of the USA.

● Lastly, the Soviet Army engaged approximately three-quarters of German land forces throughout the war, a fact that was to play a vital role in determining the outcome of the war.

Nuremberg War Crimes trials ● Beginning in November 1945 and lasting until October 1946, 21 top Nazi leaders, men

of industry and prominent generals were tried before an International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, the German city the Nazis had made their moral capital.

● However, only 21 would stand trial; the likes of Heinrich Himmler, Joseph Goebbels and Labour Front Leader Robert Ley committed suicide while Gustav Krupp was deemed too unwell and Martin Bormann evaded capture altogether.

● Four judges from each of the four victorious powers sat in judgement as each of the men faced some or all of four charges: conspiracy to wage aggressive war, crimes against peace, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

● Although Hitler, Goebbels and Himmler had all committed suicide, the Allies felt the need to make an example of the remaining Nazi leaders, in the hope that similar atrocities would not be repeated in the future. Furthermore, it was considered crucial that the German people be made aware of what had happened and the enormity of the crimes that had taken place right under their noses.

● Evidence presented by the prosecution documented the crimes of the Nazi state: the death factories, the extermination of European Jewry, the enslavement of forced labourers and the barbarities committed against the Russians and the Poles.

● The trials, however, were tainted by ‘victor’s justice’ as Allied war crimes were completely omitted.

● Of the accused, ten were hanged (Goering committed suicide in his cell just hours before his execution), seven were given long prison sentences and three were acquitted. However, the arrest and trial of Nazi war criminals, concentration camp guards and former SS officers lasted for decades after the war.

Essays Civilians Assess the social and economic impacts of the war on civilians in Britain and EITHER

Germany OR the Soviet Union. World War Two had diverse effects on the home fronts of Britain and Germany, impacting their society and economy in disparate ways. Each nation endured initial civilian responses of resignation and apprehension to the outbreak of war, yet in their efforts to maintain their respective nation’s war effort, Britain thrived while Germany struggled. British civilians displayed resilience in their ability to unite as a nation and provide a stable, supportive base for their troops. Germany on the other hand was consumed by political turbulence and ideological concerns which hindered the potential for its society and economy to power their war effort. The impact of WWII on British society and economy were phenomenal as they transformed their home front into a united and resilient base to support the British war effort. From the outbreak of war in September 1939, British attitude displayed subdued resignation, resulting in the early introduction of conscription. Immense preparation measures were implemented, involving the evacuation of 1.5 million British children, the distribution of gas masks, mass construction of bomb shelters and enforced “blackouts”, all in an effort to protect civilians. Rationing was introduced to preserve national resources, involving a point system to regulate consumption and the implementation of food substitutes such as whale meat. Early attacks during the Battle of Britain introduced Nazi Germany as a formidable enemy, yet the attempts to cripple civilian war effort were unsuccessful, and surpringly evoked a stoic and resilient spirit within society. The development of the war saw the enactment of legislation and security measures to preserve civilian input in sustaining British troops. In 1941, the National Service Act and Essential Works Order were passed to respectively define the terms of conscription into the army and designation of occupations, and to ensure essential workers remained useful to British society. Government censorship and propaganda were generated to ensure the social milieu of the British home front remained “determined, not demoralised” through controlled distribution of selective information. The scope of war expanded beyond frontlines, and was greatly supported by the British Home Guard and women. The Home Guard was established as an effective civilian militia force of 500,000 men unable to join regular forces, whose duties involved preservation of the home front. Women assisted in the continuity of resource flow to British troops, becoming a keystone in the war effort by assuming work in heavy industry and organising evacuations and shelters. Britain had efficiently transformed its home front to pursue total war, ensuring diligence within its society and economy under the conditions of the war. British economy during this period prospered under the tactical and effective structure of the home front. Industrial output proliferated, with an increase in aircraft production providing strength within British front lines. Economic improvements within Britain saw the establishment of trade unions working closely with governments to maintain stability within the war effort, ensuring minimal industrial unrest. The result of sustained civilian employment in the absence of nearly 3 million troops allowed the economy to flourish, seeing wages double and living standards increase for its population. Between 1939-1945, British civilians were able to maintain cooperative diligence under the disheartening conditions of the war, allowing the war effort to thrive through the maintenance of society and economy.

During the course of WWII, German society and economy endured a polar impact in comparison to Britain, with its effect on civilians being catastrophic. Behind the formidable facade of the intimidating Nazi Troops, the German home front was disorderly and chaotic in their attempts to support their war effort. Order on the German home front became a battle between the pursuit of ideology, maintenance of morale, preservation of economy and facilitation of troops, creating an opportunity for national turmoil. Preparation for the war were similar to that of Britain, where children were evacuated, fire and air-raid drills were rehearsed and blackouts were enforced. Morale began with a dreadful sense of foreboding and apprehension, which urged Hitler to restore and maintain normality within all aspects of German life to avoid a collapse on the home front. Basic and lenient rationing measures were introduced and covered food, clothing, and alcohol in an attempt to support the military while preserving a “business as usual” lifestyle within German society. Unlike Britain, Germany did not switch to total war measures in the early years of the war, with wartime organisation being incredibly ineffective; rivalries within the regime stagnated economic growth, resources were hoarded and a complete absence of judicial procedure. Events such as Allied bombing greatly weakened the German war effort, severely impacting industrial activity, and resulting in high casualty rates. Propaganda was heavily enforced to ensure cooperation of civilians, and minimise opposition through the inspiration of fear from the Gestapo, concentration camps and the “Night and Fog decree”. Women did not relieve vacancies in occupations as those in Britain did, as it was a defiance of the Nazi ideology ‘Kinder, Küche, Kirche’ which divided women into a separate, domestic role. Thus industrial production, under the direction of Albert Speer, involved mass production and rationalisation through slave labour. Economic turbulence was observed throughout the course of the second World War. The dawn of the war saw the implementation of financial decrees which removed paid holidays and overtime pay for workers. This imposition greatly angered the population, forcing Hitler to abandon such mandates to maintain morale on the home front. Industrial conscription was introduced to assist in German war effort, ensuring the continuity of production to support troops. In its totality, the impact of the war on society and economy was of far greater tragedy regarding German civilians than British civilians. Germany struggled to maintain their home front and economy through the course of the war, impairing their chances of success through chaotic and disorganised management of the home front. The effects of social and economic reforms during the course of the Second World War on British and German civilians were vastly divergent. A comparative chiasmus formed between observation of the nation's ability to maintain stability on their home fronts, with British civilians collaborating to promote Allied success, and German civilians being impeded by the radical and disorderly Nazi regime in their effort to achieve Axis success.

Assess the significance of the war in the air in shaping the course of the European War

The European War was unequivocally shaped by air warfare, which held immense significance in shaping the course of the conflict. A common trend within the entire campaign recognised that powers who had control of the air held corresponding domination from a military perspective. This was observed during the early years of German success, the Battle of Britain and the Blitz and the Bombing of Germany. Within each of these engagements, powers who held supremacy regarding air force were victorious in the overall battle, shaping the course of the war in their national favour. The shape of the early course of war was built toward German favour, where they dominated on all fields of battle, most significantly in the performance of their Luftwaffe. Axis powers were able to maintain superiority throughout the beginning of the campaign as a result of their strategic employment of military manoeuvres. The execution of Blitzkrieg tactics rendered the German army invincible within the early years of conflict, proved through constant triumphs across Europe. The Fall of Poland saw the unified implementation of Blitzkrieg in the Luftwaffe and Wehrmacht, where German air forces were able to obliterate the majority of the Polish air force and work collaboratively with land forces. Furthermore, after the invasion of Denmark and Norway at the conclusion of the Phoney War, Hitler launched Operation Weserubung which forecast the surrender of both nations after enduring Luftwaffe bombing at their capitals. The additional Fall of France was accredited to the exceptional performance of the Luftwaffe; artillery and bombing resistance during the evacuation at Dunkirk and their coordination with the army. The accumulation of the series of victories obtained by the German army diverted the route of the war to wholly favour the Germans. The significance of early German success in the totality of the war was that it established a foundation of indomitability as Hitler’s army had brutally defeated several of the major Allies, leaving only Britain as a major enemy within the conflict. Battles within the air during the initial years of war were able to evince that powers who dominated the air, mirrored this superiority on a military scale. The shape of the war in this period was defined by powers who maintained control of the air, which proved have serious future implications for the German army in altering the course of the war. The early course of the European War exhibited German military supremacy, yet after their aerial defeat during the Battle of Britain and the Blitz, the conflict had been reshaped in its entirety. The Battle of Britain, commenced under Operation Sea Lion, was the first major military campaign fought exclusively by air forces, expanding the spheres of conflict within the war and eventually disrupting early German success. Britain demonstrated immense military advantages over Germany during the battle, inclusive of advanced RAF radar, detection and command systems, aircraft production, and skillful tactics which overpowered those of the Luftwaffe. Hitler further jeopardised the position of his air force by abandoning Operation Sea Lion and introducing a military tactic known as the Blitz, involving a diversion to night attacks

on major British towns rather than industry and production centres. This outcome strengthened the British position in the war as they were able to retaliate with thriving aircraft manufacture, and crippled Germany’s position despite their belief that the Blitz would assure respite of British conflict, forcing Hitler to turn his attention East to fulfill his goal of Lebensraum. The key significance of the Battle of Britain in shaping the course of the war involved the fact that the Luftwaffe failed to gain air superiority during the Battle of Britain, thus formulating a turning point in the shape of the war. Had Germany achieved victory at the Battle of Britain, Hitler could have avoided a multiple-front war, providing his army with a maximised chance of conquest in Russia, North Africa and the Middle East, avoiding the events of D-Day and ultimately evading defeat at the conclusion of the conflict. Allied victory at the Battle of Britain and the Blitz saw a disruption of German invincibility and redefined the course of the European War. German degradation succeeding their defeat at the Battle of Britain extended through to the conclusion of the war during the Bombing of Germany; an aerial Allied retaliation which aided the course of the war to ultimate Allied victory. The Bombing of Germany initiated in 1943 once it was decided by Churchill and Roosevelt that “the progressive destruction and dislocation” of Germany had become a priority. British RAF Pilots summoned the US air force to assist in the execution of this initiative, increasing Allied power and widening the effectiveness of the aerial bombing campaign. Between 1943 and 1945, major German cities such as Hamburg and Dresden suffered brutal bombings which resulted in the demolition of sites of German military importance such as ship building yards, locomotive sheds, and other major industrial centres. The position of “German military, industry and economy” had become “fatally weakened” as a result of this bombardment. It had become obvious that at this point in the war, the outcome had diverted to favour the Allies, as German war potential decayed. To further the weakness of Germany’s ability to wage war, bombings continued at the events of D-Day, where the tide of the conflict had turned against Axis powers. Toward the end of the European War, Germany remained struggling with their lack of resources as a result of Allied bombing, exhausting their military effort at Normandy and conceding a loss in the overall battle. The failure of the Luftwaffe to secure air security during the invasion of Normandy carried immense significance in the course of the war, as redemption may have been possible for the German army had they gained control of the air, leading to extended conflict to redetermine a victor of the battle. The final turn toward Allied aerial power during the European War spelled a devastating defeat of the Axis powers in the course of the conflict. Conclusion - all above factors culminated to eventuate in the distortion of the course of the war

Assess why Germany experienced early success in the war German success throughout the initial stages of the European War was rampant due to their employment of a number of military strategies and superior planning. Through the use of Blitzkrieg tactics, German forces were able to occupy neighbouring countries without significant losses. Furthermore, Rommel and his forces were able to achieve victories in North Africa and succeeded in driving the British back initially through their superior strategising. Finally, Operation Barbarossa was successful in the early stages, and the Germans were able to capture vast amounts of Soviet territory. Until the later years of the war, Germany was incredibly successful in its campaigns and remained virtually undefeated. Germany was remarkably successful in its early advances, using blitzkrieg tactics to win decisive victories against Poland, the Low Countries, and France. By maintaining control of the air, German armies were able to utilize blitzkrieg tactics in supporting fast-moving land units, penetrating enemy lines and wreaking havoc. Due to their superior forces and tactics, Germany achieved a rapid victory over Poland in 1939, facing only 40,500 casualties as opposed to Poland’s 266,000. The success experienced in Poland was largely due to German’s involvement in the Spanish civil war which allowed them to test and create effective military tactics to use with modern weaponry. Their technological advancement along with superior planning combined to ensure Early German success in the European war. Furthermore, Germany’s tactic of moving through Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg through Operation Gelb, allowed forces to bypass French fortifications along the Maginot line which contributed to their initial successes throughout Europe. Allied generals were unable to adjust to blitzkrieg tactics and performed ineffectively in the earl y stages of the war, promoting the chances of a German victory and eventually causing the encirclement of French troops resulting in an armistice being signed between France and Germany on 22nd of July 1940. This left Britain as the only Allied nation capable of opposing Germany which resulted in large scale success throughout mainland Europe for Germany. In addition to land battles, Germany also experienced successes in the Battle of the Atlantic which resulted in the crippling of the British economy due to German ability to sink more ships than Britain could produce and further resulted in the implementation of rationing systems in Britain which further contributed to German successes. German successes experienced throughout Europe were on a large scale and were mainly due to testing and superior planning. Furthermore, early German success stemmed from the victories Rommel and his forces had throughout North Africa and further contributed to their overall success in Europe. Until the turning point of El Alamein, Rommel’s Afrika Korps were largely successful in driving British army backward which contributed to the weakening of the Allied forces allowing for German success to consequently occur throughout Europe, in particular in Stalingrad. In March 1941, Rommel launched an attack on British forces at El Agheila and drove them back towards Tobruk. This proved to be significant as Tobruk was the only military base in North Africa that was owned by Allied forces, for 1600km, and this significance was recognised by both sides who were both determined to own it. Germany’s parallel successes in Greece forced the British to spread their armies thin and their position in North Africa was severely weakened contributing toward German success and their eventual capturing of Tobruk. Germany also saw similar successes in Eastern Europe which contributed to the overall success experienced in the initial

stages of the European war. Germany’s victory in countries such as Yugoslavia and Greece also proved to be significant in their overall success in the initial stages of the European war as it minimised the opposition that existed within mainland Europe. Also, Germany’s strategic decision to formulate alliances with Hungary and Bulgaria was tactical as it aimed to strengthen their forces for a future raid of Russia once the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact was broken. Germany’s success in North Africa and Eastern Europe was significant in allowing the strengthening of German forces and reduction of opponents which contributed to the overall success Germany experienced throughout the European war in its initial stages. Operation Barbarossa resulted in the severe weakening to the Soviet military and the capturing of vast amounts of land which was crucial for initial German success throughout the European War. Germany initially had several advantages over the USSR: Russian armoured vehicles were inferior in quality to German ones, and Russians were overall undersupplied which contributed to the weakening of the Russian army. Additionally, Germany’s use of blitzkrieg tactics, initial air superiority, technological superiority and organisation allowed them to make spectacular progress through Russia. Furthermore, Stalin had purged his most experienced generals in the 1930s and refused early recommendations by his military leadership to mobilize forces in the west, giving the German forces the chance to capitalise against Russian forces. Within the first day, the Soviets lost between 1,200 and 2,000 aircraft- approximately a quarter of their entire air force which allowed for Germany to capitalise and overpower Russian forces which was evident in the initial weeks of Operation Barbarossa until the German army encountered the Russian winter. By the end of September, Soviet forces had lost roughly 3 million men, a large portion of their aircraft and thousands of tanks which heavily aided German progression through Russia. This large-scale German success also created a sense of hopelessness within Russian civilians and Stalin who claimed that “All that which Lenin created we have lost forever”, which assists in demonstrating how successful the German army was in its aim to invade Russia, initially. Germany’s initial successes in the invasion of Russia was largely made possible by the underprepared Russian army along with German military superiority and contributed to the overall success throughout the European war. Germany experienced large scale success throughout the European war initially due to a range of factors. Superior machinery, blitzkrieg tactics and the forceful weakening of the British army all combined to ensure initial German success throughout mainland Europe up until the later years where German forces encountered a number of problems.

To what extent did victory at El Alamein and the North Africa campaign impact upon the future of the war

The Allied victory experienced throughout the conflict in El Alamein and North Africa was a significant factor which contributed to the final result of the European war. The success experienced by Allied forces in North Africa was immensely significant as it refused German access to much needed supplies and crippled their already weak economy. Additionally, the control of North Africa ensured that Allied forces maintained control in the Mediterranean and boosted British morale which proved vital for the end outcome of the war. Finally, the introduction of Ultra intercepts and German spread of resources globally, played a vital role in their loss in North Africa and ultimately the European war. One of the most significant consequences of the North African campaign was Germany’s failure to attain access to supplies in the Middle East, largely due to Britain’s retention of the Suez Canal. Prior to the outbreak of war, Britain’s control over Egypt and the Suez Canal allowed them unopposed access to trade routes between India and much of the Commonwealth Empire. The strategic importance of North Africa was observed by Axis forces which resulted in the invasion of Egypt by Italian forces in the late 1940s. However, once it became clear that Italian forces had been defeated, Rommel and his ‘Afrika Korps’ were sent to rescue the Italian army, resulting in the capturing of Tobruk and the formation of a stalemate between enemy forces. Nevertheless, under Montgomery’s command, Allied forces experienced Victory at El Alamein on the 13th of May 1943 which ensured their control over the Suez Canal. This held great strategic significance as it prevented German forces from accessing much needed oil supplies and further contributed to crippling their economy. Germany’s inability to obtain oil resulted in the inefficiency of the Panzer Corps and played a critical role in their eventual defeat in the entirety of the war. The victory experienced in El Alamein also extended to Tunisia where Rommel and his forces surrendered due to Montgomery’s army which severely outnumbered Rommel’s forces. The complete control of North Africa also allowed Allied forces to prepare an attack on Sicily which resulted in Germany facing a three-fronted war, the withdrawal of troops from the Battle of Kursk, and in their eventual defeat at the end of the European war in April 1945. The victory at El Alamein and in the North Africa campaign played a vital role in changing the final result of the European War Allied Victory throughout North Africa was crucial as it maintained Allied control of the Mediterranean thus preventing German advancement towards Russia and Asia while simultaneously boosting British morale. Once Allied forces had defeated German forces in the Battle of El Alamein, due to superior strategic tactics such as the reinforcement of troops and defence machinery Montgomery requested, the potential of Germany using the Mediterranean as a passage to Russia was now prevented, proving vital for their eventual defeat. If Germany were to have defeated Allied forces at El Alamein, the reinforcements that could have proceeded through the Mediterranean may have been enough to defeat defending Russian forces at Kursk. This success may have continued northward allowing eventual German victory in Russia, proving largely significant to the end result of the war. However, as Germany’s passage toward Russia was eliminated this possibility was entirely prevented. Furthermore, the significance of the North Africa conflict is demonstrated as Germany potentially could have proceeded through Asia and restocked large sections of their army. In addition to this, the

success experienced at North Africa held significant importance as it boosted British morale as it was their first land victory since the European war had commenced. The statement by Churchill “before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein, we never had a defeat” did much to encourage both the home front and those fighting in battle to continue working until the end of the conflict to ensure Allied Victory was achieved. The British boosted morale along with the prevention of Russian forces through the Mediterranean were significant factors formed from Allied victory in North Africa and impacted the future of the war. Finally, the North African campaign spread Hitler’s resources widely, preventing further German success, and contributing to eventual Allied victory in 1945. Stalin’s military tactic to engage the Wehrmacht in another offensive occurred with the initiation of the North African campaign in the early 1940s and was effective as it relieved the pressure experienced by Soviet forces in Russia. This provided Russian armies with relief from the Eastern Front as 5 German divisions were transported to Africa to continue fighting in El Alamein, allowing Russian forces to begin outnumbering German forces in terms of manpower and machinery. This was most evident, in 1943, at Kursk where Soviet forces received the upper hand throughout the entire conflict, thus reinforcing the significance of the North African conflict. The North African conflict also did much to prevent future Italian interference, as they were unable to successfully invade Egypt which had detrimental impacts on their ability and desire to continue the war due to the large losses experienced against Allied forces. Without Italy’s presence in the war, Germany became increasingly isolated against the major powers, resulting in their eventual defeat in 1945, demonstrating the significance of the North African campaign. Finally, in the final months of the North African campaign Ultra intercepts began to be used by Allied forces which played a vital role in the ending of the North African conflict. Ultra was the codename given to the British technology that was able to crack German communications systems and was crucial for the remainder of the conflict in North Africa and the European war. This technology was imperative as Allies were given insights into Axis plans and tactics, but could only be used selectively to ensure that Germany remained unaware about their discovery. The use of Ultra intercepts along with the Allies ability to make German resources become heavily dispersed, contributed to their eventual victory in the North African Campaign and ultimately the European war Allied victory in the conflict in North Africa and the Battle of El Alamein contributed to the future impact of the war due to a number of reasons. Allied forces’ ability to prevent Germany from attaining much needed oil supplies along with preventing their passage toward Southern Russia impacted the future of the war toward Allied favour. Furthermore, the introduction of Ultra intercepts and Axis spread of resources internationally, contributed heavily to Allied victory in North Africa and ultimately the European war.

How significant was the Battle of Stalingrad and the Russian campaign in leading to the Allied victory of the European War?

The Battle of Stalingrad along with the Russian campaign were of crucial significance in the European War which allowed Allied victory against Germany. The Battle of Stalingrad proved crucial to leading Allies to victory in the European war as German advancements were stopped and defeated for the first time proving detrimental to their progress. Furthermore, the three year siege at Leningrad exhausted and deteriorated German forces contributing towards their eventual defeat. Finally, at the Battle of Kursk, German forces lost the initiative to continue fighting and were never to regain it for the remainder of the war. The Battle of Stalingrad was a significant element of the European War which eased the path for Allied Victory against Germany. The outcome of the Battle of Stalingrad disturbed Hitler’s plan to control Russia which changed the course of the European War and ultimately allowed for Allied victory. The Wehrmacht made no noticeable progress in the North or in Moscow in late 1941, thus Hitler launched Operation Blue in 1942 which denied Stalin his main oil supplies. This aimed to stunt excessive defensive efforts by the Russians and acted as a passage to capturing Stalingrad. This had little military significance, yet the action of capturing the city named after the Soviet leader during this battle held immense significance for propaganda purposes. Initially Germany was successful in its endeavours; the Luftwaffe bombed the town for two consecutive days and, at one-point, German forces had control of 90% of the city. However, General Zhukov executed Operation Uranus which proved to be pivotal in the Battle of Stalingrad and the European War as a whole. He planned to encircle the German 6th Army as they became bogged down due to the atrociously cold Russian weather. Zhukov ordered his forces to attack German Army Group A from the north and south, which completed his encirclement. Operation Winter Tempest and the Luftwaffe aimed to assist the vulnerable German forces, however, they were incapable of reaching the city, thus resulting in Paulus’ plea to Hitler to surrender. Although the request was sternly denied, Paulus evaluated his situation, considering the awful conditions of his army and ammunition supplies and decided to surrender in late January 1943. Roughly 200000 Axis forces died along with 91000 Axis forces being sent to horrific Soviet imprisonment. (LINK SENTENCE) The Battle at Leningrad severely altered the outcome of the European War, as the German defeat at these sites inspired Allied power and eventuated in an Allied victory of the European war. After the launch of Operation Typhoon, Germany’s cue to attack Moscow, the Russian Army was considerably weakened. They lost 650000 prisoners to Axis powers whilst fighting at Vyazma and Bryansk, and simultaneously German forces neared the city of Moscow. The loss of Moscow would have allowed Hitler to attack Russian forces at Kursk and Stalingrad at different angles, ultimately beating Russia which could have drastically changed the result of the European War. However, Russian conditions in Autumn transformed their roads into quagmires which heavily slowed the movement of German troops and resources. This allowed time for Russia to prepare further defences which altered the result of the Russian campaign and ultimately the European war. Inadequate supplies, clothing and training resulted in diseases such as hypothermia, trench foot and frostbite becoming common within the Wehrmacht. Additionally, machines started malfunctioning, resulting in a loss of communication due to the freezing conditions. It became increasingly evident that the Blitzkrieg tactics that Germany had

previously used throughout the lowlands and Poland were insufficient due to the conditions of Russia and the inability to provide forces with necessary supplies. General Zhukov strategically placed anti-tank defences around Moscow in order to slow the German advance and combined with boost of 750000 men into his army and weaponry suited to the freezing Russian conditions, it allowed the Red Army to force back German troops roughly 300 kilometres. LINK SENTENCE The Battle of Kursk was a final significant factor of the Russian campaign which heavily contributed to Allied Victory in the European War. Hitler’s designation of troops toward Kursk had detrimental impacts on the German Commanders whose enthusiasm diminished as Soviet Forces began to outnumber them in regards to manpower, weapons and further supplies. Once German forces were ordered to commence their attack on Kursk, they were promptly made aware that their previously successful tactic of Blitzkrieg no longer performed to the satisfactory levels, as evident at the Battle of Stalingrad. Thus, Panzerkeil was adopted but did not meet the same success at Blitzkrieg. Throughout the entirety of the Battle of Kursk, Soviet forces received an upper hand which was made possible through their advantages in production. This occurred as Stalin had strategically moved his production factories to the East of the Ural Mountains before he faced German invasion, thus the flow of resources was uninterrupted. Additionally, imports from the United States reached Russia which contributed to its war efforts and the eventual victory of the Allies. This granted Soviet forces an advantage over German forces for the first time in the European War and Russian forces began to set up vast defences of mines, tank defences and heavy guns. The battle commenced with 1500 tanks on each side and became known as the greatest tank battle in history. Although both sides experienced massive losses, the Red Army could make these up, due to Stalin’s strategic production scheme and the overwhelming amount of troops on the Russian side. On the other hand, the Germans couldn't, as troops were distant from their supply production centres and resources failed to provide the army, causing Hitler to call off the engagement in July. German initiative had officially been lost and handed to the Red Army which truly changed the results of the war as Axis powers began to face further defeat. The Battle of Kursk was considered to be a turning point in the European War which contributed to ultimate Allied Victory in 1945. The Battle of Stalingrad resulted in Germany’s first loss in the European War, deeply impacting their progress through Russia, along with morale levels. The Battle at Leningrad and Moscow proved that Blitzkrieg tactics could no longer be used, which created difficulties for German offensives through Russia as they experienced fighting with low supplies which led to detrimental losses. Furthermore, the Battle of Kursk resulted in the loss of initiative throughout German forces to continue fighting, thus causing Germany to lose massive amounts of progress it had made throughout Russia and ultimately allowed the Allied power to win the European War. The Battle of Stalingrad, along with the Russian campaign, proved to be of utmost significance in Leading the Allied powers to victory in the European War as they prevented German invasion of Russia and their control over the continent

Essay Scaffolds Early German Success Scaffold Thesis- German success throughout the initial stages of the European War was rampant due to their employment of a number of military strategies and superior planning. P1: Topic sentence- refer to blitzkrieg tactics through lowlands, France and Poland. Maintain control of air and fast moving land troops under employment of blitzkrieg tactics allowed Germany to penetrate enemy lines. Due to superior planning they achieved victory in Poland and only suffered 40500 casualties in comparison to Poland’s 266000. Success can be linked to German involvement in Spanish war where they tested weapons and strategies to create effective military tactics to be employed in WW2 ensuring early German success. German tactic to move through Belgium, Luxembourg and Netherlands through Operation Gelb allowed them to bypass French defences along the Maginot Line. Allied commanders unable to adapt, resulted in encirclement of French troops and their surrender and armistice in July 22nd 1940. Britain now only capable nation of defending Europe → large scale success through mainland for Germany. Also experienced success in Battle of Atlantic where British ships were being sunk at a quicker rate than what they were produced. Link sentence P2: Topic Sentence- refer to victories Rommel and forces experienced in NA. Until El Alamein, German forces were successful in driving back Allied forces → weakening of Allied forces → experience through Europe (particularly Stalingrad). In March 1941, Rommel launched an attack at El Agheila drove Allies back to Tobruk → only Allied owned military base in NA for 1600km → determination by both sides to own it. Germany experienced parallel success in Greece causing further weakening of forces and eventual German capturing of Tobruk. German successes in Eastern Europe contributed to their early success throughout the war. Success against Yugoslavia and Greece minimised opposition in mainland Europe causing further success. Strategic decision to formulate alliances w/ Hungary and Bulgaria was tactical and strengthened forces for invasion of Russia when non-aggression pact was broken. Link sentence. P3: Topic Sentence- Operation Barbarossa resulted in weakening of Soviet military and capturing of land and resources accounting for success. Germany had advantages over Russia: Russian armoured vehicles were inferior and Russians were undersupplied. This combined with blitzkrieg tactics, initial air and technological superiority and organisation allowed Germans to make spectacular progress through Russia. Also, Stalin purged his experienced military generals in the 30’s and refused recommendations to mobilise forces at an early stage from military leadership, allowing German capitalisation. Within first day soviet’s lost 1200-2000 aircraft- approx. a quarter of their entire air force allowing for German capitalisation which was evident in first weeks of Operation Barbarossa until Russian winter. By the end of September Russia had lost roughly 3 million men, a large portion of aircraft and thousands of tanks which enabled German progression through Russia. This reinforced a sense of hopelessness

throughout Russian civilians and Stalin who claimed “All that which Lenin had created we have lost forever”, reinforcing the impact of German success. Link sentence.

Civilians Scaffold Thesis: The European War transformed the home fronts of both Britain and Germany civilians, impacting their society and economy through various methods. (make sure to explicitly reference CIVILIANS) P1: The impact of WWII on the British economy and society drastically transformed civilians, ultimately allowing for unity and resilience in order to support Britain’s war endeavours. Initial attitudes revolved around resignation and a focus to ‘get the job done’, supporting need for conscription to oppose Axis. Precautionary measures were introduced once war broke out to ensure safety of civilians → mass evacuation of children (1.5 mil), mass distribution of gas masks and development of bomb shelters. Rationing = another issue and stemmed from the war, more specifically the Battle of the Atlantic. Roosevelt’s claim “It is in shipping and in the power to transport across the oceans… that the crunch of the whole war will be found” supports the importance of the Battle of the Atlantic and how drastically civilians were impacted by rationing. Unsuccessful attempts by Axis to cripple British economy resulted in resilient mentalities throughout Britain. Implementation of government controls like the National Service Act and Essential Works Order were introduced to maintain their efforts. They respectively defined the terms and requirements of conscription and brought Britain into a state of total war. Propaganda and government censorship also used to encourage home front to continue acting successfully through war. The number of precautionary measures taken through duration of war had immense impacts on civilians → highlighted through improved health. Birth rates increased, mortality rates dropped in emergency hospitals, death from disease declined and increased state of health was evident → allowed people to focus on occupations and maintained civilians’ resilient attitudes. Britain’s economy surprisingly prospered. Women’s mobilisation toward labour plus 200k enemy prisoner’s contributed to retention of the economy and in their total war outputs, further contributing to their overall success. Economic organisation allowed for the increased production of aircraft and peak of production of war-related goods in 1943. Sustained civilian employment w/ the absence of 3 million troops allowed economy to flourish → wages double, living standards increased. Link sentence. P2: German economy and social life sustained immense transformation, effecting their civilians due to WW2. Germany held opposing view to British → not high opposition to war. Early German successes maintained high civilian morale and the maintenance of normality within all aspects of German life to avoid home front collapses. Precautionary measures taken → evacuation of children, fire/air raid drills and enforcement of blackouts to ensure safety of citizens. Simple rationing systems introduced to limit food, clothing and alcohol to support military but maintaining mindset of “business as usual”. German early success contributed to their inventory of war goods but their delayed decision to switch to total war in 1942 contributed to ineffectiveness of wartime organisation. These inefficiencies plus hoarding of resources and poor economic planning weakened the German war effort and industrial activity → contributing to start of Germany’s plateau of success as seen from Allied bombings of home front. Propaganda and censorship existent to maintain civilians cooperation, maintain high morale levels and minimise opposition (assisted by Gestapo and Concentration camps). German economy transformed due to Nazi ideology, introduction of decrees and poor wartime planning. ‘Kinder, Küche, Kirche’ → women not able to enter workforce until

later years of war → contributed to economic struggles. Albert Speer’s idea of mass production and rationalisation of war products were used by Germans to ensure industrial production but involved slave labour and death of prisoners. Utilisation of financial decrees at the end of war saw citizens lose paid holidays and overtime pay, angering citizens. To deal with negative repercussions, Germany implemented industrial conscription to assist in war effort, supplying of troops, and to revive the weakening economy. Link sentence.

Nuremberg Scaffold Thesis: The horrendous nature and effects of the Holocaust were explicitly addressed in the Nuremberg War Crime Trials of 1945-46. P1: nature and effects of Holocaust addressed → contribute to overall effectiveness of Trials. Mistreatment of groups of people (Jews, homosexuals) were highlighted as defendants were accused and convicted of war crimes, crimes against peace and humanity. Uncovering of factual evidence → 11million dead by concentration camps between 1933-45 and exposure to living/working conditions endured by prisoners reveals nature and effects of Holocaust to public. Footage from concentration camps shown in courtrooms to emphasise impact of Nazi regime/ideology consistent of implementation of concentration camps → demonstrates nature of Holocaust. Since the UN was in its infancy, Trials were a factor which highlighted their aim to ensure international peace and morality but also attempted to make an example out of Nazis to prevent vicious acts from being carried our again. Nature and effects of Holocaust emphasised by Chief US Prosecutor Robert H. Jackson who focused on Nazi’s treatment of Jews. His reference to how the “Nazis were fanatically committed to annihilate all Jewish people” and the “common plan to exterminate Jews was … methodically and thoroughly pursued” highlights aims of Nazis, how brutal they acted → reinforcing effectiveness of trials in exposing nature and effects of holocaust. Link sentence. P2: Trials highlighted nature and effects of Holocaust → bringing notion of guilt to German people. Nazi use of propaganda disguised political aims and thus hide reality of holocaust from public. Nevertheless, their undying support of the regime was a large. Factor which perpetuated the holocaust and must be held into account as to why it occurred. Due to exposure of nature and effects of holocaust, there was a collective pursuit held by Allied powers and citizens to ensure Germans realised what happened and that they were only capable of this through German support → introduced sense of collective guilt surrounding Germans. Emphasised through the release of publicity campaigns by Allied occupation forces aimed at promoting shame and guilt. Focused on highlighting nature and effects of holocaust → included pics of concentration camps and used slogans like “These atrocities: Your Fault” to emphasise blame on German citizens. Trials also convinced ignorant Germans through the enormity of crimes committed → further helped notion of guilt become possessed by Germans. Charles F Wennerstrum’s conclusion “the trials were to have convinced the Germans of the guilt of their leaders” recognises that Trials were held to dispense justice but also for political purposes like reinforcing the importance that Germans take responsibility for ww2 and holocaust. Link sentence. P3: although Trials highlighted nature and effects, they were manipulated to serve practical needs of Allies at the time. Many leading Nazis were found guilty and executed for crimes committed through ww2. Franz Sauckel (in charge of slave labour) is an example of this and was hung in 1946. Herman Goring, head of the Luftwaffe and second in charge, was another example of this, but he denied knowledge of knowing about the extermination declaring he found out whilst “in Nuremberg” at the Trials. However, the role of albert Speer, left some people feeling as if justice was not completely dispensed → due to the needs of the Cold war. Speer’s strategy of defence was unique in Trials and resulted in evasion of death in 1946. He testified against knowing about extermination

plans/ using slave labour but admitted he should of and argued that he was morally culpable of these plans due to his role for Nazis. He was imprisoned for 20 yrs, avoided death and was labelled as the “repentant Nazi” by the media for his intense disapproval of regime. Although this supported allied contextual needs of having a redeemable Nazi and could be spread to german citizens to avoid economic depression, this opposes that the trials were focused on addressing the nature and effects of the holocaust and supports the notion of meeting the needs of Allied powers. Link sentence.

Significance of Stalingrad and Russian Campaign in ending WW2 Scaffold Thesis: The Battle of Stalingrad (BOS) along with the Russian campaign were of crucial significance in the European War which allowed Allied victory against Germany P1: Battle of Stalingrad = significant element → aided in victory. Outcome of BOS disrupted Hitler’s plan to control Russia → changed course of war → allowed allied victory. Wehrmacht made no noticeable progress in the north/Moscow in late 1941 this Operation Blue was launched in 1942 denying Stalin oil supplies. Aimed to stunt defensive efforts by Russians and acted as a passage to Stalingrad. Stalingrad had no military purpose, yet capturing a town named after opposition leader = propaganda use. Initially Germans were successful → Luftwaffe bombed the town for 2 whole days and at one point they obtained control over 90% of the city. However, General Zhukov executed Operation Uranus → changed result of BOS and ww2. Plan to encircle German 6th army as they were bogged down due to Russian weather. He ordered forces to attack German Army Group A from north and south, completing encirclement. Operation Winter Tempest and the Luftwaffe aimed to assist German forces, but they couldn’t reach the city thus resulting in Paulus’ plea to Hitler to surrender. Sternly denied but on Paulus’ re-evaluation of conditions of army and ammunition he surrendered anyway. 200k axis troops died, 91k axis troops sent to horrific soviet imprisonment. Link sentence. P2: Battle of Leningrad (BOL) altered outcome of ww2, as German defeat aggravated Allied power and eventuated in allied victory against Germany. After Operation Typhoon was launched, the Russian army considerably weakened. Lost 650k prisoners to Germans at Vyazma and Bryansk and Axis forces neared Moscow. Loss of Moscow would have allowed Hitler to attack Kursk and Stalingrad from different angles → beating Russia → changing result of war. However, Russian conditions in Autumn transformed their roads into quagmires slowing movement of German troops/resources. In November, winter froze roads over → Germans moving supplies again but resulted in progression halting. Allowed time for Russia to prepare defences → changing result of Russian campaign and ww2. Inadequate supplies, clothing and training resulted in diseases like hypothermia/frostbite/trench foot becoming common for Wehrmacht. Additionally, machines malfunctioned → loss of communications due to freezing conditions. Became evident Blitzkrieg tactics that Germany once used were insufficient due to winter conditions of Russia and inability to provide troops adequately. Germans now most vulnerable when they reached sight of Moscow. Zhukov’s decision to place anti-tank defences around Moscow along with the boost of 750k men and weaponry allowed Red army to force back German troops 300km. Link sentence. P3: Topic sentence. Hitler’s designation of troops toward Kursk → detrimental impacts on German Commanders enthusiasm as Russians outnumbered them in manpower, weapons, etc. Once Germans were ordered to commence attack on Kursk, they understood Blitzkrieg no longer worked. Panzerkeil adopted, didn’t meet same success. Throughout BOK Soviet received upper hand due to advantages in production. Stalin’s decision to move production east of Ural mountains meant production was undisturbed → constant flow of resources. Also imports from US contributed to their war efforts and eventual victory in ww2. Granted Soviet forces advantage over German troops for the 1st time → Russians set up defences → mines, tank defences, heavy guns. Battle

commenced w/ 1500 tanks per side (greatest tank battle in history). Both sides experienced mass losses → Russia could make up losses (production scheme, overwhelming troop numbers), Germany couldn’t (troops distant from supply production centres, resources weren’t provided). Caused Hitler to call of engagement in July 1943. German initiative handed to Red Army → changed results of war as Axis continued to face defeat. Link Sentence.

Air War Scaffold Thesis: The air war was a substantial factor which shaped the entire course of the European war due to varying elements. P1: Luftwaffe ability to maintain control of air → significant factor in shaping early course of war → allowed Blitzkrieg tactics to be employed proving successful. Early German success → aerial dominance displayed on battlefield and tactical decisions to concentrate attacks on small areas allowing military to progress to enemy lines. Strategy proved crucial in victories against low countries/France who struggled against aerial dominance. Offensive momentum created as a result → creating further panic in these countries, most notably France, who fell under German rule in 1940. Air control pivotal in Operation Barbarossa. Ability to quickly pass through Russia in 1st weeks impacted USSR drastically, however, success halted when Russian winter encountered. German aircraft inability to function → immense impact on Operation Barbarossa as USSR troops could defend key areas w/out much aerial threat → advantage over Germany. Luftwaffe’s inability to supply forces → repercussions on success → prevented progress from being made → disrupting momentum. The “dislocation of the German military”, inclusive of Luftwaffe, immense factor contributing to loss of Russian campaign. Link sentence. P2: Britain’s aerial victory in Battle of Britain → considered turning point altering shape of entire course of war. Luftwaffe’s lack of accuracy, German decision to switch to Blitz (focus on attacking London towns) and advanced defence tactics of the British air force combined to prevent German victory. Without these factors, Germany fights a one front war in Russia rather than 2. Seeing Germany experienced initial successes in Russia, boosts of German troops and machinery from Britain may have been enough to defeat them and change result of ww2. Additionally, if Britain were to have lost on the home front, USA couldn’t set up military base in Britain. This → prevented Normandy invasion and bombing of Germany and the “progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military” wouldn’t have become a reality. Furthermore, victory at Britain halted axis plans to progress through NA. Would have altered entirety of war as Germans attain large oil supply and chance to progress through to Russia and onto victory against USSR. This could have allowed Germany to defeat Russia and perhaps change course of war. Link sentence. P3: Aerial bombings crucial factor → impacted German ability to wage war shaping course of war. Although bombing of Germany didn’t meet goal of decimating economy, it impacted their ability to engage in conflict and the capability of Luftwaffe which impacts German success. Initially, bombings weren’t successful → inaccurate and ineffective, reported in 1941 that 1034 bomber aircrafts were lost in battle. However, adjustments took place under Albert Harris, as he was given control of operations → focused on aircraft production, tech advancements and improvements to flying techniques. These factors + prioritisation of campaign → degradation of Luftwaffe, allowing Britain free access to German cities → reshaped course of war. Throughout this time period 750k citizens perished under British attack and German economy impacted → affecting future endeavours. Also, bombings of Germany were responsible for Battle of Normandy due to shortages experienced by Axis Powers. Allied operations experienced minimal resistance due to “progressive destruction… of the German military” → were able to complete bombardments at a high success rate. Aerial dominance @ Normandy allowed Allies onto mainland and modified course of war.

North Africa Scaffold Thesis: The Allied victory experienced throughout the conflict in El Alamein and North Africa was a significant factor which contributed to the final result of the European war. P1: One of the most signif consequences of NA campaign was Germany’s inability to obtain supplies in Middle East, due to Britain’s retention of Suez Canal. Prior to war, Britain’s control over Egypt + Suez canal allowed them unopposed access to trade routes between India and Commonwealth Empire. Strategic importance of NA observed by Axis forces → invasion of Egypt by Italian forces in late 1940s. However, became clear that they had been defeated so Rommel and his ‘Afrika Korps’ were sent to rescue Italian army, resulting in Tobruk being captured and a stalemate between enemy forces. But, under Montgomery’s command, Allied forces experienced victory at El Alamein 13th May 1943 → ensuring control over the Suez Canal. Held great strategic significance → prevented Germany from accessing needed oil supplies → contributing to their crippling economy. Inability to obtain oil → inefficiencies of Panzer Corps and played a pivotal role in eventual defeat in entirety of war. Victory experienced at El Alamein extended to Tunisia where Rommel + forces surrendered due to Montgomery’s army which outnumbered Rommel’s forces. Complete control of NA allowed Allies to prepare attack against Sicily → German 3 front war, withdrawal of troops from Kursk and eventual defeat. Link Sentence. P2: Allied victory throughout NA was crucial → maintained Allied control of Mediterranean → preventing German progression to Russia and Asia + boosting Brit morale. Once Allies won against Germans in Battle of El Alamein, due to superior strategies such as reinforcement of troops and defence machinery Montgomery requested, potential for Germany to use Mediterranean as a passage to Russia now prevented → vital for eventual defeat. If Germany were to have defeated Allies @ El Alamein → the reinforcements could have proceeded through Mediterranean might have been enough to defeat Russians @ Kursk. Success may have continued northward → eventual victory in Russia, proving important for end result of war. But as Germany’s passage to Russia was eliminated, this possibility cancelled. NA significance reinforced as Germany could have proceeded through Asia and restocked sections of army. Furthermore, success @ NA important → boosted Brit morale since it was 1st land victory since ww2 commenced. Churchill’s statement “before Alamein, we never had a victory. After Alamein, we never had a defeat” → encouraged home front and those fighting to continue working until the end of the conflict to ensure Allied Victory was achieved. P3: NA campaign spread Hitler’s resources widely, preventing German success, contributing to Allied victory 1945. Stalin’s military tactic to engage the Wehrmacht in another offensive occurred with the initiation of NA campaign in early 1940s → effective → relieved pressured experienced by Soviet forces in Russia. Provided Russian armies w/ relief → 5 German divisions transported from Eastern Front to NA to fight @ El Alamein → allowed Russians to outnumber German forces- manpower + machinery. Most evident in 1943 @ Kursk where Soviet’s received upper hand throughout entirety of conflict → reinforce significance of NA. NA conflict did much to prevent future Italian interference, as they were unable to successfully invade Egypt → impacts on ability + desire to continue war due to large losses experienced against allies. W/out Italy’s presence, Germany became increasingly isolated against major powers → eventual defeat → significance of NA. In final

months of NA campaign ultra intercepts began to be used by Allied forces → played role in ending NA conflict. Ultra was the codename given to the British technology that was able to crack German communications systems → crucial for remainder of conflict in NA and European War. Technology was imperative → Allies given insights into Axis plans → only used selectively to ensure Germany remained unaware. Link sentence.

Even more Summarised Scaffolds Significance of Stalingrad and the Russian Campaign in ending World War Two Thesis: The Battle of Stalingrad along with the Russian Campaign were of crucial significance in the European War which allowed for eventual Allied victory against the Axis powers. Body Paragraph One: Battle of Stalingrad The outcome of the Battle of Stalingrad disrupted Hitler’s plan to control Russia and fulfil lebensraum, altering the outcome of the war in favour of the Allies.

● Wehrmacht made no progress in Moscow (North) ● Operation Blue (1942) to deny Stalin oil supplies and stunt Soviet defensive efforts to

protect Stalingrad ● Stalingrad had no military significance → name had propaganda use ● Initially successful, however Operation Uranus changed result of the war ● Russian Army General Zukhov encircled German army + Russian weather (quagmires

and cold) made the conditions bad for Germany ● Operation Winter Tempest and Luftwaffe aimed to help Germans, but they both failed ● Hitler surrendered

Body Paragraph Two: Battle of Leningrad The Battle of Leningrad further skewed the outcome of the war in Allied favour through German defeat in this campaign.

● Operation Typhoon, Russian army was weakened (650,000 prisoners to Germany) ● Capturing moscow would have allowed Hitler to attack Kursk and Stalingrad, beating

Russia and changing the result of the war in their favour. However, no. ● Russian conditions worsened (weather) which halted German war effort. Diseases,

machine malfunctioning, loss of communications. Blitzkrieg failed ● Allowed Russia to prepare defences → Zukhov boosted troops by 750,000 and increased

weaponry Body Paragraph Three: Hitler’s designation of troops towards Kursk Hitler’s decision to send troops toward Kursk proved to have a detrimental impact on the enthusiasm of German commanders, as Russia began outnumbering them in terms of manpower and weaponry, heightening the chances of Axis defeat in the war.

● Blitzkrieg had failed at this point → Panzerkeil did not meet the same success ● Stalin decided to move production east of Ural’s → constant flow of resources ● Soviet forces held advantages over Germany in mines, tanks, heavy guns ● Greatest tank battle in history with great losses on both sides, however Russia could

make up these losses and Germany could not ● Hitler called off the engagement

Assess the significance of the air war in shaping the course of the European War Thesis: The European War was unequivocally shaped by air warfare, which held immense significance in shaping the course of the conflict. A common trend within the entire campaign recognised that powers who had control of the air held corresponding domination from a military perspective. Body Paragraph One: Early German Success in the air The shape of the early course of war was built toward German favour, where they dominated on all fields of battle, most significantly in the performance of their Luftwaffe.

● Strategic military manoeuvres - blitzkrieg rendered the army invincible in the early yrs ● Fall of Poland (Blitzkrieg) - obliterated Polish air force ● Invasion of Denmark and Norway (end of Phoney War) - Operation Weserubung -

Luftwaffe bombing of capitals ● Fall of France - bombing @ evacuation at Dunkirk = coordination of luftwaffe and army ● Significance = powers who held air superiority mirrored this on their land performance.

Body Paragraph Two: The Battle of Britain The early course of the war exhibited German military supremacy, yet after their aerial defeat during the Battle of Britain and the Blitz, the conflict had been reshaped in is entirety.

● Operation Sea Lion - first military campaign fought exclusively by air forces ● Britain had military advantages - RAF radar, detection and command systems, aircraft

production and skillful tactics ● Hitler abandoned Operation SL and introduced the Blitz (night attacks) ● Strengthened British position (aircraft manufacture), threatened German position

(suspended lebensraum) ● Significance = Luftwaffe failed to gain air superiority → turning point ● If Germany achieved victory, maximised chance of winning in Russia and North A, and

ultimately the whole war. Body Paragraph Three: Bombing of Germany/End of Conflict German degradation succeeding their defeat at the Battle of Britain extended through to the conclusion of the war, during the Bombing of Germany; an aerial Allied retaliation which aided the course of the war to ultimate Allied victory.

● British and US air force bombing major German cities (1943) - demolished sites of military importance (building shipyards, locomotive sheds, industrial centres)

● Fatally weakened military, industry and economy ● War had diverted to favour the allies ● Weakened Germany’s ability to wage war; bombings continued ad D-Day ● Exhausting Axis military effort ● Significance = failure of the Luftwaffe to secure air security made redemption for the

German army impossible

2017 (a) Assess the significance of the Nazi−Soviet Non-Aggression Pact as a

cause of conflict in Europe.

(b) Assess the significance of the Russian campaign to the Allied victory. 2016

(a) To what extent were the dictatorships in Germany and Italy responsible for the growth of European tensions?

OR (b) Assess the significance of the Battle of El Alamein as a turning point in the European

conflict. 2015

(a) Appeasement was a tactic used to delay war rather than a policy to achieve a lasting peace. How accurate is this statement?

OR (b) To what extent was the impact of the war on civilians in Great Britain equal to its

impact on civilians in EITHER Germany OR the Soviet Union? 2014

(a) How significant was the war in the air in shaping the course of the European war? OR

(b) Assess the role of the 1944 Russian counter-offensives in bringing about the end of the conflict in Europe

2013

(a) Without the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact there would have been no war in Europe. To what extent is this statement accurate?

OR (b) To what extent did the aims and strategies of the Axis powers shape the course of the

European War? 2012

(a) Why was Germany so successful in the European War up to the start of Operation Barbarossa?

OR (b) Assess the social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Britain and EITHER

Germany OR the Soviet Union

2011

(a) Assess the effectiveness of the League of Nations to the maintenance of peace in Europe to 1939

OR (b) Evaluate the significance of ‘D’ Day and the liberation of France in bringing about the

end of the conflict in Europe by 1945? 2010

(a) How significant were the Battle of Stalingrad and the Russian campaign in leading to the Allied victory in the European War?

OR (b) Assess the impact of Nazi racial polities on civilians during the European War.

2009

(a) To what extent was the policy of appeasement responsible for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?

OR (b) Assess the significance of the conflict in North Africa to Allied victory in the European

War. 2008

(a) Evaluate the view that the air war determined the outcome of the European War OR

(b) Assess the significance of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact to the outbreak of war in 1939

2007

(a) Evaluate the view that Operation Barbarossa was the major turning point of the European War.

OR (b) To what extent did Allied and Axis strategies during World War II affect civilians?

2006

(a) Evaluate the view that the dictators Hitler and Mussolini were primarily responsible for the tensions that led to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939.

OR (b) To what extent was the Soviet Union (Russia) responsible for the Allied victory in the

conflict in Europe

HSC Questions From Kelly CONFLICT IN EUROPE: Assess the significance of the Nazi−Soviet Non-Aggression Pact as a cause

of conflict in Europe. Without the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact there would have been no war in Europe. To what extent is this statement accurate? Why was Germany so successful in the European War up to the start of Operation Barbarossa? Explain why Germany had military success in Europe by 1942. Evaluate the view that the air war determined the outcome of the European War. How significant was the war in the air in shaping the course of the European war? Assess the impact of the air war on the course of the European conflict. What was the impact of the air war on the course of the European conflict in the period from 1939 to 1945? Evaluate the view that Operation Barbarossa was a significant turning point that led to Germany’s defeat. How significant were the Battle of Stalingrad and the Russian campaign in leading to the Allied victory in the European War? Assess the role of the 1944 Russian counter- offensives in bringing about the end of the conflict in Europe? To what extent did Russian counter offensives contribute to Allied victory by 1945? To what extent was the Soviet Union (Russia) responsible for the Allied victory in the conflict in Europe? Assess the significance of the Russian campaign to the Allied victory. To what extent was the defeat of Germany decided on the Eastern Front? Assess the significance of the Battle of El Alamein as a turning point in the European conflict. Assess the significance of the battle of El Alamein and the conflict in North Africa to Allied victory. To what extent was the campaign in North Africa a turning point in the course of the European War? To what extent was the impact of the war on civilians in Great Britain equal to its impact on civilians in EITHER Germany OR the Soviet Union? Assess the social and economic impact of the war on civilians in Britain OR Germany OR the Soviet Union To what extent did the aims and strategies of the Axis powers shape the course of the European War? To what extent did Allied and Axis strategies during World War II affect civilians? To what extent did the aims and strategies of the Allied powers contribute to their victory in 1945? To what extent was ‘D-Day’ and the liberation of France responsible for the final defeat of Germany in 1945? Explain how the implementation of the racial policies of the Nazi leaders resulted in their prosecution at the Nuremburg War Crime Trials Assess the impact of Nazi racial policies on minority groups in Europe. How effectively were the nature and effects of the Holocaust addressed in the Nuremburg War Crime Trials

To what extent were the dictatorships in Germany and Italy responsible for the growth of European tensions? Thesis- Dictatorships in both Germany and Italy held responsibility for the growth of European tensions, but so did the failure of the League of Nations. P1: Hitler’s Nazi dictatorship in Germany was a significant factor which contributed to the growth of European tensions. Hitler’s immediate aim when elected into power in 1933 was the violation of the Treaty of Versailles which enabled him to achieve his ultimate aim of Lebensraum and the expansion of the Third Reich. The Versailles armament clauses were discarded by Hitler and resulted in the introduction of conscription, the creation of an air force, the construction of submarines and heavy guns and the remilitarisation of the Rhineland. Each of these actions contradicted the Treaty of Versailles which made it clear Hitler would go to war to achieve Lebensraum and the unity of all German speaking people. His constant contradictions were also heavily opposed by other nations, in particular Allied powers, contributing to the argument that the German dictator was responsible for the growth of European tensions. This view is further supported through Hitler’s actions in Anschluss, the Sudetenland and eventually Poland which also helps demonstrate his focus on European domination. Hitler’s ability to obtain control over Austria in March 1938 and the Sudetenland in the Munich Pact in September 1938 did much to continue the growth of European tensions, in particular from Britain and France whose methods of maintaining international peace through the distribution of appeasements were clearly unsuccessful. Furthermore, Hitler’s eventual invasion of Poland in September 1939 contributed massively to the growth of European tensions and the declaration of war by Britain and France against Germany, initiating WW2. Hitler’s violation of the Treaty of Versailles and his increased aggression against foreign states helps reinforce the large extent to which Hitler was responsible for the growth of European tensions. P2: Mussolini’s dictatorship in Italy was another factor which contributed to the growth of European tensions. In a similar way to Hitler, Mussolini longed for a chance at imperial expansion, which involved opposing the League of Nations and its principle of collective security. Mussolini’s goals of achieving this were initiated with the invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935, which also contributed to the growth of European tensions as France and Britain both opposed this action to a large extent and could have potentially took action. Although the Abyssinia conflict did not cause the end of Collective Security, it was a factor which played a role in its eventual collapse. Furthermore, the Abyssinian crisis had a negative impact on the relationship between France and Britain as the British were disappointed at France’s publication of the Hoare Laval Plan and the French were angered by Britain’s support for sanctions which had done nothing for Abyssinia and provided evidence that the League of Nations was useless. This reiterates Mussolini’s role in the growth of European tensions through his indirect exposure to the uselessness of the League of Nations. Furthermore, Mussolini’s involvement in the Spanish civil war also contributed to the growth of European tensions. The Spanish civil war saw German and Italian relations becoming cemented as they assisted the Nationalists in obtaining victory, and the war also resulted in the principle of Collective Security being long forgotten and the death of the League of Nations which aided in the growth of European tensions. Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia along with his involvement

with Germany in the Spanish civil war were significant factors that hold him partially accountable for the growth of European tensions. P3: Although Hitler’s and Mussolini’s actions were clearly responsible for raising European tensions, the failure of other powers to stand up to them were another factor which holds responsibility for the growth of European tensions. Due to the horrid nature of the first World War, there was a common dread against the initiation of another war, therefore the policy of appeasement was used and aimed to prevent this from happening. Appeasement refers to the policy of making concessions to dictatorial powers in order to avoid conflict, however, this only encouraged German aggression as Hitler was constantly rewarded for opposing the League of Nations and violating the Treaty of Versailles. The epitome of the policy of appeasement was the Munich Conference of 1938 where Hitler was granted control over specific areas of Czechoslovakia. This simultaneously contributed to the growing tensions throughout Europe due to the seemingly useless reaction against German aggression. The League of Nation and the failure of Collective Security can also be held responsible for the increasing tensions throughout Europe. One of the main flaws of the League of Nation’s was its inability to physically prevent acts of German aggression due to the League lacking a military force. This is a significant reason which enabled Hitler to continuously violate the Treaty of Versailles as he was aware of the few repercussions that would be instilled upon himself and Germany. This weakness along with the ignorance of Collective Security by other nations contributed heavily to the outbreak of war and ultimately the growing tensions throughout Europe. In spite of the fact that Hitler and Mussolini were accountable for the growing tensions throughout Europe, the flawed methods of the League of Nations, such as the policy of appeasement and Collective Security, were also a factor which contributes to the growth of tensions throughout Europe.