Conference Proceedings 4 International Conference on Agriculture and Forestry … · 2018. 8....

Conference Proceedings

4th International Conference on Agriculture and

Forestry 2017

(ICOAF - 2017)

24th – 25th August, 2017

Colombo, Sri Lanka

Committee of the ICOAF - 2017

The International Institute of Knowledge Management (TIIKM)

Tel: +94(0) 11 3132827

[email protected]

ii

Disclaimer

The responsibility for opinions expressed, in articles, studies and other contributions in this

publication rests solely with their authors, and this publication does not constitute an

endorsement by the ICOAF or TIIKM of the opinions so expressed in them.

Official website of the conference

www.agroconference.com

Conference Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Agriculture and Forestry

2017

Edited by Dr. Samih Abubaker, Prof. D.K.N.G. Pushpakumara and Others

ISSN 2362-1036 online

Copyright @ 2017 TIIKM

All rights are reserved according to the code of intellectual property act of Sri Lanka,

2003

Published by The International Institute of Knowledge Management (TIIKM), No:

531/18, Kotte Road, Pitakotte ,10100, Sri Lanka

Tel: +94(0) 11 3098521

Fax: +94(0) 11 2873371

iii

Hosting Partner:

Al-Balqa Applied University, Jordan

Academic Partners:

University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia

Progressive Sustainable Developers Nepal, Nepal

Warmadewa University, Indonesia

Supporting Ministry:

Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka

Organized By:

The International Institute of Knowledge Management (TIIKM)

PROF. D.K.N.G. PUSHPAKUMARA (Co-Chair, ICOAF 2017)

Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University of

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

DR. SAMIH ABUBAKER (Co-Chair & Keynote Speaker, ICOAF 2017)

Former Dean, Faculty of Agricultural

Technology, Al-Balqa` Applied University,

Jordan

DR. NAFEES MEAH (Keynote Speaker, ICOAF 2017)

South Asia Representative

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

PROF. S. B. NAVARATHNE (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)

University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka

DR. P. PERERA (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)


DR. R. WIMALASEKERA (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)


DR. I. SAFNI (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)

Universitas Sumatera Utara, Indonesia

DR. A. WINAYA (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)


ICOAF 2017 Committee

iv

DR. M. M. MAHUSOON (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)

Eastern University, Sri Lanka

DR. T. RAMANADANE (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture

and Research Institute, India

DR. M. MASDOEKIE (Session Chair, ICOAF 2017)


DR. P. D. A. ABEYSUNDARA (Evaluation Panel Member, ICOAF 2017)


MR. T. CHANDRATILAKE (Evaluation Panel Member, ICOAF 2017)


MR. ISANKA P. GAMAGE (Conference Convener, ICOAF 2017)

The International Institute of Knowledge

Management

MR. OSHADEE WITHANAWASAM (Conference Publication Chair, ICOAF 2017)


Management

MR. VIRAJ MAYADUNNA (Conference Coordinator, ICOAF 2017)


Management

Editorial Board-ICOM 2013

Editors in Chief

Prof. D.K.N.G. Pushpakumara, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. Samih Abubaker, Former Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Al-Balqa` Applied University, Jordan

The Editors in chief is not responsible for the content of any full paper.

Editorial Board - ICOAF- 2017

v

Prof. C. M. B. Dematawewa, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. S. Athauda, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. J. Vidanarachchi, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. (Mrs.) S. Yatigammana, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. M. N. M. Fauzi, Department of Farm Animal Production & Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine &

Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf, Veterinary and Animal Sciences, UVAS, Pakistan

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Y. Esa, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Assoc. Prof. Dr S. M. N. Amin, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. P. Mahalakshmi, Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, India

Dr. P. S. Asha, Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, India

Dr. N. F. M. Ikhsan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. M. W. Jye, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

Dr. K. R. Salin, Asian Institute of Knowledge Management, Thailand

Dr. N. U. Karim, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

Dr. R. M. Piah, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

Dr. K. Overturf, United States Department of Agriculture, USA

Dr. N.VR. Chatterjee, Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fishery Sciences, WBUAFS, India

Dr. Md. A. Kader, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

Dr. P. Santhanam, Bharathidasan University, India

Dr. N. Musa, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences (FISHA), Malaysia

Dr. P. Mahalakshmi, Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, India

Prof. A. H. Al-Harbi, Aquatic Animal Health Life science and Environment Research Institute, Saudi Arabia

Prof. Dr. N. Musa, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences (FISHA), Malaysia

Mr. A. Hettiarachchi, Freelance Consultant, Sri Lanka

Scientific Committee - ICOAF- 2017

vi

Table of Contents Page No

01 Identification of Quality Enhancement Methods for Sweet

Orange (Citrus Sinencis) at 50% Maturity Stage

E.K.E.C. Nayana and M.A.L.N. Mallawaarachchi

1-9

02 Implementation of Food Safety Activities: The Case Study in

Mandarin Orange Farmers by Agriculture Cooperative in Japan

Okta Pringga Pakpahan, Kenji Hosono, Masahiro Yamao and

Yoshiharu Shiratake

10-15

03 Effect of Elevated Temperature on Weed Seed Germination in

Paddy Soil Seed Bank

R.M.U.S. Bandara, T.K. Ilangakoon, H.M.M.K.K.H.

Dissanayaka, Y.M.S.H.I.U. De Silva, C.H.Piyasiri and D.M.C.B.

Dissanayaka

16-18

04 Analysis of Farmers’ Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural

Practices in Northern Nigeria

Saliu Akinlabi Tiamiyu, Uduma Bernadette Ugalahi, Timothy

Fabunmi, Rahman O. Sanusi, Enitan Oluwakemi Fapojuwo and

Adebayo Musediku Shittu

19-26

05 Towards Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals by

Microalgae-Livestock Systems Integration: A Review

Aminu Bature, Lynsey Melville and Khondokar Mizanur Rahman

27-39

06 Study on Risk Identification and Pesticide Usage in Paddy

Cultivation in Alayadivembu Divisional Secretariat Division of

Ampara District, Sri Lanka

K. Prasannath, V. Prasannath and S. Sinthuja

40-45

07 Production and Economic Characteristics of Goat Management

Systems in Vavuniya District, Sri Lanka

M. Sarmini, S. Premaratne and S. Kalpana

46-53

Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 3, 2017, pp. 1-9

Copyright © 2017 TIIKM

ISSN 2362-1036 online

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17501/icoaf.2017.3101

4th International Conference on Agriculture and Forestry 2017

IDENTIFICATION OF QUALITY ENHANCEMENT

METHODS FOR SWEET ORANGE (Citrus sinencis)

AT 50% MATURITY STAGE

E.K.E.C. Nayana1* and M.A.L.N. Mallawaarachchi1**

1Regional Agriculture Research and Development Centre, Bandarawela

Email: *[email protected]

**[email protected]

Abstract: Fruits at 50% maturity stage were selected and six different treatments were applied to

find the best storage conditions where, ambient temperature packed in transparent polythene (T1),

stored in black polythene (T2), without packing (T3), refrigerator packed in transparent polythene

(T4), refrigerator packed in black polythene (T5) and refrigerator without packing (T6).Physiological

characters (weight, firmness, juice content and rotten %) and TSS, pH and Acidity of the initial and

stored fruits were examined on every 7th day for a period of 35 days. Sensory evaluation was

conducted using 10 panelists to find out consumer preferences. During storage period minimum

weight losses (from 85.1g to 73.1g), highest TSS (11.2), gradually decreasing of firmness, increase

of pH ( from 2.6 ± 0.1) and reduction of acidity (from 1.6 ± 0.1 to 1.2 ± 0.06) were observed in fruits

stored in refrigerator with packed of black polythene with glossy appearance yellow colour and 0%

of rotten fruits. Sensory evaluation results of black colour polythene covered fruit stored in

refrigerator had significantly higher (Pr>F 0.05) values such as 98% peel colour appearance, taste

(88) and juice content (88). Therefore, stored in refrigerator packed in black polythene were the best

quality fruits.

Keywords: quality enhancement; Sweet orange;maturity stage; storage conditions

Introduction

Sweet orange (Citrus sinensisL.) is, highly valued fruit crop in Sri Lanka which belongs to family Rutaceae,

subfamily Aurantioideae. At present sweet orange production widely distributed in dry and intermediate zone of

Sri Lanka, mainly in the Anuradhapura, Kurunegala and Badulla districts. The area under this fruit crop is

increasing rapidly as a result of dynamic crop production scheme launched by Government of Sri Lanka. The

sweet orange fruits primarily provide vitamin C and consisted with the other nutrients such as calcium,

potassium, thiamin, niacin and magnesium. Sweet orange fruits were consumed fresh and used in traditional

medicine as well. Therefore, it is increasingly becoming popular among people. Sweet orange variety Sisila was

recently released variety from the Department of Agriculture, which was recommended to the wet and

intermediate zones of Sri Lanka. This variety has good flavor, juice content and especially attractive yellowish

orange peel colour at fully mature stage. However, there are considerable post harvest losses of this sweet

orange fruits since it has shortest shelf life of 5-7 days (Sakhale and Kapse, 2012). Therefore, it is important to

determine different storage methods to extend the shelf life of sweet orange variety Sisila with higher consumer

acceptability for overall quality of orange.

The peel colour and flavor of sweet orange fruits are varying considerably with variety, climatic conditions in

cultivated area, and storage conditions. Therefore, peel colour and flavor are important parameters to catch the

quality perceived by consumers and to create reasonable price limits for farmers. The measure of peel colour

development, total soluble solids (TSS) content, pH, acidity, rotten percentage and firmness of fruits are

E.K.E.C. Nayana and M.A.L.N. Mallawaarachchi / Identification of Quality Enhancement….

2

important to access keeping quality and fruit quality in storage studies. It is necessary to improve storage

conditions to keep sufficient shelf life to utilize the entire production in local as well as export market. Improper

storage results in rapid loss of sugars, ascorbic acids (Faasema et al, 2011). Efforts have been made in this

investigation to extend shelf life of sweet orange variety Sisila with reusable packing materials and storage

conditions.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted in year 2013, Horticulture laboratory at Regional Agriculture Research and

Development Centre, Bandaraewla. Sisila oranges at physiologically 50% mature stage were harvested from

commercial orchard in Badulla district, packed in corrugated fiber boxes, transported to the laboratory, selected

for uniformity in size, weight, peel colour and absence of defects. Selected area belongs to up country

intermediate agro ecological zone. Badulla district situated in 1200m height from sea level, there average

temperature range is from 150C to 270Cand annual rain fall is around 1100 – 1400 mm. Red yellow podsolic

soil type is most commonly found in that area.Transparent and black colored low density polyethylene (LDPE)

bags were used as packaging materials with the same gauge of 200. Separately weighed fruits were packed in

transparent and black LDPE bags (200 gauge), as each bag consisting six fruits. Packed (treatments) and

unpacked samples (control) were then stored at ambient (24±1ºC) and refrigeration (8ºC) temperature. Six

treatments were arranged as fruits were stored in ambient temperature, packed in transparent polythene (T1),

packed in black polythene (T2), without packing (T3 – Control) and fruits were stored in refrigeration

condition, packed in transparent polythene (T4), packed in black polythene (T5), without packing (T6 -

Control). Fruit quality parameters were considered from each treatment at weekly interval such as weight, juice

content, pH, TSS (expressed as Brix), Firmness, titratable acidity (TA), rotting percentage and consumer

preference. Laboratory equipments; electrical balance, penetrometer, pH meter and hand held refractometer was

used to measure fruit weight, fruit firmness, pH and TSS respectively.

The experiment arranged according to the Two Factor Factorial Completely Randomized Design with four

replicates. Data were subjected to ANOVA to obtain treatment means using SAS 9.1.3 statistical software. The

statistical differences among treatment means were tested by DUNCAN procedure (P=0.05) test. Sensory

evaluation was done by using trained 10 number of panelist’s evaluation of citrus fruits. The parameters of taste,

colour and juiciness were measure. Ten numbers of panelists were involved for the sensory evaluation.

Results and Discussion

The effect of storage environment, packaging materials and storage period on fruit weight, firmness, juice

content and rotten percentage were mentioned in Table 1. The results revealed that, during the storage period,

highest weight loss was recorded in fruits which were stored ambient temperature without packing. The fruits

packed in black polythene, stored in refrigerator were shown the lowest weight loss.

The weight loss of six treatments was significantly increased with storage period. The main causes for weight

loss were respiration and transpiration at higher temperature and high humidity level at ambient temperature.

Therefore, it was observed that the fruits in ambient temperature without packing progressively increase weight

loss than fruits stored in refrigerator without packing within short storage period. The difference in water vapor

transmission rate in packing materials was affected to change time to reach heavy weight losses. Furthermore

Gonzalez et al., (1990) mentioned lower rate of weight loss of fruits in the package could be due to slow rate of

ripening and prevention of excessive moisture loss.

The storage environment and packing materials were significantly (Pr>F 0.05) affect the firmness of fruits. All

fruits stored under different treatments had gradually increasing possibility of firmness after 21 days storage

except fruit storage in ambient temperature without packing. The firmness of T3 was decline from 1st day of

storage up to 7th day. After on day 7 started again to increase firmness. But, fruits were stored in refrigerator


condition packed in black polythene treatment revealed the gradually reduction of fruit firmness during the

storage period.

According to the Faasema et al., (2011), reason to decrease of fruit firmness could be due to the degradation of

protopectin by pectinatase. The firmness increase could be due to the hardening of the skin or development of

leathery structure as a result of high water loss and the development of shriveling. The texture modifications

through degradation of polysaccharides such as pectins, cellulose and hemicellulose were that could be the

reason to reduce fruit firmness of T5 (Irtwange, 2006).


4

Table1: Fruit physiological characters changes in sweet orange variety “Sisila” with different storage conditions and packing materials during storage period

Store conditions Packing

materials

Parameters Storage periods (Days)

1 7 14 21 28 35

Ambient

temperature

(24ºC)

Transparent

Polythene

(T1)

Weight (g) 87.1 ± 0.3 85.6 ± 0.4 81.7 ± 1.6 78.5 ± 0.3 75.6 ± 0.3 72.1 ± 1.7

Firmness (lb) 15.7 ± 0.5 14.9 ± 1.6 11.1 ± 1.6 8.9 ± 6.1 9.6 ± 1.4 15 ± 16.7

Juice content (ml) 36.2 ± 7.3 34.8 ± 9.3 30.2 ± 5.5 29 ± 19.5 24 ± 10.8 23.8 ± 8.1

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Black

polythene (T2)

Weight (g) 85.6 ± 1.6 83.6 ± 0.3 82.7 ± 1.3 77 ± 0.1 72.5 ± 0.7 69.7 ± 0.03

Firmness (lb) 18.1 ± 0.9 16.4 ± 4.1 15.1 ± 6 12.8 ± 2.2 14.4 ± 3 14.5 ± 0.7

Juice content (ml) 32.4 ± 1.9 31 ± 2.8 28.2 ± 4.4 27 ± 4 25.2 ± 5 25 ± 18.8

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Control

(T3)

Weight (g) 86.7 ± 1.9 78.2 ± 2.3 69 ± 2.7 65.4 ± 3.1 62.8 ± 0.8 57.6 ± 1.9

Firmness (lb) 11.5 ± 1.7 9.7 ± 1.4 16.5 ± 2.3 22.4 ± 2.6 24 ± 7.4 0

Juice content (ml) 37.5 ± 5.4 36.2 ± 9.6 29.5 ± 4.1 28.4 ± 9 27.4 ± 5.8 0

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 50

Refrigerator

(8ºC)

Transparent

Polythene

(T4)

Weight (g) 85.2 ± 0.5 83.4 ± 2.3 81.5 ± 1.7 78.9 ± 1.3 77.6 ± 0.9 74.5 ± 0.6

Firmness (lb) 18.3 ± 2.6 14.8 ± 4.4 12 ± 3 8.4 ± 5.7 10.4 ± 1.5 10.2 ± 1.2

Juice content (ml) 35.2 ± 4.1 29.6 ± 4.9 28.3 ± 2.8 26.6 ± 18.8 25.2 ± 5.1 22.5 ± 6

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Black

polythene (T5)

Weight (g) 85.1 ± 2.6 84.7 ± 0.5 82 ± 1.1 80.4 ± 0.7 77.8 ± 0.4 73.1 ± 1.2

Firmness (lb) 19.1 ± 3.2 18 ± 7.6 14.6 ± 1 12.4 ± 0.9 11 ± 3.6 10.1 ± 3

Juice content (ml) 31.5 ± 1.9 28.8 ± 5.6 27.8 ± 6.8 27.3 ± 11.2 26.2 ± 4.6 25 ± 6.9

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Control

(T6)

Weight (g) 86.3 ± 1.7 83.1 ± 0.6 80.1 ± 1.3 77.5 ± 2.1 72.7 ± 2.3 69.4 ± 0.9

Firmness (lb) 16.4 ± 3.1 15.1 ± 1.7 13.8 ± 1.7 13.1 ± 1.6 14.6 ± 2.5 16.8 ± 3.4

Juice content (ml) 32 ± 4.2 27.7 ± 7.9 27.7 ± 3.2 23.5 ± 5 24.1 ± 5.2 22.4 ± 7

Rotten (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0


Table 2: Fruit biochemical characters changes in sweet orange variety “Sisila” with different storage conditions and packing materials during storage period

Store conditions Packing materials Parameters Storage periods(Days)

1 7 14 21 28 35

Ambient

temperature (24ºC)

Transparent

polythene

(T1)

TSS 9.4 ± 0.3 9.7 ± 0.8 9.7 ± 0.5 9.8 ± 4.6 10.2 ± 0.6 10.4 ± 0.7

Ph 2.7 ± 0.2 2.9 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 1.4 3.2 ± 0.1 3 ± 0.1

Acidity 1.5 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.3 1.5 ± 0.7 1.5 ± 0.6 1.4 ± 0.4 1.4 ± 04

Black polythene

(T2)

TSS 9.7 ± 0.7 10 ± 1 10.1 ± 0.8 10.4 ± 1.4 10.2 ± 0.8 10.2 ± 0.5

pH 2.9 ± 0.7 2.9 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.4 3.2 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.1

Acidity 1.6 ± 0.7 1.5 ± 0.4 1.4 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.6 1.3 ± 0.4 1.3 ± 0.1

Control

(T3)

TSS 9.9 ± 1.2 9.9 ± 0.6 10.1 ± 1.2 9.7 ± 0.5 9.2 ± 0.2 0

pH 2.7 ± 0.3 2.8 ± 0.1 3 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.2 0

Acidity 1.5 ± 0.4 1.4 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.05 1.5 ± 0.3 0

Refrigerator (8ºC)

Transparent

Polythene

(T4)

TSS 9.7 ± 0.5 9.8 ± 0.6 9.9 ± 0.8 10.4 ± 5.2 10.6 ± 0.9 10.8 ± 0.6

pH 2.7 ± 0.02 2.9 ± 0.1 3 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 1.4 3.3 ± 0.1 3.4 ± 0.1

Acidity 1.6 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.3 1.5 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.3 1.3 ± 0.1

Black polythene

(T5)

TSS 9.8 ± 0.6 9.9 ± 1.1 10.2 ± 0.9 10.8 ± 1.1 10.9 ± 0.9 11.2 ± 0.7

pH 2.6 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.2 3 ± 0.03 3 ± 0.04 3.2 ± 0.1 3.6 ± 0.08

Acidity 1.6 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.5 1.4 ± 0.5 1.3 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.06

Control

(T6)

TSS 9.7 ± 0.2 8.9 ± 0.7 9.6 ± 0.7 9.6 ± 0.5 9.7 ± 1.4 10.8 ± 0.6

pH 2.8 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.08 3.1 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.2 3.2 ± 0.2 3.3 ± 0.04

Acidity 1.6 ± 0.2 1.6 ± 0.4 1.5 ± 0.2 1.5 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.3


6

Gradual decreasing pattern of juice content had been recorded in all treatments. Sweet orange fruits stored in

refrigerator and packed using black polythene were shown the low reducing pattern of juice content. The reason

to reduce juice content was transpiration of water from fruits.

From the beginning of storage of every treatment up to 28th day (4th week) were not shown significant rotten

percentage of fruits. Significantly higher rotten percentage had been shown in T3 (50%). Therefore, shelf life of

those fruits was end after 28th day and not suitable for human consumption.

In Table 2 was shown the TSS, pH and acidity of sweet orange fruits in different treatments. Different packing

materials and two different environmental conditions had been significantly affected (Pr>F 0.05) the TSS. The

significantly highest TSS values were recorded in fruits stored in refrigerator packed in black polythene (T5).

Throughout the whole experimental period, every treatment in refrigeration condition was shown gradually

increasing of TSS. Moreover, transparent and black polythene covered fruits stored in ambient temperature were

recorded gradual increasing of TSS up to 35th day. After 14th day of storage, TSS value of fruits stored in

ambient temperature without packing (T3) was gradually declined. The fruits of T3 have attained maximum

TSS of 10.10. The decrease in TSS because, exhaustions of acids and the conversion of sugars in to other

organic products as substrate for respiration (Faasma et al, 2011). The same results were recorded by Znidarcic

et al, (2010) as TSS increase in both storage conditions under ambient and refrigerator conditions. Because of

degradation of polysaccharide was reported as possible reason of increasing soluble solids contents in fruits with

the increase of maturity.

Rohani et al, (1997) mentioned, the increase in TSS is related to ripening of fresh commodities while slower

rate of respiration may reduce metabolic activities and thus result in to lower TSS values. The above statement

line with Ishaq et al, (2009), TSS value was considerably increased during storage due to fully conversion of

starches in to soluble sugars. At the same time decline in TSS during storage period attributed to fermentation of

soluble sugars in to alcohol, Co2 and water (Majidi et al, 2011).

The fruits which stored in refrigerator packed in black polythene were recorded significantly increasing pH

value. According to the Castro et al, 2005, pH value was increased with fruit maturity. It has been further

reported that packaging films significantly affected ripening rates of fruit (Faasema et al, 2011).

Acidity value of T5 (Pr>F 0.05) was lower than the acidity of fruits of other storage conditions. The all

treatments except T3 were shown the decreasing values of acidity during storage. Acidity values of T4 and T5

were not significantly different. As in literature, Faasema et al, 2011 mentioned, organic acids decline during

ripening of fruits and they used as substrates for respiration or converted in to sugars. According to that reason

pH value becomes higher.


7

Figure1 Peel colour development percentage of sweet orange variety “Sisila” with different packing materials

at ambient temperature

According to the Figure 1, peel colour development percentage was gradually increase up to 35 th day of fruit

packed in transparent and black polythene. After the 28th day, sudden colour development improvement was

seen in black polythene covered samples, but not significantly different. Control sample in ambient temperature

was shown colour development improvement up to 21st day during storage period. After that, development of

discolouration was appeared.

Even though, samples stored in refrigeration condition were shown gradual increasing pattern in colour

development (Figure 2). The slow colour development percentage was observed only in control treatment up to

day 21 and other two treatments were shown significantly (Pr>F 0.05) higher colour development percentage up

to day 35. Within those two treatments, glossy appearance and smoothness were higher in samples packed in

black polythene.

Figure2 Peel colour development percentage of sweet orange variety “Sisila” with different packing materials

at refrigerator condition


8

Sensory evaluation

Consumer preferences were measured by sensory evaluation of sweet orange fruits. Peel colour was measured

as percentage. Significantly highest peel colour development (bright yellow with glossy appearance) was

recorded in fruits stored in refrigerator packed in transparent and black polythene bags. The values were 95%

and 98% respectively. Very poor colour development was observed in fruits stored in ambient temperature

without packing. The reason was, the peel became shriveling by the heavy water losses through transpiration.

Therefore, instead of yellow colour development, brown colour appearance was taken place.

Table 3 Sensory evaluation of sweet orange variety “Sisila” with different treatments

Treatment Parameters

Peel colour (%) Taste Juiciness

T1 62b 58b 48c

T2 65b 63b 49c

T3 25d 12d 13d

T4 95a 72a 82a

T5 98a 88a 88a

T6 40c 28c 57b

CV% 7.2 5.3 11.7

Note: Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different at p=0.05

The value of “taste” was significantly highest in fruits stored in refrigerator packed in black polythene. The

lowest taste was recorded in fruits stored in ambient temperature without packing. The high level of

transpiration at ambient temperature directly affected the lowest quality of fruits. Juiciness also significantly

highest in fruits stored in refrigerator packed in transparent and black polythene.

Conclusion

Results revealed that the shelf life of fruits of Sweet orange variety “Sisila” could be extended in refrigeration

condition by packing with black polythene. Fruit physiological characteristics, biochemical properties and

consumer preferences were highest in fruits in black polythene cover stored under refrigerator. Similarly, fruit

quality was highest in fruits stored in refrigerator packed in black polythene up to day 35. Very poor shelf life

was observed in the fruits stored in ambient temperature without packing. Loss of glossy appearance, shriveling,

symptoms due to water loss and dryness of peel directly affected to the poor consumer preference and

marketability of those fruits.

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9

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physiochemical quality of Tomatoes (Lycopersiconesculentum Mill). Journal of Food, Agriculture and

Environment, 8, 21- 25.

Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 3, 2017, pp. 10-15 Copyright © 2017 TIIKM ISSN 2362-1036 online DOI: https://doi.org/10.17501/icoaf.2017.3102


IMPLEMENTATION OF FOOD SAFETY

ACTIVITIES: THE CASE STUDY IN MANDARIN

ORANGE FARMERS BY AGRICULTURE

COOPERATIVE IN JAPAN

Okta Pringga Pakpahan1*

, Kenji Hosono1, Masahiro Yamao

1 and Yoshiharu Shiratake

2

1Hiroshima University, Japan 2Department of Agricultural Economics, Saga University, Japan


Abstract: A number of high outbreaks have raised questions regarding food quality and safety

assurance. Agriculture cooperatives as food business operators have a central role, challenged to

maintain standard demanded by customers, government, and international code which are

incorporated into their operations activity. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of

cooperatives in implementing food safety management at production (farmers) and consumer

(exporters, retailers or wholesale) levels. The research employed case studies in prefecture-level

cooperatives in Japan. Data were collected with a diagnostic tool for evaluation of food safety

activities on farms and traders and semi-structured interviews with safety assurance managers of the

cooperatives. Thirty mandarin orange farms, two traders, three cooperative staff, one processing

company and one exporter association, were evaluated. The findings indicate that cooperatives have

the double responsibility of managing quality and safety in the food chain. They are responsible for

operational decisions taken by farmers during cultivation period. At the same time, they make the

tactical decision concerning of quality and safety requirements between customers, and farmers,

including selling the products. Hierarchical relationships farmers with cooperatives and customers

with cooperatives show the good level in food safety activities (score 2). Therefore, this study useful

for assist quality assurance system into the food industry and agriculture sector in Japan.

Keywords: agricultural, cooperatives, food safety

Introduction

The risk of contamination is inherited since the output of one chain actor is the input for the next. Addition, the

performance of implemented food safety activities in food chain determine how satisfactory or unsatisfactory

the output. In line with theses idea, Verbekeet et al., (2006) define food has three credence attributes specifically

classified cannot verify consumers themselves. Firstly, credence production has concern the origin of the

product (e.g., GMO, organic). Secondly, credence processing has concentration the way food processing from

raw material (e.g., free of additives, GM ingredients). Thirdly, credence product contents had relating nutrient

and contamination of food (e.g., gluten, dioxin contamination).

In Japan, Agriculture cooperative had established nationwide by Japan government in 1947, in collaboration

with Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) (Godo, 2014). The principal activities provide

essential information, comprehensive service (i.e., procurement of input and marketing of produce), transferred

knowledge and guided the farmers on farming activity to produce agricultural commodities (Imran et al., 2014).

In additionally, cooperative also have responsibilities quality control of the product which selling under a

cooperative brand. Therefore, during cultivation period cooperatives provide several activities to ensure the

safety and quality product their members are meet with consumers requirements.

OP. Pakpahan et al /Implementation of food safety activities: the case study in…..

11

In order to consumer protection, food safety activities held by agriculture cooperative has arisen a question

relating to Quality Assurance (QA), control and monitoring systems are implemented in farms members. Since,

the study in Thailand (Pongvinyoo, 2015) and Myanmar (Waiyeelin, 2016) showed the QA at farm level

(cultivation process and product standards) is the critical point in the safety food chain. Moreover, food safety

hazards are related consumption of fresh produce such as Salmonella spp. (e.g., tomato, cilantro, peppers),

Escherichia coli 0157:H7 (e.g., spinach), Listeria monocytogenes (e.g., cantaloupe outbreak) (Altmann et al.,

2011; Barton Behraveshet et al., 2011; Laksanalamai et al. 2012) appears due to the absence of an adequate

treatment before consumption.

The primary objective of this paper was to evaluate food safety activities in mandarin orange at Saga prefecture,

Japan. Specifically, this paper explores food safety activities during cultivation period, then assessing the current

status of food safety activities.

Quality assurance concepts

Quality assurance (QA) defined by Cruz et al. (2006) as the procedural and operational framework used by an

organization managing activity dealing with control of quality in each step of the process to prevent all hazards

involved in the food processing steps. Luningand Marcelis(2006) define QA systems onto assurance of food

safety depend on technological and managerial aspects. It implies that the safety of the final product is a result

of product characteristics and process conditions (technological), and human behavior and working conditions

(managerial) on the other hand.

The application of QA systems helps in identifying and managing the quality hazards and risks occurring in the

production process, and in providing the consumer with more certainty about the quality of products of origin

(Noordhuizen and Metz, 2005). However, the way in implementing systems and contexts QA which food

industry decides to take it depends on necessary consumers and production chain (Kupper and Batt, 2009).

Several of food safety hazards are related to the consumption of fresh produce due to natural contaminants are

arises from many sources (production activity, postharvest handling, and processing) (Beuchat, 1996).Such as

Salmonella spp (e.g., a tomato-cilantro-peppers outbreak in the USA in 2008), toxigenic molds produce

mycotoxins which are a group of chemical substances commonly grow on fruits (Van de Perre et al., 2013) and

pesticide residues (Van Boxstael et al., 2013). All these groups of hazards were taken into account in the

analysis of food safety activities in farms.


This paper uses data from mandarin orange farms in Saga Prefecture, Japan. Midori area was selected

purposively due to the central suppliers export of mandarin orange in Saga Prefecture.. The sample included

thirty mandarin orange farms, two traders, three cooperative staff, one processing company and one

representative exporter association. This study was employed Techno-Managerial approach. It allows studying

the dependence of food safety on the dynamics of the food system. It implies that the final product is a result of

reflected the technological applied during the process and managerial capability with respect to assurance of

food safety and environmental conditions. In the total, 22 indicators of activities were presented to the

respondents. Then, all indicators were ranked by their means and evidence to evaluate the level of food safety

status. The descriptive analysis was used to interpret the results analysis.


12

Results

Status of food safety activity applied

Control activities

Table 1 shows the results for the indicators of the actual operation of control activities. The situation of

cooperative scored 3 (advanced level), corresponding to easily available and understandable procedures that

were regularly updated. Staff in cooperative were aware of the content of procedures and were strictly following

them. Even though farmers were mostly working according to habits, the staff of cooperatives gives a lot of

support to make sure the producers comply with their standards. All analyses related to pest, waste and chemical

compounds were done by external accredited labs (score 3, advanced level). Lower scores were given to the

actual performance of equipment and tools which were not known in the farms (score 1, low level). Farmers did

not check actual storage capacity in cooperatives warehouse (score 2, basic level).

Assurance activities

Assurance activities scored mostly 1 (basic level), which means that it was not done by own farmers and needed

cooperative as the third part. Similarly, the validating and verifying their activities by a technical staff (score 2,

average level). An exception was proactively translating stakeholder requirements (score 2, average level) and

using feedback information to update their activities (score 2, average level). All farmers had documentation and

record keeping at an average level (score 2), structured, up to date and computerize while cooperative staff also

has the same activity to make sure that nothing left behind.

Monitoring system design

Most activities were designed according to guidelines and standards (e.g., JGAP) and by using best available

equipment but the methods its need to improve (score 2, average level). Several activities were the hygienic

design of equipment, premises, and tools, which was mostly not considered (score 1, basic level); sanitation

program, incoming materials control and corrective actions, which were based on own knowledge and

experience (score 1, basic level). Cooperatives still not taking microbiological samples (score 1, basic level).

However, farmers were using organic fertilizers, applied according to cooperative suggestion (score 3, advance

level).

Output

Table 1 reveals the results for the indicators of the system output. All farmers were audited by cooperative staff

and buyers (consumers) representatives (score 2 or 3), did not have major recalls (score 3) or complaints about

pesticide residues (score 3). Showed better results for few visual complaints (score 3), the cooperative still not

established a microbiological sampling plan (score 1) with no idea of criteria (score 1), but was recording the

non-conformities of received products (score 3). All were sampling for pesticide residues on a cooperative level

(score 2).

Food safety activity assessing

In order to ensure quality and safety of mandarin orange farmers, cooperatives not only supporting and

monitoring cultivation period. Also, invest and construct their warehouse near the production area. The

characters of the warehouse are that: (1) the cooperatives construct the warehouse directly and make

investments in constructions and facilities; (2) all the input products are monitoring by technical staff and

accomplished with cooperatives criteria;(3) most mandarin orange from farms are selling in fresh.


13

Table 1. Result of FSMS-DI analysis

Therefore, cooperative under the food safety management activity has managerial activity and technological

aspect integrated into their business activity (Table 2).

Specificity, 8 indicators from managerial aspects and 15 indicators from technological aspects were performed

in food safety activities. The 23 indicators were all scored from assigned score 1 to 2 (53%) to assigned score 2 -

3 (32%) and assigned score 3 (15%). This result can be summarized that 68 percent of assessed QA activities

from the questionnaires were performed in "lower than moderate" and the other 32 percent of assessed QA

activities were performed in "moderate" level. An overall food safety activities by agriculture cooperatives

represent a lower level of validation of food quality and safety activities. These indicators could be considered

as challenges to the upgrade of food safety activities.


14

Table 2. Assigned scores for food safety and quality activities

Managerial

Aspects Indicators Overall

score

Mean

score

Assigned

score

Decision-making

Identify critical control points 63 1.7 1

Validation 73 2.5 1

Traceability 86 3 3

Quality behavior Training 85 2.4 2-3

advice and support farming activity 85 2.7 2-3

Certification (Brand)

Sampling & laboratory analysis 75 2.0 2

Cross-check farming activity 78 2.5 2

Documentation & record 83 3 3

Technological

Cultivation period

Identification input 71 3 3

Pest identification 68 1.5 1

Chemical compound control 72 2.0 2

Waste system 69 2.0 2

Worker hygiene 65 1.5 1

Equipment hygiene 65 2.5 2

Warehouse

Chemicals 69 2.0 2

Cooling storage 75 2.0 2

Wash equipment hygiene 72 2.0 2

Packaging material 74 2.8 2-3

Quality control 73 2.8 2-3

Distribution Cleaning procedure 74 2.3 2

Cooling transport hygiene 69 1.5 1

Retail practices Traceability 82 3 3

Final food preparation Shelf life 84 2.9 2-3

Note : 0 – 1 Basic, 2 moderate, 2 – 3 Higher than moderate, 3 Advanced

Discussion

Contract sale between customers with cooperatives demonstrated adjusting levels of food safety activities and

less risky organization and chain, associated with the presence of a technical person with expertise in food

safety, higher competences of workers and more sophisticated logistic facilities. Moreover, commonly include

specifications on quality and safety parameters, which require further coordination between members and the

cooperative, and between the cooperative and the customers. These differences can be partially attributed to

differences in countries food control agreement.

Furthermore, additional training and advice by the cooperative correlated to farming activities, especially

regarding the knowledge-intensive assurance activities. These efforts were triggered by market demands from

retailers and other buyers as the cooperative was selling a large percentage of the mandarin oranges via

contracts.


15

Conclusions

This study expands the topic by defining the activities through which cooperatives play a role in food quality

and safety management in the fresh produce chain. This study identified a two-step role of cooperatives in the

supply chain. The first step, they are responsible for supply chain management, including tactical decisions

about coordination of quality and safety between farmers and customers. The second step, cooperatives sell the

products of their members and make strategic decisions about the governance of food safety requirements in the

supply chain, which ultimately may have an outcome single market channel. This condition was linked to

cooperatives effort put in a supply chain management and farming activities support during the cultivation

period. Such as control activities and assurance activities, training, and advice to the members to implement

quality and safety demanded cooperatives, providing logistics, sorting, packaging and traceability of the

products.

References

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2011.Timeliness of surveillance during outbreak of Shiga toxin–producing Escherichia coliinfection, Germany, 2011. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17.

Barton Behravesh, C., R. K. Mody, J. Jungk, L. Gaul, J. T. Redd, S. Chen, S. Cosgrove, E. Hedican, D.Sweat, L.

Chávez- Hauser, S. L. Snow, H. Hanson, T.-A. Nguyen, S. V. Sodha, A. L. Boore,E. Russo, M. Mikoleit, L.

Theobald, P. Gerner-Smidt, R. M. Hoekstra, F. J. Angulo, D. L.Swerdlow, R. V. Tauxe, P. M. Griffin, and I. T.

Williams. 2011. 2008 Outbreak of SalmonellaSaintpaul Infections Associated with Raw Produce. New England

Journal of Medicine.364:918-927.

Cruz, A. G., S. A. Cenci, and M. C. A. Maia. 2006. Quality assurance requirements in produceprocessing.

Trends in Food Science & Technology. 17:406-411.

Godo, Y. (2014). The Japanese Agricultural Cooperative System: An Outline.

http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=248&print=1. (accessed 15 Nov 2016).

Imran, Z., Yamao, M., Hosono, K., and Hiratani, K. (2014). Transformation of Japanese agriculturecooperative

toward trans pacific partnerships. Agricultural and Fisheries Economics ofHiroshima University. (14) 16 – 21.

Kupper, G and Batt, P.J, 2009. Barriers to the adoption of quality assurance systems in the food and beverage sector. Online ISSN: 1945-9656.

Laksanalamai, P., L. A. Joseph, B. J. Silk, L. S. Burall, C. L. Tarr, P. Gerner-Smidt, and A. R. Datta. 2012.

Genomic Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes Strains Involved in a Multistate Listeriosis Outbreak

Associated with Cantaloupe in US. PLoS ONE. 7:e42448.

Luning, P. A., and W. J. Marcelis. 2006. A techno-managerial approach in food quality managementresearch.

Trends in Food Science & Technology. 17:378-385.

Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M and Metz, J.H.M., 2005. Quality control on dairy farms with emphasis on publichealth,

food safety, animal health and welfare. Livestock Production Science. 94, 51-59.

Pongvinyoo, P. 2015. Development of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in Thailand: A case study of Thai

National GAP selected products. Hiroshima University. Doctoral Thesis.

Van Boxstael, S., I. Habib, L. Jacxsens, M. De Vocht, L. Baert, E. Van De Perre, A. Rajkovic, F. Lopez-Galvez,

I. Sampers, P. Spanoghe, B. De Meulenaer, and M. Uyttendaele. 2013. Food safetyissues in fresh produce:

Bacterial pathogens, viruses and pesticide residues indicated as majorconcerns by stakeholders in the fresh

produce chain. Food Control. 32:190-197.

Van de Perre, E., N. Deschuyffeleer, L. Jacxsens, F. Vekeman, W. Van Der Hauwaert, S. Asam, M.Rychlik, F.

Devlieghere, and B. De Meulenaer. 2013. Screening of moulds and mycotoxinsintomatoes, bell peppers, onions,

soft red fruits and derived tomato products. Food Control.37:167-170.

Verbeke, W., Scholdere, J., and Frewer, L. 2007. Consumer perception of safety in agri-food chain. Safety in the

agri-food chain. Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp 619-646.

Waiyeelin. 2016. Integrated Food Control Systems Toward Food-Safety and Trade-Promotion in Myanmar.

Hiroshima University. Doctoral Thesis.



EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON

WEED SEED GERMINATION IN PADDY SOIL

SEED BANK

R.M.U.S. Bandara*, T.K. Ilangakoon, H.M.M.K.K.H. Dissanayaka, Y.M.S.H.I.U. De

Silva, C.H.Piyasiri and D.M.C.B. Dissanayaka

Rice Research and Development Institute, Batalagoda, Ibbagamuwa, Sri Lanka


Abstract: A pot experiment was conducted employing CRD to study how weed seeds are

germinated in paddy soil seed bank under elevated temperatures in 2015/16 maha season. Pots were

filled with top soils up to 12cm and kept at 04 different temperatures namely 270C, 300C, 350C and

400C in a controlled growth chamber. Relative humidity of the growth chamber was maintained at

80%. Seedling counts were recorded at 10 days intervals up to one month. Results revealed that

Counts of Seedling Germinated (CSG) of all types of weeds (Grasses, Sedges and Broadleaves)

showed a significant increment at elevated temperature of 35oC. The CSG of sedges was not

significantly increased at 35oC. But the CSG of grasses and broadleaves types of weeds showed a

significant increment at elevated temperature of 35oC. Beyond 35oC CSG showed a significant

decline in all types of weeds. Elevated temperature up to 35oC causes significant increment in count

of seedling germinated and beyond 35oC it causes significant decline in count of seedling germinated

in tested paddy soils under 80% RH level. There is a potential of increasing populations of weed

species like Echinochloa crus-galli, Leptochloa chinensis, Lindernia rotundifolia and Monochoria

vaginalis in rice growing fields under elevated temperatures.

Keywords: Elevated Temperature, Germination, Soil Seed-Bank

Introduction

The temperature and light are the most important environmental factors that promote the seed germination in

the soil when water is available (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). For most of the plants, if the light and water are

available, the temperature of the soil determines the fraction of the germinated seeds and the rate of the

germination (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). The germination of the seeds is a complex process where several

reactions and individual factors are involved, every process affected by the temperature (K. C. Gairola et al.,

2011). The temperature affects the germination and the state of dormancy of the seeds and the seasonal changes

of the dormancy state of the seeds of some species is directly related to the seasonal temperature changes. Some

species can present the seeds with the light requirement for the germination at one temperature and in another,

the light insensitivity (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). Seed germination is affected by the ecological conditions

prevailing in the habitat; it depends on several environmental conditions such as light, temperature, moisture

germination media (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). It is well known that seed of certain species have different

temperature responses according to variety and provenances and also reasonable to believe that these responses

are adaptive success or failure of a population in a particular environment depends on the way of its germination

responses fit in to the ecological conditions of the habitat (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). Thus in most of the seeds,

the rate of germination are strongly governed by temperature (K. C. Gairola et al., 2011). In order to study the

weed seeds germination with elevated temperatures this study was conducted.

R.M.U.S. Bandara et al / Effect of Elevated Temperature on…..

17


A pot experiment was conducted within a growth chamber at Rice Research and Development Institute,

Batalagoda during maha2015/2016 season. Soil was collected from a paddy field and mixed well. Black

coloured plastic pots having the height of 15cm and inner mouth diameter of 15cm were filled with the soil up

to 12cm and kept at 04 different temperatures namely 270C (room temperature), 300C, 350C and 400C in a

controlled growth chamber for 10days. Relative humidity of the growth chamber was maintained at 80%.

Seedling counts were recorded. Data were analysed adopting ANOVA using SAS software package. Counts

data were square root transformed and checked for the normality prior to analysis.


Figure 01. Count of Seedlings Germinated (CSG) under different temperatures

As shown in figure 01 CSG of all 03 types of weeds showed an increment at elevated temperature of 35oC. The

CSG of sedges was not significantly increased at 35oC. But the CSG of grasses and broadleaves types of weeds

showed a significant increment at elevated temperature of 35oC. Beyond 35oC CSG showed a significant decline

in all 03 types of weeds. Gairola et al. (2011) reported that Speed of germination was recorded highest at 35°C

(8.40±0.44) and lowest at 22°C (0.11±0.10). Different species showed different patterns of germination.

Ludwigia octovalvis seedling counts were decreasing with increasing temperatures. Echinochloa crus-galli

seedling counts were increasing with increasing temperatures. Seedling counts of Leptochloa chinensi,

Lindernia rotundifolia and Monochoria vaginalis were increasing with increasing temperature up to 350C and

decreased beyond 350C. Seedling counts of Cyperus deformis were decreasing with increasing temperature up to

300C and then increasing with increasing temperatures. It is concluded that different weed species behave

differently with increasing temperatures.

Co

un

ts o

f S

eed

lin

g

Ger

min

ate

d

Temperature in Centigrade


18

Conclusion

It is concluded that different weed species behave differently with increasing temperatures. Elevated

temperature up to 35oC causes significant increment in count of seedling germinated and beyond 35oC it causes

significant decline in count of seedling germinated in tested paddy soils under 80% RH level. There is a

potential of increasing populations of weed species like Echinochloa crus-galli, Leptochloa chinensi, Lindernia

rotundifolia and Monochoria vaginalis in rice growing fields under elevated temperatures.

References

Gairola, K. C., Nautiyal, A. R. and Dwivedi, A. K., 2011, Effect of Temperatures and Germination Media on Seed Germination of Jatropha Curcas Linn. ADVANCES IN BIORESEARCH, Volume 2, Issue 2, December

2011: 66 – 71

Gorai M, Neffati M. 2007. Germination responses of Reaumuria vermiculata to salinity and temperature. Annals

of Applied Biology 151: 53–59.

Grice AC, Westoby M. 1987. Aspects of the dynamics of the seed banks and seedling populations of Acacia

victonae and Cassia spp. In western New South Wales. Australian Journal of Ecology 12, 209–215.

Gutterman Y. 2002. Survival Strategies of Annual Desert Plants: Adaptations of Desert organisms. Springer,

Berlin.

Huang Z, Zhang XS, Zheng GH, Gutterman Y. 2003. Influence of light, temperature, salinity and storage on

seed germination of Haloxylon ammodendron. Journal of Arid Environment 55: 453–464.

Jame YW, Cutforth HW. 2004. Simulating the effects of temperature and seeding depth on germination and

emergence of spring wheat. Agricultural and Forrest Meteorology 124: 207-218.

Koocheki A, Zarif Ketabi H. 1996. Determination of optimum temperature for seed germination and the

evaluation of the effects of salinity and water deficit on some forage species. Journal of Biaban. 1(1): 45-56.

Li L, Tsao R, Liu Z, Liu S, Yang R, Young JC, Fu Z. 2005. Isolation and purification of acteoside and

isoacteoside from (Plantago psyllium L.) by high-speed counter-current chromatography. Journal of

chromatography A 1063(1): 161-169.

Loka DA, Oosterhuis DM. 2010. Effect of high night temperatures on cotton respiration, ATP levels and

carbohydrate content. Environmental and Experimental Botany 68:258–263.



ANALYSIS OF FARMERS‟ ADOPTION OF

CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

Saliu Akinlabi Tiamiyu1*

, Uduma Bernadette Ugalahi1, Timothy Fabunmi

2,

Rahman O. Sanusi2, Enitan Oluwakemi Fapojuwo

2 and Adebayo Musediku Shittu

2

1National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria 2Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

E-mail:*[email protected]

Abstract: Climate change is becoming a threat to sustainable agricultural production and food

security in Africa. Farmers need to be more resilient to climate change and produce more food

through adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices. The objective of this study was to

determine the extent of farmers‟ adoption of selected Climate Smart Agricultural practices in the

North Western geopolitical zone of Nigeria. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select

sample of 577 farmers who cultivate rice and maize as major crops across three distinct vegetation

strata. Data were collected through interview schedule with the aid of questionnaire. Data were

analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that adoption of the selected agricultural

practices was generally low. Agronomic components were the mostly adopted practice. Practices

such as Integrated Pest/Weed Management, agro-forestry, efficient soil fertilization and water

management were not highly adopted. Bush burning remained a major setback towards effort of

building resilience to climate change in the study area. Sensitization of farmers on reality of climate

change and the need to adopt climate smart practices towards reduction of adverse effect of climate

change should continue. Policy and support programme that would enhance dissemination of

Climate-Smart Agricultural practices to a larger proportion of farmers is recommended.

Keywords: Climate Change, Climate Smart Practices, Adoption, Nigeria

Introduction

Agricultural activities relied greatly on climate. It determines the pattern of vegetation, types and yields of crops

and animals as well as the length of cropping seasons. It follows therefore that any change in climate may affect

the production and supply of food and raw materials thereby enhancing or limiting the capacity of agriculture to

play its major role as supplier of food and industrial raw materials. Climate change has been fairly rapid in many

regions around the world in the last few decades, while greenhouse gas emission keeps on increasing. The

uncertainty as to how the trend of climate change and greenhouse gas emission will continue in the future raises

many questions related to food security, one of which is whether the aggregate productivity of global agriculture

will be affected. According to FAO, 2014 climate change is likely to cause considerable crop yield losses

thereby adversely affecting small holder livelihoods in Africa. As a result, food security and income generation

opportunities for the farming households that are most reliant on agriculture may be in jeopardy (FAO, 2014). It

is projected that crop yield in Africa may fall by 10-20% by 2050 or even up to 50% due to climate change

(Jones, 2003, Nwaobiala and Nottidge, 2013). This is because African agriculture is predominantly rain-fed and

hence fundamentally dependent on the vagaries of weather (Zoellick, 2009). It is therefore, important that

measures are taken to mitigate the consequences of climate changes. The recent adoption of the Paris Agreement

demonstrates the global acknowledgement of the negative impacts of climate change to human populations and

the environment. The challenges of how to turn the promises of that historic Paris climate change agreement

into reality necessitates the need for an agricultural practices that would help farmers produce more, be more

Saliu Akinlabi Tiamiyu et al / Analysis of Farmers’ Adoption of Climate Smart…..

20

resilient to climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from livestock, crops, and land use change.

Climate Smart Agriculture was developed to address those important needs.

Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices ensure food sufficiency despite unsuitable climatic conditions. This

is achieved through several soil management practices that sequester carbon in the soil, reduce greenhouse gas

emissions and aids intensify production (FAO, 2013). Above all the practices enhance the natural resource base.

The most important premise of CSA is the building of healthy soils through increasing the soil organic matter

status of the soil. Soil management practices for CSA include; direct seeding under reduced-tillage (Zheng et al.,

2014); improved protective soil cover through cover crops, crop residues or mulch (Muzangwa et al., 2013); and

crop diversification through rotations (Lin, 2011; Davis et al., 2012). Integrated soil fertility management, which

involves combining inputs of organic matter i.e. mulch, compost, crop residues and green manure with

fertilizers to prevent macro- and micro-nutrient deficiencies is a good CSA practice as well (FAO, 2013).

Several studies on climate and agriculture have been carried out in Nigeria. Some of them focused on the effect

of climatic variables on agricultural production (Ogbuene, 2010, Olanrewaju, 2010, Ogundelele and Jegede,

2011, Akpenpuun and Busari 2013, Nwaobiala and Nottidge 2013, Oluyole, et al, 2013, Tiamiyu, et al, 2015)

while some reported farmers‟ perception of climate change and adaptation strategies (Ayanlade, et al 2017).

From these studies it is obvious that climate change is real and has significantly impacted on agricultural

production in Nigeria. Although studies have shown that various adaptation strategies were adopted by farmers

against the effect of climate change, little is specifically known about farmers‟ adoption of Climate Smart

Agricultural practices in Nigeria. The objective of this study therefore, is to analyse the extent of adoption of

CSA among cereals farmers in North Western Nigeria. The study is expected to provide baseline information

which can be used in formulating new policy and supportive programmes towards adoption of Climate Smart

Agricultural Practices by cereals farmers in Nigeria.

Methodology

The study was conducted in four states located in the North Western geo-political zone of Nigeria. The study

area lies between Latitude 5.064o to 13.087o East and Longitude 3.662o to 13.087o North. Major vegetation

strata of the area are guinea savannah, Sudan savannah and Sahel savannah which are suitable for production of

various kinds of crops especially maize and rice. Primary data was collected through interview schedule with

structured questionnaires. The interview was conducted by the researchers in conjunction with trained

enumerators chosen from among the staff of Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) of the selected

states. Multistage sampling technique was used to select respondent farmers that provided information for this

study. The first stage involved purposive selection of one zone (North West) from the list of six geo-political

zones in Nigeria. The second stage involves selection of four states (Kaduna, Kano, Kebbi, Sokoto) from the list

of states in the selected zone based on predominant vegetation strata. The third stage of sampling was the

selection of villages from each Agricultural Development zones of the selected states. In the fourth stage, 10 to

15 farmers were randomly selected from each selected villages on the basis of probability proportionate to size.

A total of 577 respondents across three vegetation strata provided information for the study. The distribution of

sample respondents is as presented in Table 1.

The following Climate Smart Agricultural Practices (Branca, 2011, FAO, 2013, Saguye, 2017) were examined:

i. Agronomic practices (Improved seed varieties, crop rotation, intercropping, cover crop);

ii. Integrated Soil Fertility Management (Organic fertilizer, efficient use of inorganic fertilizer);

iii. Tillage and residue Management (Conservation tillage, incorporation of crop residues);


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iv. Water Management (Irrigation, bunds, terracing, Contouring, water harvesting);

v. Integrated Pest Management (blend of cultural, biological and chemical control);

vi. Agro-forestry (Intercropping crops and trees, Live fencing).

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics including arithmetic mean and percentage. Adoption rate was

based on the percentage of adopters in the total sample (Saguye, 2017). The following criteria were used to rank

the rate of adoption:

Adoption rate greater than 70% = very high,

Adoption rate within 60 to 70% = high,

Adoption rate within 50 to 59% = fairly high,

Adoption rate within 40 to 49% = fairly low

Adoption rate below 40% = very low.

Table 1: Distribution of respondent sample according to location

Location Guinea savannah Sudan Savannah Sahel Savannah Total

Kaduna 149 1 2 152

Kano 1 104 36 141

Kebbi 2 61 91 154

Sokoto 6 0 124 130

Total 158 166 253 577

Source: Field Survey, 2017


Generally farmers‟ adoption rates of the agricultural practices examined in this study were very low. This

finding corroborates with a recent study which similarly indicated low adoption of climate smart agriculture in

Ethiopia (Saguye, 2017). Practices such as planting of early maturing, drought tolerant and use of farm yard

manure/compost were highly adopted. Cultivation of disease/pest resistant varieties and intercropping cover

crops with main crop(s) to improve soil fertility were also fairly adopted while adoption of other components of

climate smart practices was low. Distribution of respondents according to the level of awareness and adoption of

the selected practices were presented in Tables 2 to 7.

Table 2 presents the rates of awareness and adoption of agronomic practices. Cultivation of early maturing and

drought tolerant varieties was the most highly adopted practice. Cultivation of disease/pest resistant varieties

and intercropping cover crops with main crops as a way of improving soil fertility was also highly adopted.

Growing appropriate mix of crops in rotation on same parcel was fairly adopted. The high adoption of early

maturing and drought tolerant varieties is expected in view of short rainfall duration in the zone. Another reason

for high adoption of improved seed varieties is the favourable policy environment for development and

distribution of improved seed varieties to farmers. There is a specialized body- National Seed Certification

Council of Nigeria - which was established specifically to administered seed release and production in the

country. Research and extension activities were also widely focused on breeding of improved varieties which

has led to the release of some rice varieties to farmers (NCRI, 2014).


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Table 2: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Agronomic practices

Agronomic practices Not aware (%) Aware but never

adopted (%)

Adopted

(%)

Cultivation of early maturing and drought

tolerant varieties

13 24 63

Cultivation of disease/pest resistant varieties 20 25 55

Intercropping cover crops with main crop(s)

to improve soil fertility

20 24 56

Growing appropriate mix of crops in rotation

on same parcel

17 34 49

Fertilization

Fertilizer use enhances the capacity of improved seed varieties to express yield potential optimally. To be

climate smart however, the blend of both organic manure and inorganic fertilizer is recommended (FAO, 2013).

The level of awareness and adoption of fertilization is presented in Table 3. Farm yard manure was the most

adopted among the fertilization components. This could be attributed to mixed farming practices which make

farm yard manure relatively cheaper than other source of manure in the study area. However, farmers apply the

farm yard manure based on availability, there was no standard rate. The adoption of green manure and inorganic

fertilizer micro-dosing was very low. The low adoption of green manure is attributed to scarcity and lack of

knowledge on composite preparation and low awareness of the agro-forestry practices that would have enable

them to generate green manure cheaply on farmers‟ fields. Awareness of fertilizer micro-dosing was also low.

The reason was attributed to lack of training facilities and lack of access to soil testing equipments.

Table 3: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Fertilization practices

Fertilization practices Not aware (%) Aware but never

adopted (%)

Adopted (%)

Deliberate cultivation and ploughing in of certain leguminous plants into the soil as

green manure

44 22 34

Preparation and use of Farm Yard Manure

and/or Compost

17 22 61

Efficient application of fertilizers in split - small but repeated -dosages based on

assessments of crop needs – micro-dosing

42 22 36

Tillage and residue management

Level of awareness and adoption of Tillage and Residue Management practices is presented in Table 4.

Generally the adoption rates of the practices was low. Awareness of incorporating plant residue into the soil

instead of burning during land preparation was very low. The practice of bush burning is common because of

the general believe that it provide cheap source of potash fertilizer. However, farmers lack the knowledge of the

danger pose by the practice to the environment. Low adoption of minimum tillage could be attributed to the

availability of tractor hiring services which makes cultivation of large expanse of land easy.


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Table 4: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Tillage and Residue Management practices

Not aware (%) Aware but never

adopted (%)

Adopted (%)

Retention / incorporation of refuse into the

soil rather than burning

22 29 49

Minimizing tillage operation to conserve soil

moisture and health

33 34 33

Water management

Level of awareness and adoption of Water Management practices is presented in Table 5. Considering the short

rainfall duration of the Sudan and Sahel savannah which constitute more than half of the total land area of the

North Western zone of Nigeria, it is highly expected that large proportion of farmers in the study area should

adopt water management practices. The result showed a very low aadoption of the practice. The reason could be

traced to low level of technical knowledge.

Table 5: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Water Management practices


adopted (%)

Adopted (%)

Construction of terraces on sloppy / hilly

farmland

35 26 39

Use of Drip or Sprinkler Irrigation in

upland/dryland conditions

51 25 24

Use of controlled flooding before & during cultivation – i.e. alternate wet and dry systems

- in flooded rice / lowland production systems

48 22 30

Water harvesting and conservation by

construction of bounds

42 28 30

Mulching to conserve soil water 34 28 38

Integrated Pest Management

As presented in Table 6, the adoption rate of IPM was very low despite a fairly high awareness of the practice.

Although several training and lecture on IPM have been delivered by experts, the dissemination of the practice

to the end user especially biological and cultural methods by extension workers was rarely demonstrated.

Table 6: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Pest Management practices


adopted (%)

Adopted (%)

Integrated pest and/or weed management 49 22 29

Agro-forestry

The study area is mainly Sudan and Sahel savannah which are prone to desertification. The dissemination of this

practice to farmers is expected to be intensive in the study area. Contrary to expectation, the rate of adoption of

Agro-forestry is very low as presented in Table 7. Farmers in this area have exposure to tree planting; however

they prefer planting those ones that generate economic benefit in the short run. Trees like mango, oranges,

neem, shea and locust bean are commonly preserved by farmers in the study area for economic reason. Training

on agro-forestry practices should be extended to the famers in the study area.


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Table7: Level of awareness and adoption of Climate Smart Agro-forestry Practice

Agro-forestry practice Not aware (%) Aware but never

adopted (%)

Adoption rate

(%)

Integration cultivation of appropriate tree species along with crops on farm land either

by block planting, alley cropping, etc. –

agroforestry

46 29 25

Conclusion

The study examined the extent of farmers‟ adoption of climate smart agricultural practices as baseline for

intervention on climate mitigation measures. The results indicate that a large proportion of respondents was not

aware of most of the practices and so, adoption of most of the practices examined were very low. Agronomic

practices in term of cultivation of high yielding, drought tolerant, disease and pest resistant seed varieties was

the most adopted practice due to long time of research and extension activities on seed varieties as well as

favourable government policy and support prograrmme on seed production and utilization in the country.

Adoption of Integrated Pest Management, water management, integrated soil fertility management and agro-

forestry were very low. Burning of plant residues is a practice that farmers found very difficult to stop. This

raise the question as to when the age long practice of bush burning will end especially when considering the risk

posed by bush burning to climate change mitigation measure. Effort should be made to encourage farmers in the

study area to adopt climate smart agricultural practices as a whole by following the recommendations as listed:

- Sensitization campaign on reality of climate change and the need to adopt climate smart practices

towards reduction of adverse effect of climate change should be intensified.

- Policy and supportive programmes towards climate change mitigation and adaptation in the study area

should focus on adoption of all Climate Smart Agricultural practices especially those ones that were

not highly adopted by farmers.

- Efforts should be made by research institution to train extension staff properly about all the

components of climate smart agricultural practices.

- Extension staff should in turn disseminate extensively accurate information on Climate-Smart

Agricultural practices to cover a larger proportion of farmers in the study area.

- Government should provide incentives and enabling policy environment towards adoption of good

CSA practices in general and specifically those ones that were not highly adopted.

- Tree planting campaign should be modified in such a way that economic trees would be

accommodated.

- Credit facilities should be provided in order to enhance the capacity of farmers in procuring the

necessary climate smart inputs

Acknowledgement

This study was carried out by Federal University of Agriculture (FUNAAB), Abeokuta in collaboration with the

National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, as part of the ECOWAS-RAAF-PASANAO project

0824/2016: „Incentivizing Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices in Cereals Production in Nigeria:

The Socio-cultural and Economic Diagnosis‟ which was funded by the Regional Agency for Agriculture and

Food (RAAF) of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) under the Support Programme


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for Food and Nutrition Security in West Africa (PASANAO). We appreciate the efforts of all the project

participants from FUNAAB, NCRI and the Agricultural Development Programmes of Kaduna, Kano, Kebbi and

Sokoto states towards the successful data collection in the North Western zone of Nigeria.

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TOWARDS ACHIEVING THE SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT GOALS BY MICROALGAE-LIVESTOCK

SYSTEMS INTEGRATION: A REVIEW

Aminu Bature1*

, Lynsey Melville2**

and Khondokar Mizanur Rahman2***

1Birmingham City University and PTDF Nigeria 2Birmingham City University

Emails: *[email protected]

**[email protected]

***[email protected]

Abstract: By reviewing the literatures on the interrelationships between livestock agriculture and

sustainable development in developing countries, this paper aims to explore how adapting and

modifying livestock systems management with alga-culture can contribute to the United Nations

(UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specific objectives were to perform an in-depth

analysis of relevant interdisciplinary literature using Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats

(SWOT) framework to identify knowledge gaps, and isolate sections of opportunities and

uncertainties that could shed light into areas that require further research. This is then followed by a

quid pro quo synthetization of areas of linkage between livestock and microalgae cultivation using

the SDGs as a unifying platform. The review identifies where integrated microalgae-livestock

systems inclusion may have direct impact on achieving the SDGs targets such as clean water and

sanitation (SDG6), hunger and malnutrition (SDG2), climate change (SDG13), responsible

consumption and production (SDG12), and life on land (SDG15). Moreove

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